An Introduction

to Music Therapy

-am a music therapist. To me, that

means that I bring out the creative
spirit in everyone I see. I find their
_ music, the part of them that is free,
./». the part of them that sings, the part at
them that is rhythm. We all have this music. It shows itself when
a song “comes into our heads,” or when we tap a toe to music.
When we are unable to think or speak or move or be who we
once were, we still have this music. It helps us express and
communicate. It helps us feel good. It moves us, often deeply,
always naturally.
The impact of music on human behavior has been discussed
and documented throughout history. The significance of music
in both our cultural heritage and our daily lives has been
affirmed through countless examples of its power. References to
music’s universality, magic, and myths confirm the belief that
music is a potent human influence. Some have boldly
pronounced that music defies~the laws of nature, with its
“charms to soothe the savage beast, to soften rocks, or bend a
knotted oak” (Congreve, 1697). In Pact, the claims for its beauty
have been so greatly magnified that music is purported to exert
supernatural force. The endorsement of writers from ancient
healers to Biblical authors has led to a belief that the capabilities
of music are mystical and incomprehensible.
Thus, the field of music therapy falls prey to the assertion that
the effects of music cannot be explained. To the contrary, much
of the impact of a musical experience is observable and measur-
The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

able. The con stituents of a response to

music may be isolated,
and it is possible to establis
h a cause and effect relations
between music and behavior. The effects hip
of the “art” of music

systematic assessment of
the person’s needs.
A considerable body of experi
mental and clinical research
examines the effects of mus
ic in its many forms, includ
performing instrumental ing
and vocal music, listening,
improvising, moving to, con composing,
ducting, analyzing, or talking
music. The clientele benefi about,
ting from music therapy
varied, encompassing young is, like wise,
and old, acutely and chroni
educationally, physically, cally ill,
socially, and emotionally
The settings range from larg challenged.
e residential treatment cen
the severely challenged and ters for
hospitals to schools, commun
based programs and clinics ity-
for individuals with specific
term problems. As aid is sought for or short-
whatever ails people, music
therapy demonstrates its ability
to help an ever-increasing
number of individuals.
Because the Scope of music
therap y practice is so broad, it
difficult to define the field. is
Bruscia devotes an entire boo
k to

dynamic forces of change” (p.

20). The specialized applicati
music as therapy will vary on of
depending upon the setting,
apist, and the selected tec the ther-
hnique. Even the function
of music

is that it applies one of the

many forms of music as its
medium and is based on the primary
needs of the clients it serves.
 fin Introduction to Music Therapy

Music Therapy with Children and Ado

lescents
Thanks to the Education for All Handic
apped Children Act of
1975, Public Law 94-142, children
in the United States are
provided a free education in thei
r least restrictive environment.
As the law is currently implem
ented under the Individuals
Disabilities Education Act (IDE with
A), music therapy is mentio
as a Services-Program Option ned
which may be a related serv
written into a child’s Indivi ice
dualized Education Plan
Children with special needs (IEP ).
may be referred for music ther
to mee t communication, apy
cognitive, sensory-motor
tual-motor, social, emotional, or percep-
and psychological needs. Music
therapists work to remediate
skills, change specific behaviors,
improve existing conditions, or
teach new skills through musical
experiences. Adolescents and young adults have
Individualized Program Plan (IPP an
) to guide their referrals. This
document is based on the same format as the IEP
same function for the adult and serves the
with a disability.
According to “A Descriptive
Statistical Profile of the 1998
AMTA (American Music The
rapy Association) Membershi
(AMTA, 1998) music therapists p”
serve the following children (in
order of frequency):
° developmentally disabled
° behaviorally disordered
° emotionally disturbed
° physically disabled
° school age population
(may be inclusion classes and
mainstreamed children or
a
diverse collection)
° multiply disabled
* speech impaired
® autistic
° visually impaired
° neurologically impaired
(children and adults)
° hearing impaired
° substance abuse
(children and adults)
The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

° abused or sexually abused

(children and adults)
e early childhood
° dual diagnosed
(children and adults)
e head injured
(children and adults)
Other populations include children with Rett Syndrome,
AIDS, eating disorders, medical needs, burns, bereavement,
Down’s Syndrome, premature bifth and neonatal needs, spinal
cord injuries, Williams Syndrome. In some cases, non-disabled
children also receive music therapy.

