PHYSICS S6

TEACHER’S GUIDE

JANUARY 2019
 FOREWORD
Dear teacher,

Rwanda Education Board is honoured to present Senior 6 Physics teacher`s guide which
serves as a guide to competence-based teaching and learning to ensure consistency and
coherence in the learning of the entrepreneurship subject. The Rwandan educational
philosophy is to ensure that learners achieve full potential at every level of education
which will prepare them to be well integrated in society and exploit employment
opportunities.
•• In line with efforts to improve the quality of education, the government of
Rwanda emphasizes the importance of aligning teaching and learning materials
with the syllabus to facilitate their learning process. Many factors influence what
they learn, how well they learn and the competences they acquire. Those factors
include the relevance of the specific content, the quality of teachers’ pedagogical
approaches, the assessment strategies and the instructional materials available.
We paid special attention to the activities that facilitate the learning process in
which learners can develop ideas and make new discoveries during concrete
activities carried out individually or with peers. With the help of the teachers,
learners will gain appropriate skills and be able to apply what they have learnt
in real life situations. Hence, they will be able to develop certain values and
attitudes allowing them to make a difference not only to their own life but also
to the nation.
This is in contrast to traditional learning theories which view learning mainly as a process
of acquiring knowledge from the more knowledgeable who is mostly the teacher. In
competence-based curriculum, learning is considered as a process of active building
and developing of knowledge and understanding, skills and values and attitude by the
learner where concepts are mainly introduced by an activity, situation or scenario that
helps the learner to construct knowledge, develop skills and acquire positive attitudes
and values.
In addition, such active learning engages learners in doing things and thinking about the
things they are doing and they are encouraged to bring their own real experiences and
knowledge into the learning processes. In view of this, your role is to:
•• Plan your lessons and prepare appropriate teaching materials.
•• Organize group discussions for learners considering the importance of social
constructivism suggesting that learning occurs more effectively when the learner
Copyright works collaboratively with more knowledgeable and experienced people.
•• Engage learners through active learning methods such as inquiry methods, group
© 2019 Rwanda Education Board
discussions, research, investigative activities and group and individual work
All rights reserved.
activities.

This document is the property of Rwanda Education Board.

Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide iii

 •• Provide supervised opportunities for learners to develop different competences ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
by giving tasks which enhance critical thinking, problem solving, research,
creativity and innovation, communication and cooperation. I wish to express my appreciation to all the people who played a major role in
development of this Physics textbook for senior six. It would not have been successful
•• Support and facilitate the learning process by valuing learners’ contributions in
the class activities. without active participation of different education stakeholders.

•• Guide learners towards the harmonization of their findings. I owe gratitude to different Universities and schools in Rwanda that allowed their staff
to work with REB in the in-house textbooks production project. I wish to extend my
•• Encourage individual, peer and group evaluation of the work done in the sincere gratitude to lecturers, teachers and all other individuals whose efforts in one
classroom and use appropriate competence-based assessment approaches and
way or the other contributed to the success of writing of this textbook.
methods.
Special acknowledgement goes to the University of Rwanda which provided experts in
To facilitate you in your teaching activities, the content of this teacher`s guide is self-
design and layout services, illustrations and image anti-plagiarism.
explanatory so that you can easily use it. It is divided in 3 parts:
Finally, my word of gratitude goes to the Rwanda Education Board staff particularly
The part 1:Explains the structure of this book and gives you the methodological
those from the Curriculum, Teaching and Learning Resources department (CTLR)
guidance;
who were involved from inception tothe completion of the whole process of in-house
The part 2: Gives the sample lesson plans as reference for your lesson planning process; textbook writing.
The part 3: Provides details the teaching guidance for each concept given in the student
book.
Even though this teacher`s guide contains the answers for all activities given in the Joan MURUNGI,
learner’s book, you are requested to work through each question and activity before
judging learner’s findings. Head of Department Head of Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning
Resources
I wish to sincerely appreciate all people who contributed towards the development of
this teacher`s guide, particularly REB staff who organized the whole process from its
inception. Special gratitude goes to the University of Rwanda which provided experts
in design and layout services, illustrations and image anti-plagiarism, lecturers and
teachers who diligently worked to successful completion of this book. Any comment
or contribution would be welcome for the improvement of this textbook for the next
edition.

Dr. NDAYAMBAJE Irénée

Director General of REB

iv Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FOREWORD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . i i i UNIT4: EARTHQUAKE, LANDSLIDE, TSUNAMI, FLOODS AND CYCLONE.. . . . . 9 3

4.1 Key Unit Competence:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v 4.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
PART I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x 4.3 Cross Cutting Issues to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.4 Guidance on introductory activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.0. About the teacher’s guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x
1.1. The structure of the guide. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x 4.5 List of Lesson. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.2. Methodological guidance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
UNIT 5: ATOMIC NUCLEI AND ADIOACTIVE DECAY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 0 5
UNIT 1: SOUND WAVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
5.1 Key Unit Competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.1 Key Unit Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
1.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 5.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
1.4 Guidance on the introductory activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 5.5 List of lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1.6 Summary of the Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 5.6 Summary of the Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
1.7 Additional information: Properties of sound waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 5.7 Additional information for teacher:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.8 End Unit Assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 5.8 End Unit Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25 5.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
UNIT 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND GREEN HOUSE EFFECT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3 UNIT6:APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER IN TELECOMMUNICATION
2.1 Key Unit Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 SYSTEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 4 1
2.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 6.1 Key Unit Competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 6.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
2.5 List of Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 6.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.6 Summary of the Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50 6.5 List of lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.7 Additional Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 6.6 Summary of the Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.8 End of Unit Assessment answers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54 6.7 Additional information for the teacher. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
2.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 6.8 End unit assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
UNIT 3: APPLICATION OF PHYSICS IN AGRICULTURE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 9 6.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.1 Key Unit Competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 UNIT 7: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TELECOMMUNICATION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 6 5
3.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 7.1 Key unit competence:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 7. 2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 7.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.5 List of lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70 7.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.6 Unit Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 7.5 List of Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.7 Additional Information: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 7. 6 Summary of the Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.8 End unit assessment answers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 7.7 Additional Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.8 End Unit Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.9 Additional activities (Questions and Answers). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181

vi Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide vii

UNIT 8: NATURE OF PARTICLES AND THEIR INTERACTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 8 5 11.5 List of lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
8.1 Key unit competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 11.6 Summary of the Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
8. 2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 11.7 Additional Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 11.8 End of Unit Assessment answers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
8.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185 11.9 Additional activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
8.5 List of Lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 UNIT 12: MEDICAL IMAGING. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 8 7
8. 6 Summary of the Unit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 12.1 Key Unit Competence.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.7 Additional Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197 12.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.8 End unit assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 12.3. Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
8.9 Additional activities (Questions and Answers) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200 12.4 Guidance on the introductory activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
UNIT 9: PROPERTIES AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF QUARKS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 0 3 2.5 List of Lessons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
9.1 Key Unit Competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 12.6 SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
9.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 12.7 Additional information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
9.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 12. 8 End unit assessment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
9.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Part I:3 0 9
9.5 List of lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205 12.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
9.6 Unit summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.7 Additional information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 UNIT 13: RADIATION AND MEDICINE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 1 7
9.8 End unit assessment solution (2 periods). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
13.1 Key Unit Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
9.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
13.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
UNIT 10: EFFECT OF X-RAYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 3 1 13.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
10.1 Key Unit Competence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 13.4 List of lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
10.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 13.6 Unit Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
10.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 13.7 Additional Information:. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
10.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232 13.8 End unit assessment answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
10.5 List of lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233 Part III: Essay Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 4 1
10. 6 Unit Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10.7 Additional information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243 UNIT 14: COSMOLOGY, GALAXIES AND EXPENSION OF UNIVERSE. . . . . . . . . 3 4 7
10.8 End unit assessment solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253 4.1 Key Unit Competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
10.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256 14.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
UNIT 11: EFFECTS OF LASERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 6 3 14.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
11.1 Key Unit Competence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 14.4 Guidance on the introductory activity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
11.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 14.5 List of lessons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
11.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 4. 6 Unit Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
11.4 Guidance on the introductory activity.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263 14.7 Additional information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
14.8 End unit assessment solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
14.9 Additional activities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360

viii Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide ix

PART I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION Structure of a unit
Each unit is made of the following sections:
1.0. About the teacher’s guide
•• Unit title: from the syllabus
This book is designed to accompany senior six Physics student’s book and intends
to help teachers in the implementation of competence-based curriculum specifically •• Key unit competence: from the syllabus
Physics syllabus.
•• Prerequisites (knowledge, skills, attitudes and values)
It guides teachers when preparing lessons. Teachers are encouraged to be more
creative during preparation of lessons based on the specific learning areas. This section indicates knowledge, skills and attitudes required for the success of the
unit. The competence-based approach calls for connections between units within a
subject and interconnections between different subjects. The teacher will find an
1.1. The structure of the guide indication of those prerequisites and guidance on how to establish connections.
This section presents the overall structure, the unit and sub-heading structure to help
teachers to understand the different sections of this guide and what they will find in
•• Cross-cutting issues to be addressed
each section. This section suggests cross cutting issues that can be integrated depending on the unit
content. It provides guidance on how to come up with the integration of the issue.
Overall structure Note that the issue indicated is a suggestion; teachers are free to take another cross-
cutting issue taking into consideration the learning environment.
The whole guide has three main parts as follows:
•• Guidance on the introductory activity :
•• Part I: General Introduction.
Each unit starts with an introductory activity in the learner’s book. This section of the
This part provides general guidance on how to develop the generic competences, how teacher’s guide provides guidance on how to conduct an activity and the corresponding
to integrate cross cutting issues, how to cater for learners with special educational answers. Note that learners may not be able to find the right solution but they are
needs, active learning methods and techniques of teaching Physics and guidance on invited to suggest possible solutions. Solutions are provided by learners gradually
assessment. through discovery activities organized at the beginning of lessons or during the lesson.

•• Part II:Sample lesson plan •• List of lessons/sub-heading

This part provides a sample lesson plan, developed and designed to help the teacher This section presents in a table suggestion on the list of lessons, lesson objectives copied
develop their own lesson plans. or adapted from the syllabus and duration for each lesson. Each lesson /subheading is
then developed.
•• Part III:Unit development

This is the core part of the guide. Each unit is developed following the structure below. Note
The guide ends with references. •• Time can vary depending on your timetable and Nature of your class.
•• Depending on the size of your class, be flexible on the method to use. Do not
stick on the suggested method in this book.

x Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xi

•• End of each unit 1.2. Methodological guidance
At the end of each unit, teacher’s guide provides the following sections:
1.2.1 Developing competences
•• Summary of the unit which provides the key points of content developed in the
Teachers are responsible for knowledge transfer and fostering student’s learning
student’s book.
achievement, and creating safe and supportive learning environment. It implies that a
•• Additional information which provides additional content compared to the learner has to demonstrate what he/she is able to do using the knowledge, skills, values
student’s book for the teacher to have a deeper understanding of the topic. and attitude acquired in the learning process.
•• End unit assessment which provides the answers to questions of end unit
assessment in the textbook and suggests additional questions and related The competence-based curriculum employs an approach of teaching and learning
answers to assess the key unit competence. based on discrete skills rather than dwelling on only knowledge or the cognitive
domain of learning. It focuses on what learner can do rather than what learners know.
•• Additional activities: remedial, consolidation and extended activities). The
Learners develop basic competences through specific subject unit competences with
purpose of these activities is to accommodate each learner (slow, average and
specific learning objectives broken down into knowledge, skills and attitudes. These
gifted) based onend unit assessment results.
competences are developed through learning activities performed by learners and
evaluated based on set standards or criteria.
Structure of each sub heading
In addition to specific subject competences, learners develop generic competences
Each lesson/sub-heading is made of the following sections: which are transferable throughout a range of learning areas and situations in life. Below
are examples of terms developing generic competences in Physics?
Lesson Sub heading title 1:

Generic Examples of terms used in developing activities that

•• Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
competence develop generic competences
This section gives a clear instruction to teacher on how to start the lesson

•• Research and discuss

•• Teaching resources
•• Compare and contrast exercises
This section suggests the teaching aids or other resources needed in line with the •• Observe, record, interpret
Critical thinking
activities to achieve the learning objectives. Teachers are encouraged to replace the •• Debate.....
suggested teaching aids by the available ones in their respective schools and based on •• Make basic science equipment out of locally available
learning environment. materials

•• Learning activities Research and

Problem solving
This section provides a short description of the methodology and any important aspect •• Use the internet
to consider. It provides also answers to learning activities with cross reference to text •• Use a library
book: •• Create a school library
•• Exercises/application activities •• Collect data through observation and recording
•• Identify a problem and design a methodology to collect the
This provides questions and answers for exercises/ application activities/ information needed to solve the problem

xii Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xiii

 •• Take initiative to update knowledge and skills with minimum
•• Create an experiment to prove a concept external support.
•• Invent new ways of doing traditional things •• Cope with the evolution of knowledge and technology
•• Develop a graph to illustrate information advances for personal fulfilment
Lifelong learning
•• Create a flow chart to show the main stages in a process •• Seek out acquaintances more knowledgeable in areas that
Innovation and need personal improvement and development
•• Design a data collection survey/questionnaire
creativity •• Exploit all opportunities available to improve on knowledge
•• Conduct experiments with objectives, methodology,
observations, results, conclusions and skills.
•• Make hypotheses and identify ways to test them
•• Identify local problems and ways to resolve them
1.2.2 Addressing cross cutting issues

The integration of cross cutting issues is an integral part of the teaching and learning
process that are appropriately addressed within subjects. The eight cross cutting issues
Cooperation, •• Work individually identified in the national curriculum framework are: genocide studies, environment
Personal and and sustainability, gender, Comprehensive Sexuality Education (CSE), Peace and Values
•• Work in Pairs
Interpersonal Education, Financial Education, standardization Culture and Inclusive Education.
•• Small group work
management
and life skills •• Large Group Work
Some of the cross cutting issues are specific to particular learning areas or subjects
but the teacher is encouraged to address a cross cutting within the learning process
where possible. In addition, learners should always be given an opportunity during
the learning process to address these cross cutting issues both within and out of the
•• Present Ideas - verbally, in writing, graphically, digitally classroom so as to progressively develop related attitudes and values.
•• Set out pros and cons
•• Argue a Case – verbally, in writing, graphically (compare and Below are examples of statements that identify key points in setting examples
contrast), digitally addressing crosscutting issues in Physics:
•• Observe, Record, Interpret the results of a measurement
accurately. Cross-cutting Examples of key points needed in setting examples that
Communication issue integrates cross-cutting issues
•• Select and use appropriate formats and presentations, such
as tables, graphs and diagrams. All activities and exercises in physics should be done in such
Inclusive
•• Organise and present a complete report in a clear and way that they are diverse and cater ones background and
education
logical form using spelling, punctuation and grammar with abilities.
an acceptable degree of accuracy.
All students should have equal responsibilities while planning
•• Report accurately and concisely.
and performing activities. There is a tendency of girls being left
Gender
to clean places where practical have been done. This should be
avoided.

xiv Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xv

 Teachers need to:
Learners should be sensitised to know the relevance of
working together in all activities. •• Remember that students learn in different ways so they have to offer a variety of
Peace and Values activities (e.g. role-play, music and singing, word games and quizzes, and outdoor
Education Learners should always respect one’s idea, supplementing activities);
someone’s findings, owning someone’s concern in all •• Always demonstrate the objective of the activity; show students what they expect
discussions. them to do;
•• Vary their pace of teaching to meet the needs of each student. Some students
Examples and statements used in class should provide process information and learn more slowly than others.
information on healthy sexual lives. They should help learners •• Use clear consistent language – explain the meaning (and demonstrate or show
CSE pictures) if you introduce new words or concepts.
in explaining and classifying feelings, values and attitudes and
promote sustainable risk reducing behaviour •• Make full use of facial expressions, gestures and body language.
•• Pair a student who has a disability with a friend. Let them do things together and
Physics has a lot of practical in which different equipment learn from each other. Make sure the friend is not over protective and does not do
Standardization everything for the student. Both students will benefit from this strategy.
are used. They should be aware of instruments that measure
culture •• Have a multi-sensory approach to your activities.
accurately.
Below are strategies related to each main category of disabilities and how to deal with
Though there are a lot of projects in physics, learners should every situation that may arise in the classroom. However the list is not exhaustive
Environment and know that their projects and innovations should rather protect because each student is unique with different needs that should be handled differently.
sustainability environment than destroying it. Students will always want to
discover but their discoveries should be environmental friendly. Strategies to help student with developmental disabilities:
•• Be patient! If you find that the student takes longer than others to learn or to do an
Students have tendency of saying that all discoveries have to activity, allow more time.
Financial be done in expensive laboratories with expensive equipment. •• Do activities together with the student.
Education They should be aware that discoveries can be made with locally •• Gradually give the student less help.
available materials. •• Let the student do the activity with other students and encourage them to help each
other.
1.2.3 Attention to special educational needs specific to each subject •• Divide the activity into small achievable steps.
When we think about inclusive education, often we just think about getting student •• Remember to praise and say ‘Well done’ when the student learns something new or
makes a strong effort.
into school, i.e. making sure they are physically present in school. However, we also
need to ensure that students are participating in lessons and school life, and they are Strategies to help learners with physical disabilities or mobility difficulties:
achieving academically and socially as a result of coming to school. So we need to think •• Adapt activities so that students who use wheelchairs or other mobility aids, or
about presence, participation and achievement. other students, who have difficulty moving, can participate.
•• Ask for adaptation of furniture – e.g. the height of a table may need to be changed
Some people may think that it is difficult to address the needs of a diverse range of to make it easier for a student to reach it or fit their legs or wheelchair under.
students. However, by working as a team within your school, with support from families •• Encourage peer support between students.
and local communities, and by making adaptation of teaching methods, teaching and
•• Get advice from parents or a health professional about assistive devices
learning materials, the teacher will be able to meet the needs of all students.

