1)What is psychology?

Definition of Psychology

Psychology is the study of how our minds work, why we behave the way
we do, and what influences our experiences in everyday life. It covers a
wide range of topics, including thoughts, emotions, and social
interactions, using scientific methods to understand human behavior. .
We can define psychology as the scientific study of mental processes,
experiences, mind, behavior and etc. (etcetera). Because, Psychology has
different definitions (in the world). Most of the countries in the world
give different definitions to Psychology. However, we must note and learn
the basic and popular definitions. That’s why, we will learn two
definitions of psychology.Psychology is a basic (fundamental) and applied
science. Science involves two types of research: basic research, which
reflects the quest for knowledge purely for its own sake, and applied
research, which is designed to solve specific, practical problems.

What is Psychology?
Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular topic in the public
media, and a part of our everyday lives.

Definitions of “Psychology”:
1. Psychology is the scientific study of mental processes and behavior.
(Gleit. G,R)
2. Psychology is the scientific study of mind (mental processes) and
behavior.

The word “psychology” comes from the Greek words “psyche”, meaning
life, (spirit or soul) and “logos”, meaning explanation (discourse or study).
Psychology is a popular major for students, a popular topic in the public
media, and a part of our everyday lives. Psychology is an academic and
applied discipline involving the scientific study of mental processes and
behavior. Psychology also refers to the application of such knowledge to
various spheres of human activity, including problems of individuals' daily
lives and the treatment of mental illness. Psychology is unique among
social sciences (like anthropology, economics, political science, and
sociology) because it aims to understand how individuals think and
behave. It also differs from biology and neuroscience as it focuses on how
 mental processes and behavior interact broadly, rather than delving into
the specific biological or neural details. In essence, psychology explores
the mind and behavior at a more comprehensive level. What is Psyche?
“Psyche” is an Greek originated word and named as “Psycho”. In English
is named as “Psyche” (other synonymous terms – soul, spirit, and mind).
Psyche is accepted as Mind and even Consciousness in some countries of
the world.

2) The subject matter and goals of psychology

Subject matter of Psychology: Mental processes, Experience and

Behavior.

Mental Processes :
Psychology studies how our minds work, focusing on things like thinking,
remembering, and learning. These mental activities are happening inside
our heads and aren't easily seen. We figure them out by looking at a
person's behavior. For instance, if someone is working on a math
problem, we can say they're thinking based on what they do.These
mental processes include perception, learning, remembering and
thinking.

Experience:
Psychologists study a variety of human experiences which are mainly
personal or private in nature. They may range from experiences of
dream, conscious experiences different stages of life and experiences
when the consciousness is altered through meditation or use of
psychedelic drugs. The study of such experiences helps the psychologist
to understand the personal world of the individual.

Behavior:
Psychology explores various behaviors, ranging from basic reflexes like
eye blinking to complex actions like playing the piano or addressing a
crowd. These behaviors are observed directly or measured with
instruments. Psychology focuses on understanding how individuals
express themselves verbally or nonverbally, investigating their
experiences, thoughts, and actions.
 GOALS OF PSYCHOLOGY
As a science, psychology has five central goals:
1. To describe how people and other species behave
2. To understand the causes of these behaviors
3. To predict how people and animals will behave under certain
conditions
4. To influence behavior through the control of its causes
5. To apply psychological knowledge in ways that enhance human
welfare

3)Fields of Psychology

Psychology has different branches that look at specific aspects of life:

- **Abnormal Psychology:** Deals with unusual behaviors and
psychological disorders, figuring out how to treat them.

- **Cognitive Psychology:** Studies how we learn, store, and use

information to understand things.

- **Clinical and Counseling Psychology:** Clinical helps with diagnosing

and treating disorders, counseling deals with social and emotional issues.

- **Educational Psychology:** Focuses on academic performance, looking

at factors that affect learning.

- **Environmental Psychology:** Explores how the environment affects

behavior and psychological health.
- **Health Psychology:** Investigates how our thoughts and feelings
impact illness and treatment.
 - **Organizational Psychology:** Applies psychology to workplaces,
studying leadership, motivation, and job satisfaction.

- **Developmental Psychology:** Examines changes in people across

different life stages.

- **Emerging Fields:** New areas like sports psychology, forensic

psychology, and positive psychology have also developed.
Some of these fields are sports psychology, military psychology, aviation
psychology, forensic psychology, peace psychology, neuropsychology, political
psychology, feminist psychology and positive psychology.

4) History of Psychology: Early psychologists

**Ancient Beginnings:** People in ancient times pondered the mind and

behavior.
**17th Century:** The scientific revolution set the stage for a more systematic
approach.
**18th Century:** Empiricism (observation and experimentation) gained
importance.
**19th Century:** Wilhelm Wundt established the first lab, marking
psychology's formal start.