Developmental Disabilities
The most frequently served clinical population in children is
developmental disabilities. This diagnosis refers to disorders
which originate during childhood and continue indefinitely,
affecting functional abilities substantially. One common devel-
opmental disability is mental retardation. According to the
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (Fourth Edition) of the
American Psychiatric Association (1996), mental retardation
appears in mild, moderate, severe and profound forms. For the
mentally retarded child, music therapy attempts to create an
environment of fun and enjoyment in which those who gener-
ally associate learning with failure are able to achieve success.
While learning a simple song or finger play, recipients of music
therapy are simultaneously improving eye contact, attention
span, direction-following, verbal imitation, memory, fine motor
dexterity, and auditory discrimination. These outcomes are
‘typicalof goals established
for music therapy. By pairing words
with tones and sentences with melodies, therapists improve
communication through speech and language (Cohen, 1992,
1994; Humphrey, 1980; Madsen, Madsen, & Michel, 1975;
Popovici, 1995; Rejto, 1973; Seybold, 1971; Walker, 1972).
The music setting also offers opportunities for mentally
retarded children to learn social and motor behavior. They gain
self-awareness through movement to music, and social interac-
tion through group music therapy. Musical experimentation and
stimulation nurture responsiveness to the surrounding environ-
 An Introduction to Music Therapy

ment in the most profoundly retarded child. The music thera-

pist’s goal of “increasing responsiveness to the surrounding envi-
ronment” may be observed as the child moves to a sound
stimulus such as a ringing bell. The therapist might look for
turning the head in the direction of the sound, gazing at the bell,
reaching for it, grasping it, sounding the bell, and imitating
patterns of bell-ringing. Even at this most basic level, awareness
is initiated and maintained, preparing the way for the develop-
ment of more complex skills.
The literature is replete with successful applications of music
therapy techniques in recognizing the potential of developmen-
tally disabled persons (Carter, 1982; Dorow, 1982; Graham &
Beer, 1980; Jellison, 1996; Madsen, 1981). Even in the most
pervasive developmental disorder, music therapy enhances
functional abilities while simultaneously enriching creative and
expressive capacities. Enabling individuals to participate in
some way at their own level of competence, a music experience
challenges growth through developmental stages using a
success-—oriented medium.
Music has the advantage of demanding attention that a visual
stimulus cannot, because it intrudes immediately through ears
that cannot be closed voluntarily. This phenomenon, coupled
with the nonthreatening nature of musical exploration and audi-
tory stimulation, may be most applicable for the child with a
pervasive disorder or delay. An autistic child who has previously
shunned human interaction may begin to communicate with a
therapist who provides positive music experiences. Clinical
improvisation is used extensively to enhance communication and
expressivity as well as to develop more interactive social skills in
autistic children. Through music therapy, they may encounter
their first close relationship with a non-family member.

Behavioral Disorders
The next most frequent population treated by music therapists
is children with behavioral disorders. These disorders include
children with attention deficit or disruptive behavior disorders
who have problems in social behavior which are extreme
enough to interfere with the learning process. The behavioral
disorders classification also refers to children who have conduct
The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

disorders, oppositional defiant disorders, hyperactivity, or

other non-specific behavior problems. These children are often
referred to music therapy to enhance self-awareness, self-
expression, or self-esteem. Active music behavior, such as
playing an instrument and singing, necessitates using the voice
and body in a clearly structured manner to produce the desired
musical product. The child’s ability to generate socially appro-
priate behavior which is incompatible with inappropriate behav-
iors accounts for further success of music as therapy (Madsen &
Wolfe, 1979). While engaged in positive creative efforts, a child
often gains self-control and a concrete emotional outlet.
At another level, feelings which are misunderstood or difficult
to describe verbally may be experienced through the expressive
medium of music. Children may be referred to music therapy in
order to assess the nature of their emotions. Asking a child to
express a particular feeling by playing an instrument may seem
indirect; but, it often reveals a degree of emotional arousal
which can be observed and explored. Facial affect, nonverbal
behavior or “body language” while performing music offer a
nonthreatening starting point for understanding emotions.