Strategies to help learners with hearing disabilities or communication difficulties

•• Always get the student’s attention before you begin to speak.

xvi Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xvii

•• Encourage the student to look at your face. Continuous/ formative assessment
•• Use gestures, body language and facial expressions.
It is an ongoing process that arises out of interaction during teaching and learning
•• Use pictures and objects as much as possible. process. It includes lesson evaluation and end of sub unit assessment. This formative
•• Ask the parents/caregivers to show you the signs they use at home for communication assessment should play a big role in teaching and learning process. The teacher should
use the same signs yourself and encourage other students to also use them. encourage individual, peer and group evaluation of the work done in the classroom and
•• Keep background noise to a minimum. uses appropriate competence-based assessment approaches and methods.
Strategies to help learners with visual disabilities Formative assessment principles in physics is applied through administering several
•• Help students to use their other senses (hearing, touch, smell and taste) to play and learning activities that are planned in each lesson to ensure that lesson’s objectives
carry out activities that will promote their learning and development. are achieved before moving on. At the end of each unit, the end unit assessment is
formative when it is done, it gives information on the progress of students and from
•• Use simple, clear and consistent language.
there one decides what adjustments need to be done. Assessment standards are taken
•• Use tactile objects to help explain a concept.
into consideration when setting these tasks.
•• If the student has some sight, ask them what they can see. Get information from
parents/caregivers on how the student manages their remaining sight at home.
Summative assessment:
•• Make sure the student has a group of friends who are helpful and who allow the
student to be as independent as possible. The assessment done at the end of the term, end of year, is considered as summative. The
•• Plan activities so that students work in pairs or groups whenever possible. teacher, school and parents are informed on the achievement of educational objective
•• In case of practical work where identifying parts, you can use a magnifying glass. and think of improvement strategies. There is also end of level/ cycle assessment in
form of national examinations.
Adaptation of assessment strategies
In Physics, it is very important to include practical work while planning this summative
Each unit in the teacher’s guide provides additional activities to help learners achieve assessment.
the key unit competence. Results from assessment inform the teacher which learner
needs remedial, consolidation or extension activities. These activities are designed
to cater for the needs of all categories of learners; slow, average and gifted learners 1.2.5 Students’ learning styles and strategies to conduct teaching and learning process
respectively. There are different teaching styles and techniques that should be catered for. The
Physics is a practical subject therefore all activities should be hands on. selection of teaching method should be done with the greatest care and some of
the factors to be considered are: the uniqueness of subjects; the type of lessons; the
All activities given to learners in physics should recognize all levels of learners in class.
particular learning objectives to be achieved; the allocated time to achieve the objective;
instructional available materials; the physical/sitting arrangement of the classroom,
1.2.4 Guidance on assessment
individual students’ needs, abilities and learning styles.
Assessment is an integral part of teaching and learning process. The main purpose
There are mainly four different learning styles as explained below:
of assessment is for improvement. Assessment for learning/ Continuous/ formative
assessment intends to improve learners’ learning and teacher’s teaching whereas
assessment of learning/summative assessment intends to improve the entire school’s a) Active and reflective learners
performance and education system in general.
Active learners tend to retain and understand information best by doing something
active with it discussing or applying it or explaining it to others. Reflective learners
prefer to think about it quietly first.

xviii Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xix

b) Sensing and intuitive learners •• He provides supervised opportunities for learners to develop different competences
by giving tasks which enhance critical thinking, problem solving, research, creativity
Sensing learners tend to like learning facts; intuitive learners often prefer discovering and innovation, communication and cooperation.
possibilities and relationships. Sensors often like solving problems by well-established •• Teacher supports and facilitates the learning process by valuing learners’
methods and dislike complications and surprises; intuitive learners like innovation and contributions in the class activities.
dislike repetition.
The role of learners in active learning
c) Visual and verbal learners Learners are key in the active learning process. They are not empty vessels to fill
Visual learners remember best what they see—pictures, diagrams, flow charts, time but people with ideas, capacity and skills to build on for effective learning. A learner
lines, films, demonstrations, etc.; verbal learners get more out of words—written and engaged in active learning:
spoken explanations. •• Communicates and shares relevant information with other learners through
presentations, discussions, group work and other learner-centred activities (role
d) Sequential and global learners play, case studies, project work, research and investigation)
•• Actively participates and takes responsibility for their own learning
Sequential learners tend to gain understanding in linear steps, with each step following •• Develops knowledge and skills in active ways
logically from the previous one. Global learners tend to learn in large jumps, absorbing
•• Carries out research/investigation by consulting print/online documents and
material almost randomly without seeing connections, and then suddenly “getting it.”
resourceful people, and presents their findings
To cater for this, learners’ textbook provides a lot of activities that include checking my •• Ensures the effective contribution of each group member in assigned tasks through
progress, projects, quick checks and many others that helps these learners to find them clear explanation and arguments, critical thinking, responsibility and confidence in
learning and mastering physics. public speaking
•• Draws conclusions based on the findings from the learning activities.
1.2.6 Teaching methods and techniques that promote the active learning
Some active techniques that can be used in Physics
The different student learning styles mentioned above can be catered for, if the teacher
The teaching methods strongly emphasised in the competence Based Curriculum (CBC)
uses active learning whereby learners are really engaged in the learning process.
are active methods. Below are some active techniques that apply in sciences:

What is Active learning? •• Practical work/ experiments:

Active learning is a pedagogical approach that engages students in doing things and Many of the activities suggested in the Physics curriculum as well as in the student’s
thinking about the things they are doing. In active learning, learners are encouraged to book are practical work or experiments.
bring their own experience and knowledge into the learning process.
Practical work is vital in learning chemistry; this method gives the learner the opportunity
to implement a series of activities and leads to the development of both cognitive and
The role of the teacher in active learning hands-on skills. The experiments and questions given should target the development of
•• The teacher engages learners through active learning methods such as inquiry the following skills in students: observation; recording and report writing; manipulation;
methods, group discussions, research, investigative activities and group and measuring; planning & designing.
individual work activities.
In case your school does not have enough laboratory materials, experiments can be
•• He/she encourages individual, peer and group evaluation of the work done in the
done in groups but make sure every student participates. In case your school does not
classroom and uses appropriate competence-based assessment approaches and
have materials, make arrangements with the neighbouring science school of excellence
methods.
and take your students there for a number of experiments.

xx Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xxi

Care must be taken for both girls and boys to have equal responsibilities in preparation everybody in the group.
of practical work and even after the practical. In mixed schools, there is a tendency of •• It promotes interdisciplinary activities as it calls for use of different skills.
girls being left to clean and prepare the apparatus.
There are about three types of project work

•• Demonstration •• Experimental: work in a laboratory, carrying out an experiment to investigate

a particular problem.
Literally demonstration means “show” the teacher shows something, such as a
specimen, a model, or a skill (an experiment) while students watch. The method is •• Observational: Collecting data, analysing data and interpreting the data that
preferred mainly under three conditions: Shortage of materials, use of sophisticated already exists.
materials (very expensive materials) when safety is a major factor like dangerous •• Survey: use of techniques like questionnaires, provides information such as
experiments and it needs specific skills to be learnt first. people’s awareness.

Demonstration is done in three main stages: •• Field trip

•• Preparation: Checking materials to ensure they are available and at good
One of the main aims of teaching chemistry in Rwanda is to apply its knowledge
state; try the experiment before; think of safety rule and give instructions to
for development. To achieve this aim we need to show to students the relationship
technician if you have any.
between classroom physics lessons and applied physics.
•• Performance: Sitting or standing arrangement of students; introduction of
Field trip is one of the methods we can use to achieve this aim because it:
the experiment: aims and objectives; setting up the apparatus; performing
the experiment; write and record the data. •• Makes learning more meaningful: Experiences are fairly direct, making the
learning more meaningful, realistic and memorable.
•• Discussion: Observations and interpreting data; make generalisations and
assignment: writing out the experiment report and further practice and •• Motivates learners: Experiences during the visits, use of more than one
research. sense, thus offers stimulus variation, which is likely to motivate learners.

•• Project work •• Orientation of career choice: Can help students in their career choices

However, field trips are costly, disrupt lessons of other subjects if planed on a learning
Physics teachers are encouraged to sample and prepare project works and engage their
day, Take a lot of time to plan, Accidents may occur on the road to or from the trip and
students in as many as possible. A well produced project will demonstrate students’
some students can be difficult to control on a trip. Therefore the following guidelines
competence (basic and generic) of students and integration of cross cutting issues in a
should be observed:
number of ways:
•• Write to the authority persons seeking for permission in your note include; date,
•• It gives students an opportunity to link concepts, principles learnt in a classroom or time, purpose and number of students
laboratory to the outside world, thus aiding revision and anchoring of such concepts.
•• Start detailed plans
•• Stimulates the interest of students in the subject
•• Visit the area before the trip if possible to familiarise yourself with the place
•• It exposes students to a wider range of skills and instruments
•• Write out the worksheet that will guide the learners on activities to observe, look
•• It trains students in the designing of a practical investigation or problem solving for during the visit
with suitable controls, sampling procedures and presentation
•• Work out the timetable for the trip
•• It helps to improve student’s communication skills
•• Try to team up as science teachers and make it a science trip, arrange and go with at
•• When performed in groups, talents of all in groups are shared for the benefit of least one science teacher
•• Finally leave the contact address to the school administration

xxii Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xxiii

When students come back from trip, the teacher should plan for follow-up. The follow- •• Discovery activity
up should allow students to share experiences and relate them to the prior chemistry
knowledge. This can be done in several ways;
Step 1
Either: Students write a report individually or in groups and give to the teacher •• The teacher discusses convincingly with students to take responsibility of their
for marking. The teacher then arranges for discussion to explain possible learning
misconceptions and fill gaps. Or: Students write reports in groups and display
•• He/she distributes the task/activity and gives instructions related to the tasks
them on the class notice board for everyone to read. (working in groups, pairs, or individual to instigate collaborative learning, to discover
Note: field trip can provide a worthwhile experience if planned well. Students like knowledge to be learned)
having a change from those classrooms and laboratories. Most students return
from trip sounding refreshed, motivated and ready to absorb more chemistry Step 2
concepts next day. •• The teacher let the students work collaboratively on the task.
•• During this period the teacher refrains to intervene directly on the knowledge
Main steps for a lesson in active learning approach •• He/she then monitors how the students are progressing towards the knowledge
to be learned and boost those who are still behind (but without communicating to
All the principles and characteristics of the active learning process highlighted above them the knowledge).
are reflected in steps of a lesson as displayed below. Generally the lesson is divided
into three main parts whereby each one is divided into smaller steps to make sure that •• Presentation of learners’ productions
learners are involved in the learning process. Below are those main part and their small
steps: •• In this episode, the teacher invites representatives of groups to presents the
students’ productions/findings.
•• After three/four or an acceptable number of presentations, the teacher decides to
1) Introduction engage the class into exploitation of the students’ productions.
Introduction is a part where the teacher makes connection between the current and
previous lesson through appropriate technique. The teacher opens short discussions •• Exploitation of learner’s productions
to encourage learners to think about the previous learning experience and connect it •• The teacher asks the students to evaluate the productions: which ones are correct,
with the current instructional objective. The teacher reviews the prior knowledge, skills incomplete or false
and attitudes which have a link with the new concepts to create good foundation and
•• Then the teacher judges the logic of the students’ products, corrects those which
logical sequencings. are false, completes those which are incomplete, and confirms those which correct.

2) Development of the new lesson •• Institutionalization (summary/conclusion/ and examples)

The development of a lesson that introduces a new concept will go through the following •• The teacher summarises the learned knowledge and gives examples which illustrate
the learned content.
small steps: discovery activities, presentation of learners’ findings, exploitation,
synthesis/summary and exercises/application activities, explained below:

xxiv Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xxv

 •• Exercises/Application activities PART II: SAMPLE LESSON PLANS
•• Exercises of applying processes and products/objects related to learned unit/sub- The teacher’s guide provides more than one lesson plan taking into consideration the
unit type of lesson in the subject (Eg: one per main topic/theme) using the CBC format.
•• Exercises in real life contexts
•• Teacher guides learners to make the connection of what they learnt to real life 1. Competence – based Lesson Plan
situations. At this level, the role of teacher is to monitor the fixation of process and
product/object being learned. School Name: ………………….……

Teacher’s name: ……………………………………

3) Assessment
In this step the teacher asks some questions to assess achievement of instructional Term Date Subject Class Unit Lesson Duration Class size
No No
objective. During assessment activity, learners work individually on the task/activity.
The teacher avoids intervening directly. In fact, results from this assessment inform the First 20 Physics S6 1 1 of 10 80 min 45
teacher on next steps for the whole class and individuals. In some cases the teacher Term /01/
can end with a homework assignment. 2018
Type of Special Educational Needs Learners with visual difficulties.
to be catered for in this lesson and
number of learners in each category

Unit title SOUND WAVES.

By the end of the unit the learner should be
Key Unit Competence able to analyze the effects of Sound waves in
elastic medium.
Title of the lesson Sound production
With the help of provided apparatus,
Instructional Objective students perform an experiment to produce
effective sound waves.
(Plan for this Class (location: in /
Classroom
outside)
Learning Materials (for all learners) open tubes/pipe, tuning fork, acoustic guitar,
drum
1. Breithaupt, J. (2000), Understanding
Physics For Advanced Level (4, Ed.)
References Ellenborough House, Italy: Stanley Thorners;

2. Abbot, A. F., & Cockcroft, J. (1989). Physics.

(5, Ed.) Heinemann: Educational Publishers.

xxvi Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xxvii

 Generic 2.Devel- Lead the process of •• Suggest that they can play some Peace and
competences opment examining learners’ notes on the string of acoustic value, inclu-
Description of teaching and learning activity guitar
Timing and Cross of the predictions sive educa-
for each Through performing an experiment of production of cutting lesson •• Suggest some of the risks which tion through
issues to be Give the co-operation
step sound, the learners will notice its propagation in air and may arise when they play a guitar
addressed 60 min opportunity to the and set the guidelines in discussions.
adapt the ways of producing sound waves.
learner to suggest
how to verify their •• Compare the results with different Through
predictions
1.Intro- Teacher activities Learner activities Communi- predictions group discus-
duction Motivate the •• Recall how mechanical waves are cation, co- •• Present the results in plenary and sions, each
Give the learner write on the chalk board student de-
learners by playing propagated in elastic medium operation,
10min the guitar in velops critical
a guitar and asking •• They think what is heard and critical think-
groups, discuss thinking skills.
what is heard and describe how it is produced. ing through
on how to handle
how it is produced? responding to
•• Discuss the question and take it carefully and Communica-
questions.
Form groups and position let them produce tion, numer-
guide the learners •• In groups, they present their some notes on acy, critical
Moderate the thoughts. an acoustic guitar thinking
presentations and •• Predictions: following given ,cooperation,
articulate different guidelines creativity are
•• Most of us start our lives by developed
ideas from learners
producing sound waves! We spend through per-
Possible answers: much of our life surrounded by forming tasks.
objects which produce sound
Facilitate the
waves. Most machines in use
learners to think vibrate and produce sound so
about the topic of the only sure way to silence them
today would be to put them in vacuum
presentations and there would be no surrounding
articulate different medium for the vibrating surfaces
of the machine to push against,
ideas from learners
hence no sound waves.
Possible answers:
•• Discover the objectives of the
Facilitate the lesson
learners to think
about the topic of
today

xxviii Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide xxix

Conclu- Summary Correct their reports Critical
sion Apply the new concepts to answer thinking,
correct, conclude analysis

1
questions and different tasks
10 min and then
generalize with the
related to sound production: UNIT 1: SOUND WAVES.
real life 1)Explain how the sound is
produced
Assessment 2)Suggest 2 other stringed
instruments that can produce
Verify using
sound.
different methods 1.1 Key Unit Competence
the level of Suggested answer
attainment of the The source of any sound is By the end of the unit, learners should be able to analyze the effects of sound waves in
learning outcomes vibrating object. Almost any object an elastic medium.
can vibrate and hence be a source
of sound. In musical instruments, 1.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills
the source is set into vibration
by striking, plucking, bowing, or The success of this unit relies partly on the mastery of knowledge, skills acquired in
blowing. Standing waves are Physics and other subjects in previous grades or unit as indicated below.
produced and the source vibrates
at its natural resonant frequencies. Propagation of mechanical waves (Unit 4, S.5)
The most widely used instruments
Simple harmonic motion (unit 2, S.5)
that produce sound wave make
use of vibrating strings, such as
the violin, guitar, and piano or 1.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed
make use of vibrating columns of
Inclusive education (promote education for all while teaching). Regardless of physical
air, such as the flute, trumpet, and
appearance and abilities learners should all be treated equally. This makes the learners
pipe organ. They are called wind
to find out that they are all of great importance.
instruments.
Teacher Peace and value Education (respect others view and thoughts during class discussions).
self-eval- Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be correct or Not but what is
uation important is to build on that Idea.