The first psychologists we know about are ancient Greek thinkers like Plato
(428–347 BC) and Aristotle (384–322 BC). They asked similar questions as
today's psychologists, like nature vs. nurture and free will. Plato leaned towards
nature, thinking some knowledge is inborn, while Aristotle favored nurture,
seeing children as "empty slates" learning from experience.
During the Renaissance, European philosophers, like René Descartes (1596–
1650), explored important questions. Descartes supported free will, thinking
the mind controls the body through the brain's pineal gland (later proven
wrong). He believed in innate abilities and studied nerves and muscles.
Descartes saw the mind and body as separate (dualism). Other thinkers like
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679), John Locke (1632–1704), and Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (1712–1778) also talked about these ideas.

Back then, philosophers struggled to prove their ideas because they lacked
effective methods. Many avoided researching these questions as they were
unsure how to study human experience objectively. In the 1800s, this changed
with Wilhelm Wundt in Germany and William James in the USA. Wundt
established a psychology lab in Leipzig, while James founded one at Harvard.
These labs marked the beginning of systematic research in psychology, bringing
a new era of understanding human behavior and thought.

5. The most important approaches (schools)

of Psychology

The Most Important Approaches (Schools) of Psychology:

Structuralism – Important contributors: Wilhelm Wundt, Edward B. Titchener.
Functionalism - ……………………...: William James.
Psychodynamic - ………………….....: Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Erik
Erickson.
Behaviorism - ……………………..: John B. Watson, B. F. Skinner.
Cognitive - ………………………...: Hermann Ebbinghaus, Sir Frederic Bartlett, Jean
Piaget.
Social-cultural - …………………...: Fritz Heider, Leon Festinger, Stanley Schachter.
Psychology looks at behavior in different ways:
1. **Biological:** How genes and the body affect behavior.
2. **Cognitive:** Focuses on thinking and mental processes.
3. **Behavioral:** Studies observable behaviors and their causes.
4. **Psychodynamic:** Explores unconscious thoughts and conflicts.
5. **Humanistic:** Emphasizes personal growth and self-fulfillment.
6. **Sociocultural:** Considers how culture and society impact behavior.
These approaches help psychologists understand various aspects of why we act
the way we do.

6. Structuralism and Functionalism

Structuralism was an early psychological approach that aimed to understand

the basic elements or structures of consciousness. Developed by Wilhelm
Wundt, it involved breaking down mental processes into smaller components to
analyze their structure. However, structuralism eventually faded as other
approaches, like functionalism and behaviorism, gained prominence in the field
of psychology. Wundt's work in Leipzig focused on understanding
consciousness. He founded structuralism, aiming to identify basic elements of
the mind, similar to chemistry's periodic table. Structuralists used
introspection, asking participants to describe experiences, and reaction time
studies. Wundt discovered differences between sensing a stimulus and
perceiving it, influencing modern cognitive psychology.
Functionalism, a psychological approach developed by William James, focuses
on understanding the purpose or function of mental processes and behavior.
Unlike structuralism, which analyzed the basic elements of consciousness,
functionalism aimed to explore how the mind works in adapting to the
environment. It emphasizes the practical aspects of mental processes and their
contribution to an individual’s survival and well-being. Unlike Wundt, who
studied consciousness, William James and the functionalist school aimed to
understand why humans and animals have specific psychological traits. James
believed thinking was relevant only for behavior, stating, "My thinking is for the
sake of my doing."
7. Psychodynamic Psychology and Gestalt
Psychology

The psychodynamic approach, led by Sigmund Freud, studies behavior by

focusing on unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories. Freud believed
issues like anxiety and depression stem from forgotten painful childhood
experiences. Other psychologists, like Carl Jung and Erik Erikson, expanded on
Freud's ideas. They think recalling unconscious drives, especially related to
early and current sexual experiences, through talk therapy and dream analysis
(psychoanalysis) can help patients.

Gestalt psychology looks at how our minds perceive things as complete

patterns rather than separate parts. Think of it as seeing the whole picture
instead of individual pieces. This approach, explored by psychologists like Max
Wertheimer, studies how we organize information and has influenced how we
understand learning and problem-solving.

8. Behaviorism and Social-Cultural Psychology

Behaviorism is a psychology school that says we can’t study the mind directly,
so we focus only on observable behavior. Behaviorists, like John B. Watson,
believe the mind is like a “black box,” receiving stimuli and producing
responses. They think understanding what happens inside the mind isn’t
necessary, and we can predict behavior just by observing. Ivan Pavlov’s work
with dogs influenced behaviorism, showing how stimuli (like a tone) can lead to
specific responses (like salivation).