Learning Disorders
Learning disorders comprise impairments in specific academic
areas. One remediation approach is a music teaching model
which works through parallel behaviors in the learning of
musical skills. For instance, a child who has difficulty coordi-
nating movements of the right and left side of the body can
develop this ability through moving to music, using arms and
legs synchronously. Playing increasingly more complex
melodies on the piano, with hands separately and then together,
can develop such coordination. Visual tracking required in
translating written music to the keyboard is similar to the left-
to-right eye movement necessary for reading words. The ability
to listen to others and respond cooperatively at a precise time
with a previously learned musical part is required for participa-
tion in a musical ensemble. With the motivation to produce
music, children often succeed in mastering musical skills while
improving such conceptual correlates. Thus, children with
 Ain Introduction to Music Therapy

learning disorders may benefit in many ways from the demands

of these structured musical experiences.
Music may also provide an opportunity for children to process
an auditory stimulus and respond to it appropriately. This audi-
tory-motor match, such as a person’s answer to
a spoken
question, can be developed effectively through auditory discrim-
ination training with music. At the extreme, musicians who
learn to tune string instruments, recall lengthy melodies,
or
name the pitches of sounds they hear, show a remarkably finely-
tuned set of discriminations.

Motor Skills Disorders

Children who have motor skills disorders may
be delayed in
motor development or display problems in gross or
fine motor
coordination. They maybe referred to music therapy
because
ACETATE

playing instruments necessitates varying degrees of motor and

eye-hand coordination, as well as breath control
when playing
wind instruments. To dance, one must move in specified ways,
integrating various parts of the body in a smooth,
rhythmic
fashion. Listening to music may involve self-discipline
and
discrimination skills while the experience evokes
images,
learned responses (such as clapping along), and individual
creative reactions (such as free, improvisational
movements).
Music therapists also assist in the rehabilitation
of more severe
neuromuscular and-skeletal disorders of many
types. One tech-
nique is to use rhythmic and musical cues for specific move-
ments and for body relaxation.
ME Ce

Communication Disorders -
Children with communication disorders benef
it from music
therapy in several ways. Clearly, singing invol
ves speech and
language, and more specifically, auditory
memory, pitch-
al acceler

matching, and fluency. Vocal and wind instrument

training
provide a creative context for specific exercises which
may be
used in collaboration with speech therapy. Goals include
improvement in articulation, inflection, breathing and
od SC

pacing of
speech.
Nonverbal children are especially good candidates for music
a

therapy. Without the obvious means of communication that

inant
The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

most of us use, they need to learn other methods to expres

s
themselves. Music therapists are adept at offering augmentative
communication and computer-assisted music methods
to enable
these children to express feelings and thoughts through music.

Sensory Impairments
Children with sensory impairments may have problems with
vision, hearing or both. Children with hearing impairments are
aided by the sensory stimulation of music and vibratory
rhythmic cues offered in music for speech and body move-
ments. As improbable as-it may seem at first, there is consider-
able clinical evidence of the efficacy of music therapy with
children who are deaf. Children who are visually impaired
benefit from music therapy when they develop their auditory
and musical abilities. Their music therapists also contribute
to
mobility training when unsure or rigid movements
become
more fluid and natural through intervention with music.