Gender (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation). Care should be
taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities.

xxx Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 1

1.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 2. A

This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept
1.5 list of lessons
•• Divide your students into groups (Grouping may depend on the nature of your
class or number of learners you have. S/No Lesson Tittle Learning Suggested
•• Tell the learners to open the introductory activity in the learner’s book. Objectives Number of
•• Instruct learners to re-write the questions and answer them following the (Adapted from Periods
instructions from learner’s book. syllabus)
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work.
By the end of the
•• When everyone is done and you are done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to Lesson(s) Learners
discuss their findings to the whole class. should be able to:
•• Ask other members whether their answers correspond to the discussed points
1 Introductory activity ••Analyze relate 5
and if there is any point that is different from what have been raised to mention
it. You can talk about those points (in a discussion together with other students)
and Characteristics and sound and music
properties of sound waves
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. ••Analyze different
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks characteristics
of sound waves
•• Linking to the summary and what have discussed in class, emphasize on the
and how they are
difference between music and noise. You can take some minutes and explain
applicable in real
them.
life
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations like in singing,
designing musical instruments, designing musical halls etc 2 Production of stationary ••Produce sound 6
sound waves waves using locally
available materials
Possible answers of the introductory activity.
3 Characteristics of musical ••Explain 2
1. Audible sounds are classified into two groups, namely musical sounds and noise. notes characteristics of
A musical sound is that in which the vibrations of the sounding body are periodic,
musical notes
follow each other regularly and rapidly, so as to produce a pleasing effect on the
ear without any sudden change in loudness. 4 Applications of sound ••Explain doppler 4
Noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that waves effect in sound
tend to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion waves
caused by a circuit. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated,
which can be decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit. ••Applications of
When you sing or talk, you send out sound waves with all kinds of frequencies. doppler effect in
These sound waves mix together. How they mix makes music or noise. communication.

A chorus or choir sings in parts. The sounds of the parts mix well together. This 5 End Unit Assessment 4
kind of mixing is called harmony. Harmony makes the beautiful sounds of music.
Honking horns and the motors of cars, buses, and trucks send out sound waves
that do not mix well together. That is why traffic on a busy street makes awful-
sounding noise. Loud noise can cause loss of hearing; rook musicians can also
suffer hearing loss.

2 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 3

 Lesson 1.1: characteristics of sound waves Activity 1.2
•• Remember the essence of this activity is to master and apply what they have
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction: already acquired from the previous activity 1.1
•• Assign this activity as homework/exercise/ group work/ Assignment or any
Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe all the characteristics of sound depending on what you want to achieve.
waves. You can make a recap using Propagation of mechanical waves (Unit 4 S.5).
•• Make sure you mark the activity when students are done with the work.
You can ask them questions like, why is not possible to hear someone that is far away •• Give them feedback and invite some members to discuss their findings to the
from you? etc whole class.
•• Together with other students harmonize and make a summary and tell your
b)Teaching resources: Textbooks, students to write down key points in their notebooks.
•• Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take time and
c)Learning Activities: explain frequency range .ie. (20 Hz-20 kHz). You can use notes in student’s book.
You can explain why a dog is able to detect someone tiptoeing.
Activity 1.1 •• Explain also comprehensively fundamental wave equation ( ,speed of
sound in various media and their equations
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept

•• Divide your students into groups Tell the learners to open the activity 1.1 in the Expected answers
learner’s book.
•• Instruct learners to read the scenario in the activity 1.1 in the learners book and Activity 1.1: Properties of sound waves
explain by writing in their notebooks all the underlined words
This activity is for about the review on waves and sound wave properties as seen in
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work. senior 5. For more information about sound waves properties we can see on additional
•• When everyone is done and you are done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to information.
discuss their findings to the whole class.
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the Activity 1.2 Characteristics of sound
ones discussed 1. We may know wavelength and frequency
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. 2. We may know power and area
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks
•• Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and d. Expected answer for 1.1.3 Checking my progress
explain intensively transmission of sound in different media and reflection of 1. B 2. D 3. D
sound at boundary.
4. (A) The speed of sound is not constant, but depends upon the temperature of
•• Link this lesson to real life like reflection of waves in string of a guitar when the air. When it is hotter, the speed of sound is greater, so it takes less time for
plucked. the echo to return.
5. B
6. We can only make a rough estimate because a spider’s web is fairly complicated
and many vibrate with a mixture of frequencies. We use SHM as an approximate
model.

4 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 5

 4. (A) The speed of sound is not constant, D but depends upon Dthe temperature of the air. When it is
hotter, the speed of sound1.isBgreater, so it2.takes less time for the3.echo to return.
hotter, the speed of sound is greater, so it takes less time for the echo to return.
pon the temperature of 5. the
B air. When it is 4. (A) The speed of sound is not constant, but depends upon the temperature of the air. When it is
5. B hotter, the speed of sound is greater, so it takes less time for the echo to return.
r the echo to return.
6. We can only make a rough estimate because a spider‘s web is fairly complicated and many
6. We can only make aBrough estimate because a spider‘s web is fairly complicated and many
vibrate with a mixture of5.
frequencies. We use SHM as an approximate model.
vibrate with a mixture of frequencies. We use SHM as an approximate model.
a)a)The
Thefrequency
er‘s web is fairly complicated frequency
and manyofofSHM
SHM
6.isWeis given
canby:
given by: make a rough estimate because a spider‘s web is fairly complicated and many
only Expected answers
a) The frequency of SHM is given by:
vibrate with a mixture of frequencies. We use SHM as an approximate model.
pproximate model.

f 
1 k
1  k k  (2f a)
) 2 mThe (frequency
30 ) 2 (3.0 of SHM
 10 4
) is2given by:
.7 N / m
Activity 1.3: Production of stationary sound waves
f 2 m  k  (2f ) 2 m  (30 ) 2 (3.0  10  4 )  2.7 N / m
2 m As student progress in this section he/she discover the answer
1 k
/m b) The total mass is now f 0.10 g +  0.30 f ) 2 mg. We
k g(2=0.4 (30could
) 2 (3.0substitute
 10  4 )  2m
.7N4/.0m 10 4 kg into
a) The
b) The totaltotalmass
massisisnow
now 20.10 mg + 0.30 g =0.4 g. .We couldsubstitute
We could substitute m  4.0  10 4 kg into
1 k b) Expected answer for quick check
f  1  k 13 Hz
f 2 4 m  13 Hz b) The total mass is now 0.10 g + 0.30 g =0.4 g. We could substitute m  4.0  10 4 kg into 1.1 An open end is a displacement antinode and a closed end is a displacement node.
e could substitute m  4.0  10 2kg m into
into
1 k The placement of the displacement nodes and antinodes along the pipe is as
Lesson
Lesson 1.2: Production
1.2:
f 
Production of Sound
 13 Hzwaves
sketched in Fig.1.1. The open ends are displacement antinodes
2 mof Sound waves
a.Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
Lesson 1.2: Production of Sound waves
a.Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
Linking this lesson to the previous one, ask learners how sound can be produced.
Linking this lesson to the previous one, ask learners how sound can be produced.
a.Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
b.Lesson 1.2: Production
Teaching resources: Textbooks,of Sound
and guitar ifwaves
you can access it.
b. Teaching resources: Textbooks,
Linking this and guitar
lesson to theifprevious
you canone,
access
askit.learners how sound can be produced.
ound can be produced.
30
30
ccess it. a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
b. Teaching resources: Textbooks, and guitar if you can access it.
Fig.1. 1 Standing waves produced by open pipe at both ends
Linking this lesson to the previous one, ask learners how sound30
can be produced.
Location of the displacement nodes (N) measured from the left end:
b)Teaching resources: Textbooks, and guitar if you can access it. •• fundamental 0.60 m
•• 1st overtone 0.30 m, 0.90 m
c)Learning Activities •• 2nd overtone 0.20 m, 0.60 m, 1.00 m

Activity 1.3 Location of the pressure nodes (displacement antinodes measured from the left
end:
This activity aims at making students how sound can be produced
•• fundamental 0, 1.20 m
•• Put your students in groups. •• 1st overtone 0, 0.60 m, 1.20 m
•• Instruct learners to read the questions and relate them to Fig 1.3 •• 2nd overtone 0, 0.40 m, 0.80 m, 1.20 m
•• Tell the students to attempt the questions in their notebooks. 1.2 The open end is a displacement antinode and the closed end is a displacement
•• As students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work. node. The placement of the displacement nodes and antinodes along the pipe is
sketched in Fig.1.2.
•• When everyone is done and you are done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to
discuss their findings to the whole class. Location of the displacement nodes (N) measured from the closed end:
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
•• fundamental 0
ones discussed
•• 1st overtone 0, 0.80 m
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board.
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks •• 2nd overtone 0, 0.48 m, 0.96 m
•• Using students work, explain harmonics in pipes,
•• Link this lesson to real life like rhythm heard after drumming.

6 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 7

 The wavelength of the fundamental standing wave in a tube open at both ends is
less than the wavelength of the fundamental standing wave in a tube with one open
end and one closed end.

2. The bottle is a tube with one open end and one closed end. We need λ = 4L The
wavelength of middle C is 1.29 m. Therefore L = 32.25 cm

3. To get destructive interference the difference between the distances to the

loudspeakers should be n λ 2 , n = 1, 3, 5... There will be destructive interference at
Fig.1. 2 Standing waves produced by pipe open at one end and closed at the other end

Location of the pressure nodes (displacement antinodes (A)) measured from the λ , at 3 λ and at 5 λ 2 .
2 2
closed end:
As the difference in distance is 3.5 m - 3.0 m = 0.5m, then for destructive
•• Fundamental 1.20 m v 343
interference λ = 1.0 and f=
1 =
λ 1.0
= 343 Hz
•• 1st overtone 0.40 m, 1.20 m
•• 2nd overtone 0.24 m, 0.72 m, 1.20 m. The wavelength of the next frequency that also produces destructive interference
is obtained doing
1.3 a)Knowing that the frequencies of higher harmonics are integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency f = 262 Hz , we find that f1 = 262 Hz
3 λ = 0.5m
2 or λ = 13 m and then . f=2 v 343
= = 1029 Hz
2 f1 =
f1 = 532 Hz and f 3 =
2 × 262 = 3 f1 =×
3 3 f1 =×
3 262 =786 Hz λ 1/ 3

Similarly, doing 5 λ 2 = 0.5 m or λ = 13 m we get f3 = 1715H

b) Using Equation 54.44 for the two strings vibrating at their fundamental frequencies
gives 4. To use a slinky to create a longitudinal wave, pull a few coils back and release. For
1 TA 1 TA
f1 A = a transverse wave, jostle the end coil side to side.
2 L µ and f1C = 2 L µ
5. The speed of a wave on a “massless” string would be infinite!
Setting up the ratio of these frequencies, we find that
TA f1 A 2 440 2 6. First, you need to be able to draw the harmonics of one end fixed, one end open.
= (= ) (= ) 2.82
TC f1C 262 The second harmonic looks like this:
c) Using Equation 54.44 again, we set up the ratio of frequencies:
f1 A LC TA TA f L 2
= ⇔= ( 1 A A= ) 1.16
f1C LA TC TC f1C LC

1.4. For beats to occur, the string must vibrate at a frequency different from 400 Hz
by whatever the beat frequency is.
20
fb = 4 Hz
The beat frequency is =
5
Set up a number sentence: 53.2 cm = 3 4 λ therefore
= λ 1.76
= cm 0.176 m
This is the difference of the frequencies of the two waves. Because one wave is 317
v
known to be 400 Hz , the other must be either 404 Hz Hz or 396 Hz . The frequency f= = = 1.80 ×103 Hz
λ 0.176
5
a) Set up a number sentence: 45 cm = λ ⇒ λ = 36 cm
Expected answers for 1.2.4 Check my progress 4
v v 4
1. In a tube with two open ends f1 = ; λ= f= 2 L b) Set up a number sentence: 2.67 m= λ ⇒ λ = 2.67 m
2L 4
v v 2
In a tube with one open end and one closed end f1 = 4 L ⇒ λ = f = 4 L C) Set up a number sentence: 68 cm= λ ⇒ λ = 136 cm
4

8 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 9

 7. We know the total string length must be half of the fundamental wave length Lesson 1.3: Characteristics of musical notes
λ
L1 = 1 ⇔ λ1 =2 L1 =2 × 0.64 =1.28 m
2 a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
The sound propagation velocity in this string is then Connecting this lesson to the previous one, ask learners to explain different sounds we
v = λ1 f1 = 1.28 × 330 = 420 m / s . receive depending on their energy and how far a receiver is from the source

When pressing the string, the string tension do not varies, and the propagation
velocity v is also L= λ2 v 422 b)Teaching resources:Textbooks, whistle, drum and other musical instruments
2 = = = 0.603 m
2 2 f2 2 × 350

The new string length L2 is obtained using . c)Learning Activities

The difference 64 cm - 60.3 cm = 3.7 cm is the distance from the first fret to the Activity 1.5
nut.
This activity major focuses on production of on characteristics of musical notes.
8. As the pulse moves down the string, the particles of the string itself move side to
side. Since the medium—here, the string—moves perpendicular to the direction •• Make groups (or you can vary the method depending on the type of your class)
of wave propagation, the wave is transverse by definition.
•• Instruct learners to READ INSTRUCTIONS CAREFULLY brainstorm the questions
9. The relation between string tension T, mass m, length L and string wave velocity and then write them in their notebooks and then attempt the questions.
v is T m •• Invite some group(s) to present their findings to the whole class and allow others
v= ⇔ T= v2
µ L to give their points incase they are different from what have been discussed.
10.
•• Together with learners make a summary (use student’s work/findings)
m 3.6 ×10−3 kg
In this case the string mass per unit length µ= = = 4 ×10−3 kg / m . •• Linking to the summery you made with students, explain intensity and its
0.9 m
L
equation, pitch and timbre.
Replacing T = 520 N and µ= 4 ×10−3 kg / m , we get= T 520 .
v = = 361 m / s •• Tell students that this is important in production of music and designing different
µ 4 ×10−3
musical instruments
The wavelength associated to the fundamental frequency is: λ =2 L =×
2 0.6 =1.2 m
v 361 Expected answers
The fundamental frequency is then f= = = 301 Hz
λ 1.2
Activity 1.5: Characteristics of musical notes
The first and second overtones are respectively 602 Hz and 903 Hz.
Student answers this activity as they read.

Activity 1.6: Noise or music (see introductory activity on page 11)

Noise is defined as unwanted disturbances superposed on a useful signal that tend
to obscure its information content. Noise is not the same as signal distortion caused
by a circuit. Noise may be electromagnetically or thermally generated, which can be
decreased by lowering the operating temperature of the circuit.