Social-cultural psychology, a significant approach in psychology, studies how

social situations and cultures influence thinking and behavior. Psychologists in
this field focus on how people perceive themselves and others, and how
behaviors are influenced. For example, research shows that we are drawn to
those with similar attitudes and interests, develop our beliefs by comparing
them to others, and often conform to the beliefs of those we care about,
known as conformity.
There's a fundamental difference in social norms between Western cultures
(United States, Canada, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand) and East
Asian cultures (China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea, India, Southeast Asia). Western
cultures prioritize individualism, valuing personal independence. Children in
Western cultures are taught to develop and value their personal identity,
feeling special and striving for personal success, often compared to others

9. Methodological problems of Psychology:

The scientific method
In psychology, there are methodological challenges related to the scientific
approach. The scientific method involves forming hypotheses, conducting
experiments, and analyzing results. However, in psychology, issues like biases,
small sample sizes, and difficulty replicating studies can affect the reliability of
findings. Researchers must address these challenges to ensure the credibility
and accuracy of psychological research.
Psychologists use the scientific method, which includes assumptions, rules, and
procedures, to conduct their research. This method is common among
scientists in various fields. It involves using real-world evidence to study
different topics. Most new research aims to replicate or build upon previous
findings, leading to the accumulation of scientific knowledge. In research, the
goal is to organize information into practical statements, often called laws,
which are general principles applicable to various situations. Psychology has its
own accepted laws, such as the law of effect and Weber’s law, but these are
rarely directly tested since their validity is already well-
established.Psychologists use the scientific method to study things. It’s like a set
of rules that all scientists follow, whether they’re studying physics, chemistry,
biology, sociology, or psychology. This method involves using real-world
evidence for research.
When scientists do new research, they often try to repeat or build on what
others have found before. This way, we gather more knowledge. The scientific
method helps accumulate this knowledge by reporting and modifying findings.
In research, the goal is to create general principles, called laws, that apply to
many situations. Psychology has its own accepted laws, like the law of effect
and Weber’s law, but these are rarely directly tested because we already know
they’re true.
10.Good theories have four important
characteristics

 First, good theories are general, meaning they summarize many different
outcomes
 Second, they are parsimonious, meaning they provide the simplest
possible account of those outcomes.
 Third, good theories provide ideas for future research.
 Finally, good theories are falsifiable

First, good theories are general, meaning they summarize many different
outcomes.
Second, they are parsimonious, meaning they provide the simplest possible
account of those outcomes. The stage theory of cognitive development meets
both of these requirements. It can account for developmental changes in
behavior across a wide variety of domains, and yet it does so parsimoniously—
by hypothesizing a simple set of cognitive stages.
Third, good theories provide ideas for future research. The stage theory of
cognitive development has been applied not only to learning about cognitive
skills, but also to the study of children’s moral and gender development.
Finally, good theories are falsifiable which means the variables of interest can
be adequately measured and the relationships between the variables that are
predicted by the theory can be shown through research to be incorrect. The
stage theory of cognitive development is falsifiable because the stages of
cognitive reasoning can be measured and because if research discovers, for
instance, that children learn new tasks before they have reached the cognitive
stage hypothesized to be required for that task, then the theory will be shown
to be incorrect.

11. Basis methods of Psychology: Descriptive

Research
Psychologists use three main types of research: Descriptive, Correlational, and
Experimental.

1. **Descriptive Research:** This type aims to capture the current state of

thoughts, feelings, or behavior. It includes case studies (in-depth looks at
individuals or groups), surveys, and naturalistic observation (watching behaviors
in natural settings).
2. **Correlational Research:** This design seeks relationships among variables
to predict future events based on current knowledge.
3. **Experimental Research:** Involves creating initial equivalence among
groups, manipulating an experience, and measuring the impact. Each research
type has strengths and limitations, and understanding these differences is
crucial.
For instance, descriptive research provides snapshots of behaviors through case
studies, surveys, or naturalistic observation. Case studies often focus on unique
situations or individuals to learn about human nature.

Descriptive research gives a snapshot of people’s current thoughts, feelings, or

behavior. It includes case studies (detailed looks at individuals or groups),
surveys, and naturalistic observation.
Case studies often focus on a small set of individuals, sometimes just one
person, like Jean Piaget observing his own kids for his cognitive development
theory. These studies may involve ordinary or unique situations to learn about
human nature, assuming that studying socially marginal or challenging
situations can teach us about people.

12. Correlational Research

Correlational research examines relationships between variables, unlike

descriptive research focused on static pictures. It measures two or more
relevant variables, like height and weight, to understand systematic
connections. For example, taller people generally weigh more. Similarly, study
time and memory errors correlate, as more study time often leads to fewer
mistakes. In this research, one variable predicts, and the other is the outcome.
where the curved arrow represents the expected correlation between the two
variables:
predictor variable ↔ outcome variable
If a straight line shows that when one thing is above average, the other is also,
it's called a positive linear relationship. Examples include taller people generally
weighing more, higher education often leading to higher income, and older
children usually having better math abilities – meaning, higher scores on one
thing often go with higher scores on the other. In research, the predictor
variable is the one expected to influence or predict changes in the outcome
variable. For example, if studying how exercise affects weight loss, exercise
would be the predictor, and weight loss would be the outcome variable. The
design anticipates a connection between the predictor and the outcome, often
represented by a curved arrow in visualizations.

13. Experimental Research

Experimental research aims to understand the causes of behavior more
definitively than correlational designs. It involves independent variables
(causing factors manipulated by the experimenter) and dependent variables
(measured outcomes influenced by the manipulation). The research hypothesis
predicts that changes in the manipulated independent variable(s) will cause
changes in the measured dependent variable(s). Visual representations often
use arrows to show the expected direction of causality.