Physical Challenges
Other physical challenges comprise conditions wherein
impaired physical development or functioning, including
sensory impairments, are sufficiently severe to interfere
with
normal functioning. When a physically challenged child
or adult .
is referred to music therapy, the objective is often to
demon- ayes
Strate to clients that they are capable of performing or creating
a jv
music heretofore deemed impossible. By modifying musical!
ae i“
instruments and using adaptive music technology, music
thera- ae :
pists have shown that the sense of worth may be greatly")
OME
<a
enhanced in a person who is able to produce pleasant
sounds.” -
Music therapists have witnessed the Joy of quadriplegic
s who. (Os. a
perform for enthusiastic audiences on specia ly-adapted
guitars in Ww fat
and the immense pride of people in wheelchairs who
learn to or A
dance by using mobile parts of their bodies.
c Ua
Certain physical therapy manipulation with repetitive
move- aul i
ments set to music, yields a cheerful experience, which
more {#79
closely resembles play than work. Music offers incentive to Ag¢9? ~
complete uncomfortable exercises as the client execut
es the ~
necessary movements more smoothly and rhythmically
. Music
therapists work collaboratively with physical therap
ists to
 An Introduction to Music Therapy

develop creative treatment approaches for their clients. Multipl

y
handicapped children, likewise, succeed with a creative
approach which emphasizes one’s abilities and strengths
as
opposed to the often more obvious disabilities and weaknesses.

Children in Inclusion Classrooms

As a group-oriented intervention, music therapy accom
modates
different levels and abilities, bringing out the best in every
child
who participates. Music therapy provides a wonderful
opportu-
nity for children with special needs to interact positi
vely with
children in the typical classroom as they learn togeth
er in inclu-
sion classes (Gunsberg, 1988; Hughes, Robbins,
McKenzie &
Robb, 1990; Humpal, 1991).
er]

Special Applications to Adolescents

The various disorders and conditions described
above are gener-
ally diagnosed or recognized in childhood, but they
also affect
adolescents and, in some cases, adults. Many
music therapists
specialize in adolescence and have expertise in
the unique chal-
lenges facing individuals at this stage of development.
Some work
within a family therapy model, helping parents
and children
communicate about their preferred music and the
meaning of
that music. Another technique is family improvisat
ion, used as a
metaphor for understanding patterns of interperso
nal interaction
within the family or among peers. Music therap
ists also assist
adolescents in understanding the mechanisms that contr
ibute to
such problems as eating disorders by becoming
more aware of
their emotions through expressive music activi
ties.

Music Therapy with Adults

Medical Conditions
The psychological impact of having a medical condi
tion or illness
is often overlooked in the search for a medical treatment.
Treatment may call for hospitalization, surgery, or other proce-
dures which tend to provoke anxiety in most people. The
emotional reaction to even the most inconsequential sickness,
perhaps requiring bed rest alone, may be traumatic
for some. For
others, illness triggers a full-blown mental disorder. Music
thera-
 The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

pists have designed procedures for

inducing relaxation which
both ameliorate the anxiety associated with
illness or hospital-
ization, and divert attention away
from pain or discomfort. These
techniques have been applied to
a wide variety of clinical popu-
lations in medicine and dentistry (Froehlich, 1996
1986, 1996). Patients have responde ; Standley,
d well, to the point of over-
representing the effects, as in a youn
g woman who exclaimed, “I
couldn’t have had that baby without
music!” (Hanser, Larson, &
O’Connell, 1983). Often, the need
for medication or restraint is
minimized when music therapy is
introduced.
Applications in the general hosp
ital are expanding rapidly
with the acknowledgement that
the connection between mind
and body is strong. The impact of psycholo
gy on phys
ical illness
has been documented, and music
therapy. procedures have been
shown to be efficacious strategies
for coping with pain and
anxiety. People with chronic illn
esses can share meaningful
experiences in music therapy groups
where emotional
responses are drawn out and disc
ussed. Some individuals learn
new musical skills and begin to
appreciate another dimension of
their lives. Others are aroused through more pass
involvement ive musical
or introduced to new coping stra
music-facilitated stress reductio tegi es through
n. Dramatic research indicate
that comatose patients may begin s
to respond when background
music is provided contingent upon their slightest physical
movement (Boyle & Greer, 1983
).