10 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 11

Expected answers for 1.3.4 Characteristics of sounds in this activity

1. (a) intensity (b) echoes (c) sound quality •• Call some student(s) or group(s) to present their findings to the whole class.
Under your guidance explain key terms like doppler effect and derive its equation.
2. A stationary wave is set up between the source and wall, due to the production •• Together with students, come up with a summary and note down major points
of reflected wave. The wall is a displacement node, since the air in contact with to the board and allow learners to write some important concepts in their
it cannot move; and other nodes are at equal distances, d, from the wall. So if notebooks.
wavelength is λ, the first distance d of the minimum amplitude position or node
from the wall is: •• To concretize your lesson, together with learners do examples 1.9 to 1.12 in
the learners book (This will help you to assess the mastery and acquisition of
λ v 3.43 concepts by learners).
d= = 0= = 1.7 m
2 2 f 2 ×100
Expected answers
So minimum amplitude of vibration is obtained Amin = nd
The antinodes are midway between the nodes. So maximum amplitude Activity1.7: Doppler Effect
of vibration is obtained:
Student can answer correctly after complete this section about Doppler Effect and
nd Student can enumerate the uses of sound as describe in Student book in her/his own
Amax = from the wall.
word
2 P 0.5 ×10−4
3. Sound intensity =
I = = 10−5 W / m 2
A I 5 10−9 d. Quick check 1.5:
4. Intensity level
= β 10 =log 10 log
= 3
Io 10−12 v 340 m / s
From v = λ f ⇒ λ = ⇒λ = = 1.29 m
5. a. False, density b. False, pitch c. True, f 264 / s

Expected answers for 1.4.4 Applications of sound

Lesson 1.4: Application of sound waves 1. C
2. A
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction: 3. Echolocation, echocardiography, communication, exploration for oil and
minerals, Radar use sound at airports to track aircraft, sonar,
Students are well conversant the meaning of sound and characteristics! Ask them
4. The sonar or pulse-echo technique is used to locate underwater objects. A
where do we use sound in real life.You can relate this lesson to previous ones like by
transmitter sends out a sound pulse through the water, and a detector receives
using examples of guitar and drums.
its reflection, or echo, a short time later. This time interval is carefully measured,
and from it the distance to the reflecting object can be determined since the
b)Teaching resources: Textbooks, internet. speed of sound in water is known. The depth of the sea and the location of reefs,
sunken ships, submarines, or schools of fish can be determined in this way.

c)Learning Activities: 5. a) The Doppler Effect is the frequency change of a sound perceived by the
observer due to the movement of the sound source and/or the movement of
•• Decide on the method to use in this lesson (You can use group work, individual the observer. If the source and the observer approach each other the perceived
or whole class) frequency increases and if they move away the perceived frequency decreases.
•• Tell learners to open their books to activity 1.7 The new frequency f r detected by the observer is given by the formula
•• Instruct them to read the instructions of the questions and attempt the questions
c ± v0
fr = fs
c + vs

12 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 13

1.6 Summary of the Unit 1.7 Additional information: Properties of sound waves
We can distinguish three aspects of any sound. First, there must be a source for a
1.7.1 Reflection of sound waves at boundary
sound; as with any mechanical wave, the source of a sound wave is a vibrating object.
Second, the energy is transferred from the source in the form of longitudinal sound
waves in air or other material. And third, the sound is detected, usually by an ear or by Reflection on a fixed end
a microphone.
First consider an elastic rope securely attached to a pole on a lab bench while the other
Sound waves whose frequencies are less than 20 Hz are called infrasonic waves and end is held in the hand in order to introduce pulses into the rope as shown in Fig.1.3.
sound waves whose frequencies are higher than 20000 Hz are called ultrasonic waves. Because the right end of the rope is attached to a pole the last particle of the rope will
The highness or lowness of a sound is called its pitch. The higher the frequency, the be unable to move when a disturbance reaches it. This end of the rope is referred to as
higher is the pitch. a fixed end.

The intensity of sound is proportion to the square of amplitude. The higher the intensity,
the louder is the sound.

The frequency of the beats is equal to the difference in the frequencies of the two
sound waves:
beat frequency= frequency of loud sound heard= f1 − f 2

The sound waves of your voice go out until they hit a wall or other surface. Then they Fig.1. 3 An elastic rope securely tied to a pole used to study the behavior of waves at a fixed end

bounce back toward you and make an echo. Bats use echoes when they fly around on
dark nights If a pulse is introduced at the left end of the rope, it will travel through the rope towards
the right end of the medium. This pulse is called the incident pulse since it is incident
An open pipe is one which is one which is open at both ends. The distance between towards the boundary which in this case is the pole. .
consecutive antinode is λ 2 i.e. L = λ 2 .
When the incident pulse reaches the boundary, two things are observed:
The longest standing wave in a tube of length L with two open ends has displacement
•• A portion of the energy carried by the pulse is reflected and move back towards
antinodes (pressure nodes) at both ends. It is called the fundamental.
the left end of the rope. The disturbance that returns to the left after bouncing
The longest standing wave in a tube of length L with one open end and one closed end off the pole is known as the reflected pulse.
has a displacement antinode at the open end and a displacement node at the closed •• A portion of the energy carried by the pulse is transmitted to the pole, causing
end. This is the fundamental: the pole to vibrate.

λ v When one observes the reflected pulse off the fixed end, there are several notable
L= ⇔ f = observations. First the reflected pulse is inverted. That is, if an upward displaced pulse
4 4L
is incident towards a fixed end boundary, it will reflect and return as a downward
a single Doppler effect equation that covers all cases of both source and observer in displaced pulse.
motion:
Similarly, if a downward displaced pulse is incident towards a fixed end boundary, it will
v ± vo reflect and return as an upward displaced pulse.
fr = fo
v  vs

14 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 15

Fig.1. 4 Fixed end reflection
Fig.1. 6 Reflection of waves on a free end
In general, Reflection leaves wavelength, speed, amplitude and frequency
unchanged Depending on the distance between the two ends additional two phenomena are also
observed. Those are echo and reverberation:

Reflection on Free End Echo occurs when a reflected sound wave reaches the ear 0.1 s after we hear the
original sound. If the time that elaps between the arrivals of the two sound waves
Suppose a rope is attached to a ring that is loosely fit around the pole as in Fig.1.5.
is more than 0.1 s, then the sensation of the first sound will have died out. An echo
Because the right end of the rope is no longer secured to the pole, the last particle of
sounder or fathometer is a device using echos to estimate the depth of the sea.
the rope will be able to move when a disturbance reaches it. This end of the rope is
referred to as a free end. In a small room the sound is also heard more than once, but the time differences are so
small that the sound just seems to loom. This is known as reverberation.

1.7.2 Refraction and transmission of Sound Waves

Refraction of waves is the change in direction of waves as they pass from one medium to
another. The bending of waves is accompanied by the change in speed and wavelength
of the wave. So if there is any change in media, the wave speed changes. As an example
the sound waves travel with less velocity in cool air than they do in the warmer air.

Fig.1. 5 An elastic rope that is not fastened to the pole used to study the behavior of a reflected wave at free end
a)Transmission of a pulse across a boundary from less to more dense
An upward displaced pulse incident upon a free end returns as an upward displaced
Let’s consider a thin rope attached to a thick rope, with each rope held at opposite ends
pulse after reflectionand vice veersa. Fig.1.5. shows that the inversion is not observed
by people as shown in Fig.1.6. And suppose that a pulse is introduced by the person
in free end reflection.
holding the end of the thin rope. If this is the case, there will be an incident pulse
traveling in the less dense medium (the thin rope) towards the boundary with a more
dense medium (the thick rope).

Fig.1. 7 Transmission of a pulse across a boundary from less medium to denser medium

16 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 17

Upon reaching the boundary, the usual two behaviors will occur. 1. The reflected pulse in medium 1 ________ (will, will not) be inverted because
_______.
•• A portion of the energy carried by the incident pulse is reflected and returns
towards the left end of the thin rope. The disturbance that returns to the left 2. The speed of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ (greater than, less than,
after bouncing off the boundary is known as the reflected pulse. the same as) the speed of the incident pulse.

•• A portion of the energy carried by the incident pulse is transmitted into the 3. The speed of the reflected pulse will be ______________ (greater than, less than,
thick rope. The disturbance that continues moving to the right is known as the the same as) the speed of the incident pulse.
transmitted pulse. The transmitted pulse is not inverted but refrected pulse is 4. The wavelength of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ (greater than, less
inverted as shown in Fig.1.8. than, the same as) the wavelength of the incident pulse.
5. The frequency of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ (greater than, less
than, the same as) the frequency of the incident pulse.
Answer

1. will not... 2. Faster 3. the same as 4. greater than 5. the same as

b)Transmission of a pulse across a boundary from more to less dense

Let’s consider a thick rope attached to a thin rope, with the incident pulse originating in
the thick rope as in Fig.1.9. If this is the case, there will be an incident pulse traveling in
the more dense medium (thick rope) towards the boundary with a less dense medium
(thin rope).

Fig.1. 8 A wave travelling from a less dense to a more dense medium will be reflected off the boundary and transmitted a
cross the boundary into the new medium. The reflected pulse is inverted

Example 1.1Transmission of a pulse across a boundary from less to more dense

1. A pulse in a more dense medium is traveling towards the boundary with a less
dense medium as shown in Fig.1.8 copy and complete

Fig.1. 10 A wave travelling from a more dense to a less dense medium will be reflected off the boundary and transmitted
across the boundary into new medium. There is no inersion
Fig.1. 9 Transmission of a pulse across a boundary from less to more dense

Once again there will be partial reflection and partial transmission at the boundary. The
reflected pulse in this situation will not be inverted. Similarly, the transmitted pulse is
not inverted (as is always the case). Since the incident pulse is in a heavier medium,
when it reaches the boundary, the first particle of the less dense medium does not have
sufficient mass to overpower the last particle of the more dense medium.

18 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 19

 b) Snell’s law and waves
Example 1.2: Determine the angle of refraction
1. Incident on a smooth, flat slab of crown glass (n = 1.52) at an angle of 30.0° to the
normal, as sketched in Figure at right. Find the angle of refraction.

Fig.1. 11Refraction of light at the interface between two media of different refractive indices, with

When a wave travels from denser medium to less dense medium in such a way that
it meets the boundary between the two depths straight on, no change in direction
occurs. On the other hand, if a wave meets the boundary at an angle, the direction of
travel does change. This phenomenon is called refraction
Since the velocity is lower in the second medium ( v 2 < v1 ), the angle of refraction θ2 is
Answer
less than the angle of incidence θ1; that is, the ray in the higher-index medium is closer We rearrange Snell’s law of refraction to obtain
to the normal.
n1 sin 30.0
Snell’s law (also known as Snell–Descartes law and the law of refraction) is a formula sin θ=
2 sin θ1 ⇔ sin θ=
2 = 0.329 ⇔ θ=
2 19.20
used to describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when n2 1.52
referring to light or other waves passing through a boundary between two different
Because this is less than the incident angle of 30°, the refracted ray is bent toward
isotropic media, such as water, glass, or air.
the normal, as expected. Its change in direction is called the angle of deviation and
Snell’s law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is given by
is equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities in the two media, or equivalent to the
σ = θ1 − θ 2 = 30.0 − 19.2 =10.80
reciprocal of the ratio of the indices of refraction:
sin θ1 v1 λ1
= = (1.01) 1.7.3 Checking my progress
sin θ 2 v2 λ2
with each θ as the angle measured from the normal of the boundary, v as the velocity 1. How is a wave changed by reflection?
of light in the respective medium (SI units are meters per second, or m/s), λ λ as the 2. What causes refraction when a wave enters a medium at an angle
wavelength of light in the respective medium
3. What is the amplitude of the wave that results when two identical waves interfere
Comparisons between the characteristics of the transmitted pulse and the reflected constructively?
pulse lead to the following observations. 4. A pulse in a less dense medium is traveling towards the boundary with a more
dense medium as shown in Fig.1.10 copy and complete.
•• The transmitted pulse (in the less dense medium) is traveling faster than the
reflected pulse (in the more dense medium).
•• The transmitted pulse (in the less dense medium) has a larger wavelength than
the reflected pulse (in the more dense medium).
•• The speed and the wavelength of the reflected pulse are the same as the speed
and the wavelength of the incident pulse.

20 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 21

 1.8 End Unit Assessment

1. B
2. A
3. B)A node is a point along a standing wave where the wave has minimum or zero
Fig.1. 12 Transmission from less dense medium to dense medium amplitude
4. D)Sound waves are longitudinal waves, so (a) is incorrect. The sound waves can
1. The reflected pulse in medium 1 ________ (will, will not) be inverted.
be characterized either by the longitudinal displacement of the air molecules or
2. The speed of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ (greater than, less than, by the pressure differences that cause the displacements.
the same as) the speed of the incident pulse.
5. E)In a string or open tube the lowest vibration mode is equal to half of a
3. The speed of the reflected pulse will be ______________ (greater than, less than, wavelength. In a tube closed at one end the lowest vibration mode is equal to
the same as) the speed of the incident pulse. a quarter of a wavelength. Therefore, none of the listed objects have a lowest
4. The wavelength of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ (greater than, less vibration mode equal to a wavelength.
than, the same as) the wavelength of the incident pulse. 6. (C) The frequency is the number of wave crests that pass a certain point per unit
time. If this value were to change as it entered the water, then wave crests would
5. The frequency of the transmitted pulse will be ___________ (greater than, less build up or be depleted over time. This would make the interface an energy
than, the same as) the frequency of the incident pulse. source or sink, which it is not. The speed of sound in water is greater than in
air, so the speed of the wave changes. Since the frequency cannot change, the
Suggested answer increase in speed results in an increase in wavelength.
1. In general, Reflection leaves wavelength, speed, amplitude and frequency 7. No. Waves with other waveforms are also trains of disturbance that add together
unchanged but the wave can be flipped upside down. when waves from different sources move through the same medium at the same
time.
2. When a wave enters a medium at an angle, refraction occurs because one side of
the wave moves more slowly than the other side 8. The energy has not disappeared, but is still carried by the wave pulses. Each
particle of the string still has kinetic energy. This is similar to the motion of a
3. The amplitude of resulted two combined waves add together to produce a wave simple pendulum. The pendulum does not stop at its equilibrium position during
with a double amplitude oscillation—likewise the particles of the string do not stop at the equilibrium
4. 1. will... 2. less than 3. the same as 4. less than 5. the same as position of the string when these two waves superimpose.
9. No. A wave is not a solid object, but a chain of disturbance. As described by the
principle of superposition, the waves move through each other.
10. They can, wherever the two waves are nearly enough in phase that their
displacements will add to create a total displacement greater than the amplitude
of either of the two original waves. When two one-dimensional sinusoidal waves
of the same amplitude interfere, this condition is satisfied whenever the absolute
value of the phase difference between the two waves is less than 120°.
11. No. The total energy of the pair of waves remains the same. Energy missing from
zones of destructive interference appears in zones of constructive interference.
12. The air in the shower stall can vibrate in standing wave patterns to intensify those
frequencies in your voice which correspond to its free vibrations. The hard walls
of the bathroom reflect sound very well to make your voice more intense at all
frequencies, giving the room a longer reverberation time. The reverberant sound
may help you to stay on key.

22 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 23

 13. Beats. The propellers are rotating at slightly different frequencies. 20.Regulations are needed to reduce noise pollution from large ships
14. What is needed is a tuning fork—or other pure-tone generator—of the desired Whales use their songs in ways that affect their survival-eating, mating, and avoiding
frequency. Strike the tuning fork and pluck the corresponding string on the piano
predators. Studies often focus on the effects of noise from a single ship, but in routes
at the same time. If they are precisely in tune, you will hear a single pitch with no
taken by ocean freighters, noise from many ships combines to produce a higher volume.
amplitude modulation. If the two pitches are a bit off, you will hear beats. As they
vibrate, retune the piano string until the beat frequency goes to zero. Ocean freighters often travel near whale migration routes, so even nose that affects
whales at a distance of 20 km may have an impact on whale survival. If regulations are
15. A. frequency delayed unti research can prove that noise pollution affects whales, it may be too late
to help the whales. Many kinds of whales are on the endangered species list, so it is
B. an open tube (open at both ends) important to err on the side safety.

C. Closed tube (closed at one end)

Regulations are not needed to reduce noise pollutions from large ships
D. The Doppler effect, higher, lower.
16. Use the Doppler formula, and remember that the bat is a moving source. If Whale songs can be lengthy and are often repeated, so the effect of noise from ships
the velocity of the insect is vs = 5.00 m / s ,=
f s 40.0 ×103 Hz ,=
f r 40.0 ×103 kH and is limited because ships quickly move out of an area. One study showed that whales
v = 340 m / s The bat move toward the insect which is moving away the changed the rhythm and tempo of their songs in response to noise from large ships, but
v − v0 there was no evidence that the communication was less effective. Also, it is expensive
bat: f r ' = f s
v − vs to modify ship propellers to reduce low-frequency noise. If less-developed countries
v + vs
The insect reflect the sound received: f r = f r ' cannot afford to modify ships, regulations will not be effective in reducing ocean noise
v + vo
v − vo v + vs levels.
We get f r f s (
= )(= ) ⇔ vo 3.31 m / s
v − v s v + vo
Therefore the bat is gaining on its prey at 1.69 m/s
1.9 Additional activities
v 343
17. Use moving source=fr fs 225 216
⇔= ⇔
= vs 13.7 m / s
v + vs 343 − vs
Since the frequency is higher (225 vs 216) you know that the velocity is (Remedial activities, Consolidation activities, extended activities)
toward, so you set it up with a - sign in the denominator, but it really
1. Choose the best answer: A guitar player shortens the length of a guitar’s
doesn’t matter if you guess this wrong - you’ll just get a minus sign in
vibrating string by pressing the string straight down onto a fret. The guitar then
your answer and then ignore it.
v + vo 343 + 12.5
emits a higher-pitched note, because the string’s tension has been dramatically
18. Use
= fr f=
s 518 = 537 Hz moving observer increased.The string can vibrate with a much larger amplitude. The string vibrates
v 343
Since you are moving toward, you want a higher frequency, so you would at a higher frequency.
use a + in the numerator. 2. Choose the best answer: An organ pipe with a fundamental frequency f is open at
v + vo 343 + vo both ends. If one end is closed off, the fundamental frequency will
19. Use=fr fs 557 518
⇔= ⇔
= vo 25.8 m / s moving observer
v 343
a) Drop by half.
Since the frequency is higher, you must be moving toward - so you would
set it up with a + in the numerator - but it really doesn’t matter if you b) Not change.
guess this wrong - you’ll just get a minus sign in your answer and then c) Double.
ignore it.
3. To keep animals away from their cars, some people mount short, thin pipes on
the fenders. The pipes give out a high pitched wail when the cars are moving.
How do they create the sound?