Mental Disorders
Mental disorders have been
classified by the American
Psychiatric Association (1996)
as clinical disorders, personality
disorders or mental retardation,
general medical conditions, and
psycho-social and environmenta
l problems. A primary trea
ment modality is psychotherap t-
y, in which music plays a uni
role. Music therapists of a wide que
variety of philosophical persua-
sions have applied music succ
essfully to psychotherapeutic
techniques (Arnold, 1975; Hadsell, 1974; Madsen
Maultsby, 1977). , 1981,
They have capitalized on
the nonverbal
aspects of musical expression
as a means of observing, unde
standing, and changing feel r-
ings and emotions (Tyson,
Unkefer, 1990). The music ther 1981;
apy setting becomes a micro-
Ctwr ihe |: o¢
10
:
SOS oa
28
eee
Y N
 An Introduction to Mus
ic Therapy

cosm, eliciting interactive sooj

as therapy progresses. Reacti
_ discussions of musical themes

Correctional Psychiatry
Working with both ju
venile offenders and
rated in ‘a correction adults who are incar-
al facility, music th
important role in reh erapists play an
abilitation. The stru
Music therapy allows ct ur e provided through
offenders to participat
e in healthy, posi-
 The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

tive experiences, learning to deal with impulse control, interper-

sonal dynamics, and self-awareness.

Neurological Rehabilitation
Music therapists work with individuals who have sustained a
traumatic brain injury, stroke, and conditions such as
Huntington’s and Parkinson’s diseases by assisting in the
retraining of lost abilities, aiding the recovery process, and
teaching adaptive and coping strategies (Lee, 1989; McIntosh,
Brown, Rice, & Thaut, 1997).

Community Music Therapy

As community-based treatment and education become more
widespread, music therapists have begun to offer services to
people who do not have a diagnosable problem, but wish to cope
with the stresses and pain that they experience every day.
Others desire to realize their potential and develop their self-
awareness or expression through music. Music therapists are
well-trained to meet their needs and have developed programs
for relaxation and self-actualization (Giles, Cogan, & Cox, 1991).
In addition, there are a number of people with special needs
who are interested in learning how to develop their voices or
play musical instruments. Individuals with conditions such as
Williams Syndrome generally have considerable musical ability,
and require music lessons from someone like a music therapist
who is knowledgeable of their unique learning requirements.
This direction in music therapy practice is reflective of the
srowing interest in recognizing the musical potential in all of us.

Music Therapy with Older Adults

Gerontology is the study of late life and its associated character-
istics. Music brings energy and life to many people who
approach late life with loss of cognitive or physical functioning,
Hi | not to mention the loss of loved ones or vocational identity.
1 li | Feelings of worthlessness and despair are transformed into pride
| when people are shown that they are still capable of being
ant creative and can learn new skills. Often, too, involvement in
Hy musical experience which is reminiscent of a joyous time can be
 An Introduction to Music Therapy

xtremely revitalizing (Bright, 1981; Clair, 1996; Hanser & Clair,

995; Smith & Lipe, 1991). The most withdrawn and confused
patients suffering from dementia due to Alzheimer’s disease and
related disorders are able to participate actively in music
therapy sessions. As music demands reality-oriented behavior
in the present without risk of failure, even the most cognitively
impaired older adults master musical tasks with enhanced self-
respect (Brotons, Koger, & Pickett-Cooper, 1997; Koger, Chapin,
& Brotons, 1999).
Too often, older adults are given the message that they have
outlived their usefulness. The losses which naturally accompany
the aging process contribute to a weakening self-concept. These
perceptions may soon be overturned when individuals are given
the opportunity to cooperate in a musical endeavor enabling some
to perform, some to compose, some to accompany, some to listen,
and everyone to employ the highest level of creative potential.

At the End of Life

Music therapy holds a special place in the process of preparing
for death. Individuals who are dying find a way to express what
they are feeling through choosing music to hear, sing or perform,
and by composing songs with the help of the therapist. Families
who participate together in music therapy transform this difficult
time into an experience of unifying creative expression with
| their loved one (Lee, 1995; Mandel, 1993; Martin, 1991).