24 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 25

 4. When the base of a vibrating tuning fork is placed against a chalkboard, the sound 13. Dolphins use sound waves to locate food. Experiments have shown that a
that it emits becomes louder. This is because the vibrations of the tuning fork are dolphin can detect a 7.5 cm target 110 m away, even in murky water. For a bit
transmitted to the chalkboard. Because it has a larger area than the tuning fork, of “dinner” at that distance, how much time passes between the moment the
the vibrating chalkboard sets more air into vibration. Thus, the chalkboard is a dolphin emits a sound pulse and the moment the dolphin hears its reflection and
better radiator of sound than the tuning fork. How does this affect the length thereby detects the distant target?
of time during which the fork vibrates? Does this agree with the principle of
14. By what factor would you have to multiply the tension in a stretched string in
conservation of energy?
order to double the wave speed?
5. If you stretch a rubber hose and pluck it, you can observe a pulse traveling up and
15. A guitar string has a length of 64.5 cm, and a fundamental frequency of 110 Hz.
down the hose. What happens to the speed of the pulse if you stretch the hose
more tightly? What happens to the speed if you fill the hose with water? Draw the first three harmonics of vibration on the string below, and calculate the
wavelength and frequency for each.
6. If you wet your finger and lightly run it around the rim of a fine wineglass, a high-
frequency sound is heard. Why? How could you produce various musical notes What is the velocity of the waves on this string?
with a set of wineglasses, each of which contains a different amount of water? If this string is fingered 51.5 from one end (it is shortened by that amount). What
7. You have a standard tuning fork whose frequency is 262 Hz and a second tuning is the frequency of the fundamental now?
fork with an unknown frequency. When you tap both of them on the heel of one 16.An organ pipe has two successive harmonics with frequencies 1372 and 1764 Hz.
of your sneakers, you hear beats with a frequency of 4 per second. Thoughtfully (a) Is this an open or a stopped pipe? Explain. (b) What two harmonics are these?
chewing your gum, you wonder whether the unknown frequency is 258 Hz or (c) What is the length of the pipe?
266 Hz. How can you decide?
17. The Human Voice. The human vocal tract is a pipe that extends about 17 cm from
8. Consider a wave traveling on a taut rope. What is the difference, if any, between the lips to the vocal folds (also called “vocal cords”) near the middle of your
the speed of the wave and the speed of a small segment of the rope? throat. The vocal folds behave rather like the reed of a clarinet, and the vocal
9. When all the strings on a guitar are stretched to the same tension, will the speed tract acts like a stopped pipe. Estimate the first three standing-wave frequencies
of a wave along the most massive bass string be faster, slower, or the same as of the vocal tract. Use (The answers are only an estimate, since the position of
the speed of a wave on the lighter strings? lips and tongue affects the motion of air in the vocal tract.)
10. If a long rope is hung from a ceiling and waves are sent up the rope from its lower 18. You hear the sound of a hammer striking concrete 1.21 seconds sooner in the
end, they do not ascend with constant speed. Explain. concrete than through the air. If the speed of sound through the air is 339 m/s,
and the hammer is 724 m away, what is the speed of sound in the concrete?
11. If one end of a heavy rope is attached to one end of a light rope, the speed of a
wave will change as the wave goes from the heavy rope to the light one. Will it
increase or decrease? What happens to the frequency? To the wavelength? Suggested answers
12. Children sometimes play with a homemade telephone by attaching a string to
1. C
the bottoms of two paper cups. When the string is stretched and a child speaks
into one cup, the sound can be heard at the other cup. Explain clearly how the 2.C
sound wave travels from one cup to the other. 3. Air blowing fast by a rim of the pipe creates a “shshshsh” sound called edge
tone noise, a mixture of all frequencies, as the air turbulently switches between
flowing on one side of the edge and the other. The air column inside the pipe
finds one or more of its resonance frequencies in the noise. The air column starts
vibrating with large amplitude in a standing wave vibration mode. It radiates
sound into the surrounding air (and also locks the flapping airstream at the edge
to its own frequency, making the noise disappear after just a few cycles).

26 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 27

 4. Instead of just radiating sound very softly into the surrounding air, the tuning These waves are incident on the receiver’s ear, and they hear the sound from the
fork makes the chalkboard vibrate. With its large area this stiff sounding board speaker.
radiates sound into the air with higher power. So it drains away the fork’s energy
of vibration faster and the fork stops vibrating sooner. This process exemplifies
conservation of energy, as the energy of vibration of the fork is transferred
through the blackboard into energy of vibration of the air.
5. Higher tension makes wave speed higher. Greater linear density makes the wave
move more slowly.
6. The difference between static and kinetic friction makes your finger alternately
slip and stick as it slides over the glass. Your finger produces a noisy vibration, a
mixture of different frequencies, like new sneakers on a gymnasium floor. The
glass finds one of its resonance frequencies in the noise. The thin stiff wall of the
cup starts vibrating with large amplitude in a standing wave vibration mode. A
typical possibility is shown in Figure 18.17. It radiates sound into the surrounding
air, and also can lock your squeaking finger to its own frequency, making the
noise disappear after just a few cycles. Get a lot of different thin–walled glasses
of fine crystal and try them out. Each will generally produce a different note. You Fig.1 1 These children are talking over a cup-and-string “telephone.”
can tune them by adding wine.
7. Stick a bit of chewing gum to one tine of the second fork. If the beat frequency 13. The total distance covered by the sound wave as it travels from dolphin to target
is then faster than 4 beats per second, the second has a lower frequency than and back is ∆S = 2 ×110 m = 220 m
the standard fork. If the beats have slowed down, the second fork has a higher ∆S ∆S 220
frequency than the standard. Remove the gum, clean the fork, add or subtract From equation v = t
, we have, for 25°C water ∆= = = 0.14 s
∆t vx 1533
4 Hz according to what you found, and your answer will be the frequency of the ∆S
14. From v = , we must increase the tension by a factor of 4.
second fork. ∆t
8. The section of rope moves up and down in SHM. Its speed is always changing. The 15. a-c. A guitar string has a length of 64.5 cm, and a fundamental frequency of 110
wave continues on with constant speed in one direction, setting further sections Hz.
of the rope into up-and-down motion.
a. The first three harmonics of vibration on the string, and calculate the wavelength
9. Slower. Wave speed is inversely proportional to the square root of linear density. and frequency for each.

10. Each element of the rope must support the weight of the rope below it. The
tension increases with height. (It increases linearly, if the rope does not stretch.)
Then the wave speed v = T increases with height.
µ
11. As the wave passes from the massive string to the less massive string, the wave
speed will increase according to v = T . The frequency will remain unchanged.
µ
Since v = f λ , the wavelength must increase.
12. The child speaking into a cup creates sound waves which cause the bottom of the
cup to vibrate. Since the string is tightly attached to the bottom of the cup, the
vibrations of the cup are transmitted to longitudinal waves in the string. These
longitudinal waves travel down the string, and cause the bottom of the receiver
cup to vibrate. This relatively large vibrating surface moves the adjacent air, and
generates sound waves from the bottom of the cup, traveling up into the cup.

28 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 29

 This is the Set up a number Set up a number The solution gives integer n as it should; the pipe is stopped.
fundamental - we sentence: sentence: (b) From part (a) these are the 7th and 9th harmonics.
know its frequency is 0.625
= m = 4 λ , λ 0.625 m 0.625 m 6=
4 =
4
λ , λ 0.430 m (c) From part (a) f 0 = 196 Hz .
110 Hz, and that the v v 344
string is 0.645 m long. For a stopped pipe f 0 = 4 L ⇔ L = 4 f = 4 ×196 = 0.439 m
For this type of For this type of 1

standing wave, the standing wave, Therefore ,the length of the pipe is 0.439 m
Set up a number
sentence: second harmonic the third harmonic It is essential to know that these are successive harmonics and to realize that
2 frequency is twice the frequency is thrice 1372 Hz is not the fundamental. There are other lower frequency standing waves;
L= λ ⇔ λ = 1.29 m these are just two successive ones.
4 fundamental the fundamental,
f = 220 Hz
f = 330 Hz v
17. For a stopped pipe, the standing wave frequencies are given by Eq. f1 = .
4L
The first three standing wave frequencies correspond to n =1, 3 and 5.
b. Use f λ =110 ×1.29 =141.9 =142 m / s 344
=f1 = 506 Hz f3 3=
= f1 1517 Hz f5 5=
= f1 2529 Hz
4 × 0.17
c. The new length of the string is 0.645 m - 0.215 m = 0.430 m
For the fundamental, set up a number sentence: 0.430 m = 2 4 λ , then λ = 0.860 m 18. In general these are solved by setting the difference in transmission times equal
v 141.9 724 724
The new frequency: f= = = 165 Hz to the “sooner” time. In this case it looks like this: 1.21
= −
λ 0.860 339 v
so t = s )
where 724/339 = time for sound to go through the air ( v = s
16. The frequency of any harmonic is an integer multiple of the fundamental. For a t v
724
stopped pipe only odd harmonics are present. For an open pipe, all harmonics are and v = time to travel through concrete, where v = the speed of sound in
present. See which pattern of harmonics fits to the observed values in order to concrete.
determine which type of pipe it is. Then solve for the fundamental frequency and
relate that to the length of the pipe.

For an open pipe the successive harmonics are f n = nf o where n = 1,2,3,

For a stopped pipe the successive harmonics are f n = nf o where n=1, 3, 5, ....
f n nf=
If the pipe is open and these harmonics are successive, then = o 1372 Hz
and f n +1 =(n + 1) f o =1764 Hz

Subtract the first equation from the second: (n + 1) f 0 − nf o = 1364 − 1372

1372
This gives f o = 392 Hz . Then
= n = 3.5 . But n must be an integer, so the
392
pipe can’t be open.

If the pipe is stopped and these harmonics are successive, then

=f n nf=
o 1372 Hz and f n + 2 =(n + 2) f o =
1764 Hz (in this case successive
harmonics differ in n by 2).

Subtracting one equation from the other gives 2 f 0 = 392 Hz and f 0 = 196 Hz .
1372
=
Then n = 7 so 7 f 0 = 1372 Hz and 9 f 0 = 764 Hz
.
196

30 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 31

 Unit 2: CLIMATE CHANGE AND GREEN HOUSE EFFECT.
2

2.1 Key Unit Competence

By the end of the unit, learners should be able to evaluate climate change and
Greenhouse effect.

2.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills

The success of this unit rely partly on the mastery of knowledge, skills acquired in
physics and other subjects in previous grades or unit as indicated below.

•• Black body radiation (in unit1 S.5)

•• Sources of energy in the world (unit 6 S.4)
•• Energy degradation and power and power generation (unit 7 S.4)
•• Energy Sources in Rwanda.
•• Environmental problems such as Noise, pollution, Ozone depletion and Global
warming.
•• Composition, Structure and dynamics of the atmosphere.
NB: Care must be taken NOT to discuss completely this Unit Using Only Geography
Knowledge. Explain all the concepts relating them to Physics.

32 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 33

2.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed b) Color, Material, features covering those objects

•• Inclusive education (promote education for all while teaching). Regardless of c) Most of the objects absorb a certain percentage of energy and reflects some.
physical appearance and abilities learners should all be treated equally. This Using the idea of black body, most of these objects approximate to black body.
makes the learners to find out that they are all of great importance. Therefore, they are able to absorb some of the radiations that fall on them.
However, they are not perfect black bodies and therefore they reflect some of
•• Peace and value Education (respect others view and thoughts during class the radiations that falls on them
discussions). Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be correct
or Not but what is important is to build on that Idea. d) Black body. This is a body that absorb radiations that fall on it. However, a perfect
black body absorb all radiations that fall on it and reflect none.
•• Gender (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation). Care
should be taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities. e) i) Its surface temperature would change affecting the climate of that body may
be if it is a planet
•• Standardization culture (Be aware of machines that do not harm our environment)
f) ii) Once the energy is reflected, it means that there will distribution of this energy
in its atmosphere. Leading to average distribution of temperature with its surface
2.4 Guidance on the introductory activity and its atmosphere.
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept g) iii) Yes. Since these radiations leads to variations in the temperature, there is a
possibility of change in the climate of that planet (objects)
•• Tell students that they are to discuss (by themselves) under your guidance.
There is also a possibility of these radiations being retained in the atmosphere in case
•• Split your class into groups (if it is a mixed school make sure that your groups there are elements that may stop these radiations from continuing. Such elements
have boys and girls) and tell them to start working on the introductory activity.
include accumulation of green gases in the atmosphere.
•• Give students like 20 minutes to work by themselves brainstorming the questions.
In this period, you can move around overseeing what students are doing. Leave
them to work by themselves. 2.5 List of Lessons
•• Invite some groups to present their findings to the whole class. You can explain
new terms used and clarify points where students had problems (This can be
S/ Lesson Tittle Learning Objectives Suggested
done in 10 minutes) No (Adapted from syllabus) Number of
Periods
•• Ask students from different groups to judge whether, what have been discussed By the end of the Lesson(s)
correspond to the questions. Learners should be able to:
•• Together with students, make a summary of what have been discussed using
learners’ findings and deductions 1 Introductory activity -Analyse the concept of black 2
and Black body body.
•• Ask learners to this activity addresses the problems of the world.eg Why do we radiation
need to know a black body? Give them real life examples of this concept like
suitable materials in packaging, roofing, choice of a cloth to put on depending on 2 Scientific process -Explain the nature of black body 2
the weather etc behind climate change radiation and its emissivity.

-State Stefan-Boltzmann law and

Possible answers of the introductory activity. apply it to emission rates from
a) Sun different surfaces.

34 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 35

 You can ask them questions like: How do you feel on a sunny day when you are dressed
3 Intensity of the sun’s - Evaluate and discuss the 2
radiation reaching intensity of sun’s radiation on a black day. Let them explain their ideas. (This can take like 2 minutes)
planets reaching the earth

- Evaluate concept of
b)Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks, Clothes (black and white).
emissivity and relate it
to emission rates for c)Learning Activities:
different surfaces
•• This lesson focuses on making students understand apply the concept of black
- Explain how earth’s body radiation
albedo varies independent
•• Give students materials (water, white cloth and black cloth) to use in this activity
of season and latitude.
2.1 in learner’s book.
4 Greenhouse effects - Describe Greenhouse 4
•• Divide your class into different groups (Choice is yours about methodology
effect
depending on the type of your class)
- Appreciate the usefulness •• Instruct them to follow instructions as stated in the activity.
of energy from
•• Leave the learners to perform the activity by themselves. This can take like 50
greenhouse in supporting
minutes.
plant life
•• Invite 2 or 3 (or any number of groups depending on how many you had formed)
5 Climate Change - Explain the concept of 2
to present their findings. Let them discuss by themselves. (Can take like 15
climate change
minutes depending on the number of groups)
6 Climate change - Carry out Investigation on 2
•• Ask other members of the class to whether they have different findings from
mitigation Greenhouse effect
what others have presented.
7 Climate change - Explain the climate change 2
•• Connecting to what learners have presented, guide learners to state laws of black
Mitigation mitigation body (steffan-Boltzman law and wein’s displacement law comprehensively) and
8 End Unit Assessment 2 radiation curves.

Expected results of the activity:

Lesson 2.1: Scientific process behind climate change
The Black cloth will dry first since it absorbs more radiation than a white one).

a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
d)Answers to questions in this lesson
Through guided discovery, assist learners to discover the effect of color on to the
absorption of a certain radiation. You can make a recap using; Quick check 2.1: an iron bar becomes orange-red when heated to high temperatures
and its color progressively shifts toward blue and white as it is heated further. This is due
•• Black body radiation (in unit1 S.5) to the change in wavelength of the of the particles of iron bar ie from long wavelength
•• Effect of temperature on to a body particles appearing red) to short wave length (Blue)

•• Sun’s atmosphere and interior (In Unit 14 S.5)

•• Star temperature, spectra and color (In Unit 14 S.5)

36 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 37

Answers to checking my Progress 2.1.8 fellow students. You can harmonize if there is any problem

8. b. the body which absorbs all the radiations incident upon it •• Link learner’s findings and notes to reasons for variation sun’s radiation and
factors affecting planets albedo.
c. at all possible wavelengths
•• Together with students make a summary about intensity of Sun’s radiation and
9. b. sentences (i) and (iii) factors affecting planet’s albedo. Compile the outcomes and let learners write
them in their Notebooks.
10. d. A/ B = α
Expected answers on this activity 2.2.
Lesson 2.2: Intensity of sun’s radiation reaching the planets
a) The intensity of Light will reduce since part of the energy will be first absorbed
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction: by the conductor. Still the amount received depends on the conductivity of the
conductor. Good conductors absorb and radiate more heat than poor ones
This lesson requires knowledge and skills from: In brief, ask learners how heat from a b) Radiation
certain source is transmitted in vacuum or air? You can use concepts from;
c) No. This is because some of the radiations are absorbed what is in the medium
•• Sun’s atmosphere and interior (In Unit 14 S.5) while others is reflected. This reduces the intensity of heat reaching the observer.
•• Star temperature, spectra and color (In Unit 14 S.5) d) Reception of heat from any source also depend on how one is from the source.
However, for planets the amount received depends on the components that
Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks, burning frame from a Bunsen burner, make up the atmosphere. Thick atmospheres will absorb some of radiations
or any stove, old iron sheet hence low intensity of radiation reaching the planet.

b)Learning Activities Activity 2.3

•• Tell learners to copy down the questions to their Notebooks and attempt them.
Activity 2.2
•• Move around and mark students’ books.
This activity introduces the idea on how heat(radiations) can be radiated in a given •• Take time after marking and let the learners raise their answers( you can pick any
medium. This activity can be done either in class or physics laboratory depending on number of students depending on the time you have)
the availability of materials.
•• Together with learners make a summary of correct points on the board and tell
•• Come with a stove (a portable one) or a Bunsen burner. Under your guidance, let learners to correct themselves where they went wrong.
the learners to light it.
Note: Learners shouldn’t directly touch the stove or Bunsen burner because it may Expected answers of this activity
cause harm to them.
1.a.The Sun’s spectral output is composed of approximately 9% ultraviolet (and
•• From the nature of your class, decide the methodology to use (it may be group shorter) wavelengths, 41% visible light, and about 50% infrared radiation.
work, individual or class activity) b. The solar energy that reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere is more or less
•• Properly assist learners to follow all the instructions stated in the activity 2.3 by constant. It does vary a little as Earth revolves annually around the Sun, and
clarifying where students have problems. Leave the learners to do the activity because of changes in solar activity
while you are supervising what learners are doing. This may take up like 60
c. No. Different wavelengths of light interact differently with water and aerosols
minutes.
in the atmosphere. Some wavelengths are preferentially transmitted, some are
•• Call some students (may be a group or individual depending on the methodology scattered, and other wavelengths are absorbed.
you used) to make a presentation about their findings
2a. Absorption reduces the amount of solar radiation that reaches Earth’s surface.
•• Ask other students whether they agree with what have been discussed by their

38 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 39

 On average, about 15% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by atmospheric •• Together with student’s ideas, link their answers to factors affecting planets
molecules such as water vapor, oxygen and small particulates (aerosols). albedo
b. Scattering of solar radiation within the atmosphere also accounts for a reduction •• Make a summary ( using student’s findings) and tell learners to write down
of energy reaching Earth. important ideas in their books. Conclude the lesson by asking the students how
this concept can lead to change in temperatures of the place
c. Combining the percentages of incoming energy absorbed (18%) and scattered
(26%) by the atmosphere plus clouds, the overall effect is that nearly half (18%
+ 26% = 44%) of the energy entering the atmosphere doesn’t make it through to Answers to the Activity 2.4
Earth’s surface.
3a. Albedo is the fraction of the reflected solar radiation to the incident solar radiation. Words to use: (Aerosols, Deforestation, Lifetime, Climate, Infrared Radiation)
Clouds have a high albedo, meaning they reflect a much greater percentage of There are many factors that affect the Earth’s albedoSnow and ice are highly reflective
the incoming light than does vegetation. so when they melt, albedo drops. Forests have a lower albedo than open land so
b. The insolation (incoming solar energy) received daily depends primarily on:The deforestation increases albedo. Aerosols have a direct and indirect effect on albedo.
angle of the Sun above the horizon (solar elevation angle, solar incidence The direct effect is by reflecting sunlight back into space, cooling the Earth. The
angle),The length of time the surface is exposed to the Sun, and indirect effect is when aerosolparticles act as a cloud condensation nucleus, affecting
Atmospheric conditions. The higher the sun in the sky and the longer a surface is the formation and lifetimeof clouds. Clouds in turn influence global temperatures in
exposed to the sun, the more insolation. The clearer the sky, the more insolation. various ways. They cool the climate by reflecting incoming sunlight but can also warm
As Earth revolves around the Sun over the course of a year, its orbital and tilt the climate by trapping outgoing infrared radiation.
geometry cause seasonal and latitudinal variations in insolation.
c. Generally, equatorial regions experience less fluctuation in daily insolation d)Answers to Checking my progress 2.2.3
throughout the year. Further from the equator, seasonal differences are more
pronounced. Polar regions experience many more hours of sunlight than 1. B) 2. A) 3.B) 4.C)
darkness in their respective summer, and many more hours of darkness than
sunlight in their respective winter. On the equator, however, there is a nearly
constant 12 hour of sunlight throughout the year. Moreover, the distance light
has to pass through the atmosphere near the equator is less than the distance it
Lesson 2.3: Greenhouse effect
passes through near the poles.
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

Activity 2.4: Linking this lesson to the previous one, ask learners to state the effects of green gases
in the atmosphere.
This lesson emphasizes on the factors that affect planet’s ability to absorb or reflect
sun’s radiation Use concepts from: Environmental phenomena and related physics concepts
(S.3 unit 15)
•• Tell learners to open their books (Learners book) to activity 2.4
•• Decide on the methodology to use in this lesson. You can group your learners, b)Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks.
they can do it as a class or individual.
•• Instruct them to read the activity first and then re-write it to their notebooks.
•• Allow them to attempt the questions.
•• Move around and mark their work.
•• Select some students to share their answers to the whole class and allow
questions from students if any. Create a good ground for learners to discuss.

40 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 41

c)Learning Activities Reasons for high emissions of Carbon dioxide
•• This activity introduces learners to greenhouse effect •• Industrialization
•• Tell students to observe clearly Fig 2.4 in the learner’s book. •• Vehicles that use fuels
•• Decide the methodology to use in this lesson. (You can use individual or groups) •• Deforestation etc
•• Tell them to read the questions in the activity 2.5
b) Afforestation, Sensitizing people on conserving Nature, Advocating for
•• Leave the students to copy the questions and attempt them by themselves. (This Good methods of farming, Limiting Carbon Emissions like advocating to
can take like 20 minutes) using gas instead of charcoal.
•• While students are doing this work, you can move around marking and guiding c) Allow Students Idea that clearly answers the question. This Question is
learners where there might be a problem.
open.
•• When students are done and you are also done with marking, invite some
students to discuss their answers and observations to the whole class. d) Answers to checking my progress 2.3.4
•• Together with students summarize what you have discussed and note down
important points on the board and let them put them in their findings. 1. In simplest terms, “greenhouse gases” let sunlight through to the earth’s surface
while trapping “outbound” radiation. This alters the radiative balance of the
•• Link what you have discussed to impact of greenhouse effect, global warming
earth and results in a warming of the earth’s surface. The major greenhouse gases
and climate change mitigation
are water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons
•• To concretize and make learners what have understood, Assign them with activity (CFCs) and hydrogenated chlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs), tropospheric ozone
2.13 in the learner’s book. (O3), and nitrous oxide (N2O). Without the naturally occurring greenhouse gases
(principally water vapor and CO2), the earth’s average temperature would be
Expected answers nearly 35°C (63°F) colder, and the planet would be much less suitable for human
life.
Activity 2.5
2. The greenhouse gases in the atmosphere act in much the same way as the glass
a) A greenhouse is a structure that makes sunlight to warm surfaces inside panels of a greenhouse, which allow sunlight through and trap heat inside.
an enclosed structure
3. Rising atmospheric concentrations of CO2, CH4, and CFCs suggest the possibility
b) i) Green gases of additional warming of the global climate. The panel refers to warming due
ii) When these gases Accumulate in the atmosphere, they form a layer that stops to increased atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases as “greenhouse
radiations from the earth from being dispersed hence absorbed or reflected back warming.” Measurements of atmospheric CO2, show that the 1990 concentration
to the earth leading to the change in the temperature of the earth’s atmosphere of 353 parts per million by volume is about one-quarter larger than the
hence global warming concentration before the Industrial Revolution

c)
Lesson 2.4: Climate change
•• Afforestation
•• Sensitizing people on conserving Nature a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
•• Advocating for Good methods of farming Through guided discovery, ask learners to state to state changes in the atmospheric
•• Limiting Carbon Emissions like advocating to using gas instead of charcoal conditions they normally experience in their daily life (in their communities)

Accept learner’s Ideas You can use concepts from: Environmental phenomena and related physics concepts.
(S.3 unit 15)
Activity 2.6
a) Carbon dioxide Gas

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b)Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks •• Conserving the nature that reduce the rate of carbon concentration in air
•• Reducing use of devices that emit carbon dioxide gases
c)Learning activities •• And other well discussed points. Let learners discuss their findings and harmonize
these points.
Activity 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9
Activity 2.8
This activity introduces climatic change and its causes.
Possible answers of the introductory Activity.
•• Tell learners to open activity 2.7 in the learner’s book.
1. People carrying their property moving from a place
•• Divide learners into groups or chose any method that can suit your class and
2. All Changes in climate ie like Draining wetlands for agriculture, settling in some of
helps the learner to attempt the activity
the places that were previously place for water flow.
•• Tell learners to read the questions and copy them to their notebooks.
3. Leads to famine, Poverty, Less infrastructure development, Death of people and
•• Give students like 20 minutes to work on the activity given animals and many others.
•• While moving around mark students work.
Note! Accept all ideas from students that are related or that answers the Question.
•• After marking invite some members to discuss or present their answers to the
whole class 4. Avoiding Draining Wetlands for farming and Settlement
•• Ask learners (rest of the class) whether their answers correspond to the discussed •• Using Good Methods of Farming like Crop rotation, Use of terraces etc
ones
•• Practicing Afforestation where tress have been cut.
•• Connect/link learner’s ideas with climate change and its causes. You can use
student’s book notes. •• Sensitizing the People about conservation of Nature

•• Again, split the class into groups and tell them to attempt activity 2.8 in the
learner’s book (in about 30 minutes).let the interpret the photo about the activity. Activity 2.9

•• Tell them to write their observations and answer the questions in the activity. 1. Analyse students Suggestions. As long as they answer the question. This question
has no specific/direct answer since we all do not live in the same area.
•• Invite some students to present about their findings. React on their findings by
concretizing what may be missing or not discussed comprehensively. 2. Causes of the changes
•• Consolidate your lesson by making a summary from learners’sugestions and tell All the answers that leads to high concentration of carbon emissions in the atmosphere.
students to note down important points in their notebooks. They include
•• Consolidate your lesson by giving them Activity 2.9 as an assignment and project
work 2.1 in the learners’ book. •• Use of devices that emit carbon dioxide gases
•• Poor methods of farming
Answers to activities and other questions •• Deforestation
•• Industrialization
Activity 2.7
•• And other infrastructure development
•• Change the temperature of the earth’s surface and its atmosphere that results
into change in its climate.
•• High concentrations of intensity of radiations in the atmosphere leads to the
increase in the temperature of the atmosphere.
•• The incidence can be controlled by

44 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 45

3. Among other Suggestions, these are some of possible answers. event.

•• Increase in temperatures Concentration of green gases: This simply refers to accumulation of

•• Floods greenhouse gases in a certain region.

•• Dew or fog 2. Concentration of green gases.

•• Seasonal Changes like receiving prolonged drought 3. Strategies Rwandan Government is doing to fight climate change
•• Storms and others
•• Sensitizing people on conserving Nature
4. All possible suggestions /Advice that will lead all activities of Maria to be
•• Advocating for Good methods of farming
productive.
•• Limiting Carbon Emissions like advocating to using gas instead of charcoal
Activity 2.10 •• And other suggestions that leads to limiting climate change
a) Weather changes, Climate changes. 4. These industries use fuels that emit carbon dioxide gases. This gas concentrate
b) The atmosphere along the equator is less dense and therefore a lot of intensity in the atmosphere. These gases broke radiations from leaving the atmosphere,
of sun’s radiation strike the ground. This makes places around equator hot. leading to high concentration of sun’s radiation in the atmosphere leading to an
increase in temperature of the atmosphere hence global warming.
c) They are in different places since their responses indicate difference in conditions
of their areas.
Activity 2.12
Activity 2.11 Project work 2.1
1. Climate Change: Climate change is a change in the statistical distribution of
Here the data will be different since students will make research on different provinces
weather patterns when that change lasts for an extended period
or areas
High risk zones: High risk zones are zones or a local frequently damaged by either
natural hazards, such as landslides, floods, heavy rain, tornadoes, hurricanes, However, results should reflect the actual conditions of the provinces / areas.
tsunamis, earthquakes, technological hazards including nuclear and radiation
accidents, or sociological hazards like riots, terrorism or war. The population d)Answers to checking my progress 2.2.4
living there often experiences frequently a loss of energy supply, food, services,
and an increasing risk of disease. Declarations of disaster prone areas open the 1.a)Weather means to change in atmospheric conditions for a short period of
affected areas for national or international aid. time

Climate resilience: The capacity to absorb stress or destructive forces through b) Climate refers to change in atmospheric conditions for a long period
resistance or adaptation; to manage or maintain certain basic functions and c) Climate change refers to variation in the climate of a given region/area/place
structures during disastrous events; and to recover or ‘bounce back’ after an
d) Humidity is the amount of Water vapor in the atmosphere
e) Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of an area or a body.

2. Different areas in same region may have different climatic conditions due to

•• Different amount of water vapor in its atmosphere

•• Different vegetation cover

46 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 47

 •• Different activities taking place in those regions like farming, industrialization b)Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks.
and other infrastructures etc.
3. Discussed in activity 2.13 (b) c)Learning Activities
4 .A good essay about climatic change with the following features.
This activity introduces makes learners how people can adapt themselves in given
•• Tittle conditions.
•• Introduction •• Tell the learners to turn to activity 2.13 under climate change mitigation.
•• Body •• Divide them into groups (you can use any technique depending on what you
•• Conclusion want to achieve at the end of the lesson)
•• Instruct them to read the text and the questions under that activity and re-write
All about climatic change
the questions to their note books.
5. a) Kigali ( as seen on the graph) •• Give them like 25 minutes to attempt the question
b) Kigali (approximately) had 21.40C •• While they are doing the work, you can move around marking
Kamembe (approximately) had 20.40C •• When everyone is done, invite like 3 or 4 groups or students (depending on the
c). One need to temperature of a given place depending on the activities that are time you have) to present their answers to whole class.
taking place in that area •• Ask students whether they have any comment on what have been presented by
In order to find whether there an increase or decrease so as to set measures to avoid members. If other members have different points, let them be added to what
temperature changes have been presented.
•• Together with students, make a comprehensive summary and note major points
Compare climate of different places… on the board.
•• Allow learners to note down important points in their summary books.
Lesson 2.5: Climate change mitigation
•• Basing on the summary and student’s ideas, concretize climate change mitigation.
You can explain it in brief and why it is necessary
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
d)Answers to Checking my progress 2.5.3
Basing on the previous lesson, ask learners how one can adapt himself or herself in a
given situation. The trend increases at a slow rate from 1900 to around 1950, then from 1950, the curve
increases rapidly from around 1500 million metric tons of carbon to around 5500 million
You can ask them questions like, what should one do to continue living in a given are metric tons of carbon in 1980.The trend continue to increase to almost 10000 million
where climatic conditions are not good metric tons of carbon in 2010 . Factors that led to the increase in the trend of the graph.
Use concepts from: Environmental phenomena and related physics concepts (S.3 unit Due to suspected causes (may be development of industries, clearing of nature for
15) agriculture, and other developments that are immerging day and night) the trend
would still increase spontaneously.
Development of Industries that emit these gases, Vehicles that burn fuel releasing a lot

48 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 49

of carbon dioxide gases, Natural process like Expiration, Burning of wood and grasses 2.7 Additional Information
Discussed in activity 2.13 (b)
2.7.1 Black body