Conclusion

The preceding survey of clinical problems has presented a

sampling of music therapy practices for identified needs or
disorders. Of considerable challenge to the health care profes-
sional, however, is the prevention of such difficulties. No
musical vaccine has been, or could ever be found for a particular
disease. One wonders if people who listen to a piece of relaxing
music at the end of a stressful day, play an instrument as a
means of self-expression, or channel excess energy into musical
participation in an ensemble are at lower risk for distress.
This overview of music therapy has disclosed only a few of the
myriad of effects produced by music. It is significant that the
The New Music Therapist’s
Handbook

claims regarding the Str

ength of mus
ic in affecting behavior
not based merely on the are
casual observations of
a single witness,

ment planning with ind

ividuals who have suc
developmental disabilit h conditions as
ies, behavioral, learni
ng, motor skills and

course of planning, im
plementation and evalua
clinical practice guidel tion, offering
ines and rea] music
therapy cases. This
behavioral sciences
to demonstrate an obj
based” view of music ective and “data-
therapy.

mental disabilities,
music therapy teaches
academic and concep social, motor,
 An Introduction to Music Therapy

speech are enhanced in individuals with communication disor-

ders, and people who are unable to use speech learn new ways
to express themselves. Children with sensory impairments or
physical challenges develop their talents and strengths through
music therapy. Medical patients divert attention from pain while
attempting to deal with their illnesses. People with mental disor-
ders respond to the nonverbal metaphor established in the
music therapy setting. Geriatric patients become involved in a
creative reality-oriented experience which may be revitalizing
and reminiscent of joyous times. These populations represent
one segment of the clientele who can benefit from the use of
music therapy.

Key Words

Alzheimer’s disease (dementia of the Alzheimer’s type)

A progressive, degenerative disease with insidious
onset, characterized by multiple cognitive deficits
and significant decline in functioning.
Attention deficit disorder
b A disorder characterized by maladaptive inatten-
4 tion, hyperactivity, or impulsiveness which results
in pervasive and clinically significant impairment.
Some symptoms should have presented before
seven years Of age, although it may be diagnosed in
adulthood.
Auditory discrimination
The ability to hear similarities and differences
SESS RETNA

between sounds. “
Auditory memory |
The ability to retain and recall that which is heard.
Auditory-motor match
The process whereby awareness of sound results in
SRST

a movement or response.
Autistic
LE

An individual with autistic disorder, beginning in

RE

infancy, which is characterized by self-absorption,

hl AR

preoccupation with inanimate objects, and/or

dysfunctional, destructive or ritualistic behaviors.
AR an NESS tN
7 tate merteraesnti
 The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

Individuals who display these characte

ristics later
in life are also sometimes diagnosed as autis
| tic.
Autistic disorder is a type of pervasiv
e develop-
| mental disorder.
ia Behavioral disorder
i A problem in social behavior which is suffi
| Tih ciently
extreme as to interfere with the learning
HE process.
Cerebral palsy ;
| A series of disorders characterized by
problems in
movement, posture, and loss of voluntar
y muscle
control, which are caused by brain
injury early in
life.
Communication disorder
A disability which is characterized by
the inability
to transfer thought through speech,
written word
or bodily gestures.
Conduct disorder
A persistent pattern of behavior char
acterized by
the breaking of social norms, including
serious
violations, agsression, destruction or
deceitfulness.
Dementia
A set of symptoms characterized by
| | deterioration
in cognitive functioning, particularly
memory,
abstract thinking, judgment and prob
| lem solving.
Developmental disability
A disorder originating before the age of
|| constitutes a substantial handicap and
18 which
continues
Ih indefinitely. The disabilities include
i mental retar-
| dation, autism, epilepsy, cerebral pals
EE y and severe
learning disabilities if the Origins are
| related to
mental retardation.
Disruptive behavior disorder
i A type of conduct disorder characte
rized by oppo-
| sitional and defiant behavior which
I does not meet
criteria for other conduct disorders.
| Down’s Syndrome
A congenital abnormality of the trisomy
21 gene
(an extra chromosome), resulting in ment
al retar-
dation and physical abnormalities.
 -An Introduction to Music Therapy

Fine motor dexterity (coordination)

The use of small muscles for reaching, grasping and
manipulating objects.
Forensic psychiatry
The branch of psychiatry devoted to legal problems
and infractions of law, primarily criminal.
Gerontology
The study of aging,’ characteristic behaviors of older
adults, and disorders associated with the late life.
Guided Imagery and Music
A technique which involves listening to music in a
relaxed state, to elicit imagery, symbols and/or feel-
ings for the purpose of creativity, therapeutic inter-
vention, self understanding and spiritual
experience.
Hearing impairment
A global term for any degree or type of hearing loss,
including deafness and hard of hearing.
‘Huntington’s'diséase (chorea) »
An inherited disorder, affecting the central nervous
system and causing involuntary movements and
contortions; may also cause cognitive decline and
behavioral symptoms.
Hyperactivity
Behavior which is characterized by increased or
excessive muscular activity.
Inclusion -
The concept referring to placing children with
special needs in the classroom that they would
normally attend, and importing support and
prescribed related services to that classroom.
Individualized Education Plan (IEP)
A written plan of instruction for each child with
special needs, which includes statements of
present functioning, long- and short-term goals and
objectives, required services and related informa-
tion. Every handicapped child must have an IEP
specifying special education and related services
where appropriate, according to Public Law
 The New Music Therapist’s Handbook

94-142, the Education for the Handic

apped Act.
Juvenile offenders
Children who have committed offe
nses, according
to law. \
Learning disorder
A deficit in a specific area related
to the processing
of input, i.e., learning, resulting in
decreased
achievement when compared to the
norm; often
associated with perceptual-motor
deficiencies or
brain damage. ‘
Mental retardation .
Sub average intellectual functioning and
impaired
adaptive functioning whose onset is
during the
developmental period; presently,
a person with an
IQ of 70 or below.
| Motor skills disorder
| A deficit in coordination, diagnose
d in childhood,
resulting in significant functional loss,
I not due to a
medical condition and failing to meet
iH | criteria for a
pervasive developmental disorder.
Hi Multiply handicapped
i| | An individual with more than one diag
| ih nosed
impairment; a physical or sensory
| | | handicap
accompanied by another handicap
| rf which inhibits
normal development or adjustment.
| i Neuromuscular disorder
A condition affecting the nervous syst
em and the
muscles of the body.
I Oppositional defiant disorder
| A condition characterized by pers
istent hostile and
| negative behavior, causing functional
| difficulties.
“Parkinsgon’s disease
| A chronic nervous system disorder
| by tremor, rigidity, and slow mov
characterized
AWA ements.
Pervasive developmental disorder
Hl] (PDD)
A set of conditions, including autism,
WA Rett
Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder, chil
dhood disinte-
grative disorder and others. PDD
is a relative term
for a variety of mental and/or beha
vioral disorders
 An Introduction to Music Therapy

without biological cause.

Physical challenges (physical impairment)
‘A broad term for any impairment of the body
which affects functional capacity.
Physical therapy (physiotherapy)
A rehabilitative treatment of physical impairment
or challenge, using techniques such as massage,
hydrotherapy, heat, and exercise.
Pitch-matching
Imitation of highness or lowness of a sound.
SEN OINIARASPTT

Posttraumatic stress disorder

A type of anxiety disorder in which the person
re-experiences a trauma with persistent arousal
and avoidance of stimuli associated with the
trauma; causes significant distress and functional
impairment.
Rett Syndrome
A disorder in which a child with normal early
development loses manual dexterity, coordinated
gait, social engagement, and language; associated
with severe psychomotor retardation and decelera-
tion of head growth.
Sensory impairment
A disorder affecting contact with the environment
through the senses (hearing, vision, taste, touch,
kinesthesia).
Stroke (apoplexy)
Blockage of the blood supply to the brain which
may be transient and temporary, or severe,
resulting in paralysis, aphasia (a speech disorder),
or incontinence (loss of bowel control).
Traumatic brain injury
A broad term for head injury sustained in an acci-
dent or other sudden onset.
Williams Syndrome
A neurobehavioral congenital disorder character-
ized by delayed motor development, mild to
moderate mental retardation and notable impair-
ment in visual and spatial functioning. Children