2.6 Summary of the Unit It’s possible that you realize a black body in real practice. Construct a box made of
a thermally conductive material, such as metal. The box should be completely closed
The source of the energy injected into our atmosphere is from the sun, which is on all sides, so that the inside forms a cavity that does not receive light from the
continually shedding part of its mass by radiating waves of electromagnetic energy surroundings. Then, make a small hole somewhere on the box. The light coming out
and high energy particles into space. This constant emission represents all the energy of this hole will almost perfectly resemble the light from an ideal blackbody, for the
available to the earth. The amount of energy received at the top of the atmosphere is temperature of the air inside the box.
mainly affected by four factors: solar output, the sun–earth distance, the altitude of
the sun, and day length.
2.7.2 Factors that affect the sun’s radiation reaching the Earth.
Solar energy originates from nuclear reactions within the sun’s hot core (16 x106 K), and
is transmitted to the sun’s surface by radiation and hydrogen convection. •• Clouds
•• Surface albedo:
The annually changing distance of the earth from the sun produces seasonal variations
in solar energy received by the earth. •• Oceans
The altitude of the sun also affects the amount of solar radiation received at the surface •• Forested areas: Explanations from learners book
of the earth. The greater the sun’s altitude, the more concentrated is the radiation
intensity 2.7.3 Climate change
The length of daylight also affects the amount of radiation that is received. Obviously,
the longer the time the sun shines the greater is the quantity of radiation that a given a)Climate change
portion of the earth will receive.
For most people, the expression “climate change” means the alteration of the world’s
A black body. This a body that absorbs all radiations that fall on it. climate that we humans are causing, through fossil fuel burning, clearing forests and
Mitigation refers to using new technologies and renewable energies, making older other practices that increase the concentration of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the
equipment more energy efficient, or changing management practices or consumer atmosphere. This is in line with the official definition by the United Nations Framework
behaviour. Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that climate change is the change that can be
attributed “directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the
Climate Change Mitigation: This refers to efforts to reduce or prevent emission of global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over
greenhouse gases. comparable time periods”.
The greenhouse effect : This is a process by which thermal radiation from a planetary
surface is absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases, and is re-radiated in all directions b)Physical evidence for climate change.
Albedo:This is the measure of reflection on a surface
Temperature measurements and proxies
Radiation: This is the process in which energy is transferred by means of electromagnetic
waves. The instrumental temperature record from surface stations was supplemented by
radiosonde balloons, extensive atmospheric monitoring by the mid-20th century, and,
from the 1970s on, with global satellite data as well. The 18O/16O ratio in calcite and

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ice core samples used to deduce ocean temperature in the distant past is an example Past precipitation can be estimated in the modern era with the global network of
of a temperature proxy method, as are other climate metrics noted in subsequent precipitation gauges. Surface coverage over oceans and remote areas is relatively
categories. sparse, but, reducing reliance on interpolation, satellite clouds and precipitation
data has been available since the 1970s. Quantification of climatological variation of
Historical and archaeological evidence precipitation in prior centuries and epochs is less complete but approximated using
proxies such as marine sediments, ice cores, cave stalagmites, and tree rings. In July
Climate change in the recent past may be detected by corresponding changes in 2016 scientists published evidence of increased cloud cover over polar regions, as
settlement and agricultural patterns. Archaeological evidence, oral history and historical predicted by climate models.
documents can offer insights into past changes in the climate. Climate change effects
have been linked to the collapse of various civilizations. Climatological temperatures substantially affect cloud cover and precipitation.
For instance, during the Last Glacial Maximum of 18,000 years ago, thermal-driven
Glaciers are considered among the most sensitive indicators of climate change. evaporation from the oceans onto continental landmasses was low, causing large areas
Their size is determined by a mass balance between snow input and melt output. As of extreme desert, including polar deserts (cold but with low rates of cloud cover and
temperatures warm, glaciers retreat unless snow precipitation increases to make up precipitation). In contrast, the world’s climate was cloudier and wetter than today near
for the additional melt; the converse is also true. the start of the warm Atlantic Period of 8000 years ago.

Vegetation
Dendroclimatology
A change in the type, distribution and coverage of vegetation may occur given a change
Dendroclimatology is the analysis of tree ring growth patterns to determine past
in the climate. Some changes in climate may result in increased precipitation and warmth,
climate variations. Wide and thick rings indicate a fertile, well-watered growing period,
resulting in improved plant growth and the subsequent sequestration of airborne CO2.
whilst thin, narrow rings indicate a time of lower rainfall and less-than-ideal growing
A gradual increase in warmth in a region will lead to earlier flowering and fruiting times,
conditions.
driving a change in the timing of life cycles of dependent organisms. Conversely, cold
will cause plant bio-cycles to lag. Larger, faster or more radical changes, however, may
result in vegetation stress, rapid plant loss and desertification in certain circumstances. Ice cores
An example of this occurred during the Carboniferous Rainforest Collapse (CRC), an
Analysis of ice in a core drilled from an ice sheet such as the Antarctic ice sheet, can
extinction event 300 million years ago. Now, vast rainforests covered the equatorial
be used to show a link between temperature and global sea level variations. The air
region of Europe and America. Climate change devastated these tropical rainforests,
trapped in bubbles in the ice can also reveal the CO2 variations of the atmosphere from
abruptly fragmenting the habitat into isolated ‘islands’ and causing the extinction of
the distant past, well before modern environmental influences. The study of these ice
many plant and animal species.
cores has been a significant indicator of the changes in CO2 over many millennia, and
continues to provide valuable information about the differences between ancient and
Pollen analysis modern atmospheric conditions.
Palynology refers to the study of contemporary and fossil palynomorphs, including
pollen. Palynology is used to infer the geographical distribution of plant species, Animals
which vary under different climate conditions. Different species of plants have pollen
with distinctive shapes and surface textures, and since the outer surface of pollen is Remains of beetles are common in freshwater and land sediments. Different species
composed of a very resilient material, they resist decay. Changes in the type of pollen of beetles tend to be found under different climatic conditions. Given the extensive
found in different layers of sediment in lakes, bogs, or river deltas indicate changes lineage of beetles whose genetic makeup has not altered significantly over the
in plant communities. These changes are often a sign of a changing climate. As an millennia, knowledge of the present climatic range of the different species, and the age
example, palynological studies have been used to track changing vegetation patterns
throughout the Quaternary glaciations and especially since the last glacial maximum.

Cloud cover and precipitation

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of the sediments in which remains are found, past climatic conditions may be inferred. temperatures. That’s whys these curves have different shapes.

v. 2. Weather and climate will affect the intensity of the sun. Some areas are
Sea level change cloudier than others.
Global sea level change for much of the last century has generally been estimated Due to Shape of the earth (the earth’s spherical shape), the sunlight is more spread
using tide gauge measurements collated over long periods of time to give a long-term out near the poles because it is hitting the earth at an angle, as opposed to hitting the
average. More recently, altimeter measurements — in combination with accurately earth straight-on at the equator. There is also less atmosphere at the equator, allowing
determined satellite orbits — have provided an improved measurement of global sea more sunlight to reach the earth. Therefore, the intensity varies depending on the
level change. To measure sea levels prior to instrumental measurements, scientists have geographical latitude of the location.
dated coral reefs that grow near the surface of the ocean, coastal sediments, marine
terraces, ootids in limestones, and nearshore archaeological remains. Due to the earth’s rotation, all areas are not consistently exposed to sunlight. Areas
that are experiencing ‘nighttime’ are not receiving a lot of the sun’s power, therefore
the time of the day or night will affect the solar constant.
2.8 End of Unit Assessment answers.
The angle of the surface to the horizontal at that particular location.
2.8.1 Multiple choice questions
Planet’s albedo. etc
A 2. B 3. C 4. A
amont of radiation reflected 1500 W ⋅ m 2
albedo
= = = 1
5. D 6. A 7. D 8. B 3. amount of radiation incidenton surface 1500 W ⋅ m 2

Comment: The body is totally/highly reflective like a polished surface

2.8.2 Structured questions
b) Clouds. The atmosphere is usually covered with clouds that usually pass over the
1.a) Wien’s displacement law, states that the wavelength of maximum emission
earth’s surface. This leads to reduction or increase in the temperature of the earth’s
from a blackbody is inversely proportional to its temperature.
surface. This is because these clouds may absorb or reflects back sun’s light to the free
From this law it can be deduced that shorter-wavelength (higher-frequency) light space. However, this depends on the distance from which the clouds are from earth’s
corresponds to higher-energy photons, which you would expect from a higher- surface. When sun’s radiation is reflected, the earth’s surface is cooled and when it is
temperature object absorbed the earth is warmed.

b) i) The graph also shows: Oceans. While observing from the space, you will find out that water bodies appear
differently from land surfaces. They appear darker and therefore absorb more sun’s
As temperature increases, the total energy emitted increases, because the total area radiations than land. However, some of the radiations heating the water surface
under the curve increases. (ocean) may be carried away by the currents while others may form water vapor while
It also shows that the relationship is not linear as the area does not increase in even others. All these affect the rate at which the earth either absorb or reflect the sun’s
steps. The rate of increase of area and therefore energy increases as temperature radiation hence affecting its albedo.
increases.
Thick vegetation cover or forested areas. Places covered with vegetation absorb a lot
ii) Between 4000 and 7000 K, is visible spectrum from red (long wavelength) to violet of of sun’s radiation. This is because the vegetation cover provides a dark surface which
short wavelength. At 4000 K the particles are vibrating with a less energy, hence red. As absorb more radiations than the bare land. This therefore affects the planet’s albedo.
temperatures increase, the energy of particles increases shifting to particles of higher
frequency. Hence changing their color to blue, indigo and then Violet. Surface albedo. Different surfaces appear differently. Light colored surfaces absorb
different amounts of radiations than dark colored surfaces. Snow covered areas are
iii)This is because the curves represent radiations emitted by a black body at different

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highly reflective. They thus absorb less amounts of energy (Sun’s radiation). The snow •• Melting of glaciers and polar ice.
cover reduces the heating effect of the earth’s surface. However, if temperatures •• Increasing acidity in the ocean, resulting in bleaching of coral reefs and damage
reduce, the snow cover reduces leading to the absorption of radiation by the exposed to oceanic wildlife.
ground surface.

(From student’s book) 5. These are gases that are found in the atmosphere of the earth that traps the solar
radiations. They trap suns radiations leading to increase in temperature hence
4.a) i) Climate change refers to any significant change in the measures of climate lasting global Warming.
for an extended period of time
6. Trees and other vegetation cover use carbon dioxide during their photosynthesis.
ii) Greenhouse Effect. , Greenhouse effect is the process by which thermal radiation This leads to absorption of a certain percentage of carbon dioxide in the
from the sun is prevented from leaving the atmosphere and then re-radiated in different atmosphere. This reduces the green gases that are problem
directions. 7. Climate change mitigation is the process of preventing all these green gases. This
is very important as it is aimed at controlling the rise in temperatures of the earth
2.8.3 Essay type questions while regulating earth’s temperature.

1. At low temperatures a black body emit radiations of short wavelength (Red) that’s 8. The temperature of the temperature of the earth will rise leading to global
why her observations indicated red at 1000 K whereas at higher temperatures warming.
radiations of high frequency (high energy) are emitted. The mixture of these high
frequency radiations is what brings about the body to appear white 9. When an object is heated, its temperature rises as heat is added. The increase in
heat is called sensible heat. Similarly, when heat is removed from an object and
2. Not! John is not right. A black body is any body that absorbs radiations that falls its temperature falls, the heat removed is also called sensible heat. Heat that
on it. It should be noted that other nonblack objects absorb radiations depending causes a change in temperature in an object is called sensible heat.
on their surface albedos.
Solids can become liquids (ice to water) and liquids can become gases (water to
3. Stefan’s constant = 5.7 x 10 - 8 W m 2 K-4
vapor) but changes such as these require the addition or removal of heat. The
Power radiated =Power received =50 w heat that causes these changes is called latent heat
0.7x5.7x10 x2π x 2.5 x 10 x0.6 x T =50
-8 -5 4
10. i) Climate feedback: This refers to a process that acts to amplify or reduce direct
warming or cooling effects.
Solving gives T=1909.7 K
ii) Climate lag:This is the change in radiation.
4. Greenhouse effect is the process by which thermal radiation from the sun
is prevented from leaving the atmosphere and then re-radiated in different iii) Climate model:This is a quantitative way of representing the interactions of the
directions. atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. Models can range from relatively
simple to quite comprehensive
Effects
11. Any essay in good English with the following
•• Greater strength of extreme weather events like: heatwaves, tropical cyclones,
floods, and other major storms. •• Heading
•• Increasing number and size of forest fires. •• Good introduction
•• Rising sea levels (predicted to be as high as two feet by the end of the next •• Well-developed body (Connected to climate change)
century).
•• Conclusion.

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2.9 Additional activities a) Stefan-Boltzmann’s law
b) Wien’s Law
2.9.1 Remedial activities:
c) Kirchoff’s Law
d) The First Law of Thermodynamics
Multiple choice questions
e) The Law of Relativity
1. The combined albedo of the earth and the atmosphere is about:

•• 4% Answer: C

•• 10% 5. The earth’s radiation is often referred to as ________radiation, while the sun’s
radiation is often referred to as _________radiation.
•• 30%
a) Shortwave, longwave
•• 50%
b) Shortwave, shortwave
•• 90%
c) Longwave, shortwave
Answer: C d) Longwave, longwave

2. According to the Stefan-Boltzmann law, the radiative energy emitted by one square
meter of an object is equal to a constant multiplied by its temperature raised to the Answer C
_______ power. 6. Most of the radiation emitted by a human body is in the form of:
a) Negative third a) A ultraviolet radiation and is invisible
b) Zeroeth b) B visible radiation but is too weak to be visible
c) Fourth c) C infrared radiation and is invisible
d) Tenth d) D humans do not emit electromagnetic radiation

Answer: C Answer C
3. The earth emits radiation with greatest intensity at: 7. Which of the following gases are mainly responsible for the atmospheric
greenhouse effect in the earth’s atmosphere?
a) Infrared wavelengths
b) Radio wavelengths a) Oxygen and nitrogen

c) Visible wavelengths b) Nitrogen and carbon dioxide

d) Ultraviolet wavelengths c) Ozone and oxygen

d) Water vapor and carbon dioxide
Answer: A

4. “A good absorber of a given wavelength of radiation is also a good emitter of that

wavelength.” This is a statement of:

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Answer: D Answer: A
8. The albedo of the earth’s surface is only about 4%, yet the combined albedo of 12. If the sun suddenly began emitting more energy, the earth’s radiative equilibrium
the earth and the atmosphere is about 30%. Which set of conditions below best temperature would:
explains why this is so?
a) Increase
a) High albedo of clouds, low albedo of water
b) Decrease
b) High albedo of clouds, high albedo of water
c) Remain the same
c) Low albedo of clouds, low albedo of water
d) Begin to oscillate
d) Low albedo of clouds, high albedo of water
Answer: A
Answer: A
13. Sunlight that bounces off a surface is said to be ________ from the surface.
9. According to Wein’s displacement law, the wavelength at which maximum
radiation occurs a) Radiated
b) Absorbed
a) Is inversely proportional to the temperature
c) Emitted
b) Is proportional to the temperature
d) Reflected
c) Is inversely proportional to the pressure
d) Is proportional to the pressure
Answer: D

Answer: A 14. The atmosphere near the earth’s surface is “heated from below.” Which of the
following does not significantly contribute to this heating?
10. On the average, about what percentage of the solar energy that strikes the outer a) conduction of heat upward from a hot surface
atmosphere eventually reaches the earth’s surface?
b) convection from a hot surface
a) 5% c) absorption of infrared energy that has been radiated from the surface
b) 15% d) heat energy from the earth’s interior
c) 30%
d) 50% Answer: D
e) 70% 15. The earth’s radiative equilibrium temperature is:

a) The temperature at which the earth is absorbing solar radiation and emitting
Answer: D
b) Infrared radiation at equal rates the temperature at which the earth is radiating
11. If the amount of energy lost by the earth to space each year were not energy at maximum intensity
approximately equal to that received:
c) The average temperature the earth must maintain to prevent the oceans from
f) The atmosphere’s average temperature would change freezing solid
a) The length of the year would change d) The temperature at which rates of evaporation and condensation on the
earth are in balance
b) The sun’s output would change
c) The mass of the atmosphere would change

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Answer: A c.What latitudinal regions experience least variation in day-to-day solar radiation?
Which experience the greatest? Why?
16. Sunlight passes through a thicker portion of the atmosphere at
4a. What happens to most radiation that is absorbed by the surface of Earth?
a) Sunrise
b. What is the difference between sensible and latent heat?
b) Noon
c. Why don’t global temperatures rise because of incoming solar radiation?
c) Sunset
5a. What is the greenhouse effect?
d) Night
b. What chemical compounds contribute to greenhouse warming?
e) Both a and c
c. Mars and Venus both have high relative concentrations (~95%) of the greenhouse
gas CO2 in their atmospheres. Why is Venus so hot while Mars is colder than
Answer: E Earth?
17. Juliet puts on a pure red blouse. Scientifically it appears red because, it d. What is global warming?
a) Selectively absorbs red wavelengths of visible light and scatters the rest
b) Selectively scatters red wavelengths of visible light and absorbs the rest ANSWERS
c) Absorbs all radiations of all wavelength 1a. The Sun’s spectral output is composed of approximately 9% ultraviolet (and
d) None of the above. shorter) wavelengths, 41% visible light, and about 50% infrared radiation.
b. The solar energy that reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere is constant. It does
Answer: B vary a little as Earth revolves annually around the Sun and because of changes
in solar activity. See Section 1.1.
c. No. Different wavelengths of light interact differently with water and aerosols
ESSAY QUESTIONS
in the atmosphere. Some wavelengths are preferentially transmitted, some are
1.a.What is the approximate spectral composition of the Sun’s radiation before it scattered, and other wavelengths are absorbed.
interacts with Earth’s atmosphere?
2a. Absorption reduces the amount of solar radiation that reaches Earth’s surface.
b.Is the amount of solar energy that reaches the top of Earth’s atmosphere On average, about 15% of incoming solar radiation is absorbed by atmospheric
constant? Explain. molecules such as water vapor, oxygen and small particulates (aerosols).
c. Are all wavelengths of solar radiation transmitted equally through Earth’s b. Scattering of solar radiation within the atmosphere also accounts for a reduction
atmosphere? Explain. of energy reaching Earth.
2a.What effect does absorption have on the amount of solar radiation that reaches c. Combining the percentages of incoming energy absorbed (18%) and scattered
Earth’s surface? (26%) by the atmosphere plus clouds, the overall effect is that nearly half (18% +
26% = 44%) of the energy entering the atmosphere doesn’t make it through to
b.What additional processes (besides absorption) affect radiation reaching the Earth’s surface.
surface of Earth?
c.What percentage of incoming solar radiation is affected by absorption and
scattering (or reflection)?

3a.What do we mean when we say that clouds have a high albedo while land
vegetation has a low albedo?
b.What factors affect the insolation at a location on a particular day? How do they
affect it?

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 3a. Albedo is the fraction of the reflected solar radiation to the incident solar c. Venus has greater relative and absolute amounts of carbon dioxide than Earth
radiation. Clouds have a high albedo, meaning they reflect a much greater and Mars. Despite a 95% relative concentration of carbon dioxide, Mars has a
percentage of the incoming light than does vegetation. much thinner atmosphere overall so the absolute amount of carbon dioxide is
too small to trap the solar insolation reemitted from the surface.
b. The insolation (incoming solar energy) received daily depends primarily on
d. Global warming is a consistent trend of increasing global temperatures caused
i) The angle of the Sun above the horizon (solar elevation angle, solar by additional amounts of greenhouse gases accumulating in the atmosphere.
incidence angle),
2.9.2 Consolidation,
ii) The length of time the surface is exposed to the Sun, and
iii) Atmospheric conditions. The higher the sun in the sky and the longer 1. Focusing on reducing carbon production to reduce carbon dioxide emissions is
a surface is exposed to the sun, the more insolation. The clearer the sky, argued to be the wrong variable to focus on because:
the more insolation. As Earth revolves around the Sun over the course of a
a. It is impossible to achieve
year, its orbital and tilt geometry cause seasonal and latitudinal variations in
insolation. b. The focus should be on carbon consumption
c. It has nothing to do with carbon dioxide emissions
c. Generally, equatorial regions experience less fluctuation in daily insolation
throughout the year. Further from the equator, seasonal differences are more d. The focus should be on carbon elimination
pronounced. Polar regions experience many more hours of sunlight than
darkness in their respective summer, and many more hours of darkness than 2. What do we mean when we say “think globally, act locally” in relation to
sunlight in their respective winter. On the equator, however, there is a nearly environmental problems?
constant 12 hours of sunlight throughout the year. Moreover, the distance light
a. Global environmental problems are essentially issues which need to be solved
must pass through the atmosphere near the equator is less than the distance it
by international negotiations, and in the interim individuals must take care to
passes through near the poles.
protect themselves from any adverse consequences produced for them by
4a. Most of the radiation absorbed by Earth’s surface is reradiated (emitted) as long these problems
wavelength (long wave) radiant energy. b. Environmental problems have to be thought about at a global level in order
b. Sensible heat is radiant energy that directly flows between objects or areas to get an accurate idea of the total problem facing us, but these problems are
due to a temperature difference between them. Latent heat is released or essentially produced by our activities as individuals and firms at a local level,
absorbed when water changes state during the processes of evaporation, and it is at this level that we must focus our responses
evapotranspiration, melting, freezing, condensation, and sublimation. c. Extensive research and thinking has been carried out by global level research
c. A balance exists between incoming solar energy and Earth system reradiation of organizations about the causes of environmental problems, which have
longwave radiation back into space. produced possible strategies and actions which can be applied at a local level
d. While these problems, as we experience them in relation to sustainability
5a. The greenhouse effect is the warming of Earth’s atmosphere caused by the issues, are produced by processes operating at a global level, we all have a
absorption of long wave energy emitted by the surface of Earth. Atmospheric role to play in our local context in making individual and collective responses,
gases and clouds act like a greenhouse roof to keep heat in the system. as communities and companies, which will help ameliorate the effects of these
b. Substances that have a significant effect on global warming are water vapor, problems
carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocarbons, and liquid water
droplets.

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ANSWERS 2.9.3 Extended activities:
1.a. What general mechanism is responsible for redistributing heat energy in Earth
1. Correct answer: systems?

b) The focus should be on carbon consumption b. What drives atmospheric circulation?

c. Explain simply how atmospheric circulation develops.
Feedback: 2a. Are the oceans or the atmosphere more efficient at storing energy? Explain.
b. Explain what effect ocean heat capacity has on global temperatures.
In a situation where many countries (such as UK) after many years have made little
progress towards achieving their Kyoto emissions reduction targets, critics are c. Give an example of how atmosphere and ocean systems affect each other.
starting to point out that the situation would be much worse if these countries had 3a. Explain how humans can affect land surface albedos.
not managed to get reduce their carbon production by exporting it to countries like
b. Explain how the loss of land vegetation might modify local climates.
China, by de facto exporting jobs. But the effect is illusionary, because we still import
back from countries such as China the goods which we might have produced ourselves. c. What impact have humans had on concentrations of greenhouse gases? Give a
Of course, the reason for exporting the jobs in the first place is to take advantage of specific example
low cost production locations. But if we keep consuming as we did before, at a global
level nothing is achieved. We need to focus on carbon consumption. Hence ‘The focus ANSWERS
should be on carbon consumption’ is the correct answer; ‘It is impossible to achieve’ is
1a. The circulation of the atmosphere and oceans redistributes heat from areas of
not true, as carbon production can be reduced at an aggregate level; ‘It has nothing to
surplus to areas of deficit.
do with carbon dioxide emissions’ is simply wrong, as it is very much to do with carbon
dioxide emissions; while ‘The focus should be on carbon elimination’ is merely a red b. The heat differential between tropical and polar areas (generated by latitudinal
herring; it does not mean anything. differences in insolation) drives atmospheric circulation.
c. Equatorial areas are heated more than polar areas; the warming equatorial air
rises as it gets less dense. The rising tropical air gets replaced by cooler, denser
2. Correct answer:
air moving down from the poles by a process known as convection. Due to the
d) While these problems, as we experience them in relation to sustainability issues, are rotation of Earth and the resulting Coriolis force, several circulating cells in each
produced by processes operating at a global level, we all have a role to play in our local hemisphere are generated.
context in making individual and collective responses, as communities and companies,
2a. Oceans are more efficient at storing energy, due to the tremendous volume of
which will help ameliorate the effects of these problems water in the oceans and water’s capacity to hold heat.
b. The oceans impart a moderating effect on global temperatures.
Feedback:
There is a little bit of truth in each of the three incorrect alternatives. International
negotiations have a crucial role to play, but local responses are also crucial and are not
simply related to self-protection measures. Equally, a global perspective of research and
thought on environmental issues is crucial, but the results and implications generated
from this apply at a range of spatial levels, not just the local. The essential aspect of the
phrase or adage in the question is that we need a global perspective on environmental
issues so that we can focus correctly on what we can do at a local level to respond.

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 c. The El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) that occurs periodically in the southern
Pacific Ocean is an example of how ocean circulation and atmospheric circulation
interact. Changing moisture budgets, altered winds and decreased coastal

3
upwelling become part of a chain of energy redistribution that affects global
climate patterns. UNIT 3: APPLICATION OF PHYSICS IN AGRICULTURE.
3a. Albedo can be changed by modifying land surfaces. In general, presence of
vegetation cover reduces albedo, while bare soil and concrete increase albedo.
Moisture tends to lower albedos, lack of moisture raises albedos.
b. When vegetation is removed from a surface the localized radiation budget changes.
Though the surface albedo usually increases and hence relatively more insolation 3.1 Key Unit Competence
is reflected and less absorbed, the localized area may become hotter overall due
to less shading and less evaporative cooling as a result of reduced transpiration. By the end of the unit the learner should be able to evaluate applications of Physics in
The reverse may be true at times when vegetation is not transpiring; for example, Agriculture.
during winter forested areas absorb more insolation and act as wind breaks, and
thus may be warmer than cleared areas..
3.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills
c. Anthropogenic forces have increased atmospheric concentrations of methane
( rice cultivation, raising sheep and cattle, gas mining, trash landfills), carbon Learner will use the knowledge acquired in senior four and five to interpret and analyze
dioxide (consumption of fossil fuels, biomass burning), and chlorofluorocarbons clearly concepts related to application of physics in agriculture.
(refrigerants, solvents, aerosol propellants
NB: Care must be taken not to discuss completely this Unit Using Only Geography
Knowledge. Explain all the concepts relating them to Physics.

3.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed

Environment and sustainability: discussing the need of sustainable future in Rwanda,
ensuring that the application of physics in agriculture is achievable while using available
resources responsibly.

•• Peace and value: assigning work peacefully

•• Inclusive education: all learners are included.
•• Gender: recognize male and female in performing tasks.

3.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

•• This activity introduces students to know when and why people apply physics in
agriculture and environment in the limitation of hazards to agricultural objects
(soils, plants, agricultural products and foods) and environment based on suitable
programs of transformation and modernization of agriculture in our country.
•• Brainstorm with your students if there any application of prior knowledge of
physics learnt before applied on the image?
•• Your discussion should include role of machines in agriculture in rapid development

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 of the country towards suitable programs of transformation and modernization
of agriculture, and stages of growing plants that benefit use of technology. 4 Mechanical weathering Explain clearly and evaluate the 4
cause and effects of mechanical
•• Continue the discussion with a brief brainstorming in other physics aspects weathering in environment.
involved in agricultural processes and the environment to create critical thinking
in students about agrophysics. 5 End unit assessment 2
•• Comment on students ideas written on the chalkboard, explaining the tips of the
unit based on students’ ideas.
Lesson 3.1: Atmosphere and its constituents
•• They should get an overall appreciation of application of physics in agriculture.
Students will use this understanding later as they begin to appreciate the scope a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
and importance of applying physics in agriculture.
Through guided discovery, assist learners to discover the effect of

b) Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks, .

3.5 List of lessons
c) Learning Activities:
S/ Lesson Tittle Learning Suggested This lesson focuses on making students understand apply the concept of
No Objectives(Adapted Number of
from syllabus) Periods Guidance in activity 3.1
By the end of the •• This activity introduces students to know the atmosphere and its composition.
Lesson(s) Learners •• Divide your class into groups, and let students follow the working procedures to
should be able to: obtain the results.
•• Let the learner(s) perform the activity using their prior knowledge about
1 Atmosphere and its Explaining how the atmosphere 4
atmosphere and its composition and write the ideas in the note book.
constituents. protects life on the earth due to
long-term changes in the climate. •• Have sample group present their work to the class.

Explaining clearly the role •• Check student’s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue
of atmospheric knowledge the discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work
in evaluating and improving
and book.
agricultural activities. •• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
summary of expected feedback based on their findings.
Classifying the layers of the
atmosphere.
Expected feedback
2 Heat and Mass Explain clearly concepts on 4
a) Atmosphere of Earth is the layer of gases commonly known as air that surrounds
transfer. water vapour in the atmosphere,
the earth and is retained by Earth’s gravity.The atmosphere is composed of a mix
Variation of atmospheric of several gases in differing amounts. The permanent gases whose percentages
pressure, air density and water do not change from day to day are nitrogen, oxygen and argon.   Gases like
vapour with altitude. carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, methane, and ozone are trace gases that account
for about a tenth of one percent of the atmosphere.
3 Physical properties of Explain clearly the concepts on 3
soil (soil texture and Physical properties of soil. b) I have to care the atmosphere because the composition of the atmosphere
structure). among other things, determines its ability to transmit sunlight and trap infrared
light, leading to potentially long-term changes in climate.

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 c) The atmospheric knowledge can be helpful in evaluating and improving the investigation that over 90% of the Earth’s atmosphere is within about 12 km of the
quality of soils and agricultural products as well as the technological processes in Earth’s surface and the distance from the center of the Earth to its surface equals
different agricultural activities. about 6440000km. The scale of the chalkboard drawing is about 11,610 km. So,
on this scale, 11.265 km is a little less than 1/8th of 2.54 cm (about as thick as the
Guidance in activity 3.2 chalk line), and 90% of the Earth’s atmosphere lies within the thickness of the
chalk line used to draw the surface of the Earth.
•• This activity support students to learn about the height of Earth’s atmosphere as
Case 2
compared to the size of the planet overall and the relative thickness of each of
the four main layers of the atmosphere. a) Let learners build a model of the structure of the atmospheric layers to understand
the thickness of each of the four layers of the atmosphere (troposphere,
••Time Required: stratosphere, mesosphere, and thermosphere).
•• About 15 minutes to set up model b) Let learners use a 1000 mL (1 liter) graduated cylinder and represent the layers
•• About 30 minutes for activity by using the following amounts of fish gravel or colored sand found in the photo
and table given in learner’s book. Students can choose what color they want for
each atmospheric layer. Keep in mind that these are relative proportions and
Student Learning Objectives not exact points of departure for the different layers. In this scale model, each
•• Students will be able to explain how relatively thin the atmosphere is, compared milliliter of volume represents one kilometer of atmosphere layer thickness (for
to the size of Earth. example, the troposphere is 10 km thick and is represented by 10 ml of sand or
gravel in the graduated cylinder).
•• Students will understand the relative extent (thickness) of the four major
atmospheric layers.
Expected answers of activity 3.2
Activity Format 1. Depends on what colors students choose
Hands-on activity and demonstration 2. We live in the troposphere.
Materials for class demonstration are given in learner’s book. 3. 30 km which is 45 km - 10 km
4. 830 km = 915 km - [10 km + 40 km + 35 km]
Directional procedures 5. Troposphere
Case 1 6. Troposphere
a) Let the learner(s) use a model to explore how far the Earth’s atmosphere extends 7. Thermosphere
above the surface of the Earth and learn about the thickness of the different 8. Thermosphere
layers of the atmosphere. Ask students “How far do you think the atmosphere
extends above us?” Learner(s) try to respond to the question. 9. Stratosphere

b) Let one group member demonstrate and tie a dry eraser marker or a piece of
chalk to one end of the string as shown on figure 3.2 in learner’s book. Standing
next to the board, place his/her foot on the free end of the string and draw an arc
on the board with a radius of about 1.2 m. His/her foot represents the center of
the Earth. The arc represents the surface of the Earth.
c) Ask students to suggest how far the Earth’s atmosphere would extend above the
surface in his/her drawing. Evaluate suggestions given by learner(s) on the board
above the chalk/marker line.
d) Brainstorm with the students trying to harmonize their feedback relating scientific

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Guidance in activity 3.3 Lesson 3.2: Heat and mass transfer
•• Intoduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity reviewing the
layers of the atmosphere to interpret the graph in their corresponding groups. a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
•• Learners brainstorm on their results and write the work in their notebook.
This lesson requires knowledge and skills from:
•• Check students’s work and let one group present the work.
In brief, ask learners how heat from a certain source is transmitted in vacuum or air? You
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks and the presentation,
and give them the expected feedback summarizing their work. can use concepts from;

Expected feedback: b)Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks, burning frame from a Bunsen
burner, or any stove, old iron sheet
a)
i) Movement of the artificial bodies. c)Learning Activities:
ii) Positioning of space crafts
Guidance in activity 3.4
It is very important because it contains the gas that protects everything living on the
•• This activity introduces students to know the modes of heat transfer in the
earth surface from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. This means without the layer atmosphere.
of ozone in the atmosphere, it would be very difficult for anything to survive on the
surface. •• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about modes of transfer
in atmosphere and write the ideas in the note book.
b) It is because of the presence of the ozone layer. •• Have sample group present their work to the class.
d) •• Check student’s responses to review the students’ ideas to continue the
discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and
i. A rocket moves in the corresponding layer because it navigates alone. book.
ii. Aeroplanes decide to move in the corresponding layer because of the passengers •• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
that wants to be protected from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. expected feedback.

Answer for 3.3.3 checking my progress Expected feedback:

1. It is because the atmosphere is too small compared to the size of the earth. a) Earth’s atmosphere involves radiation, conduction, and convection, all occurring
simultaneously. A basic theory of meteorology is that the Sun warms the ground
2. I would expect the atmosphere which is half way of my planet. and the ground warms the air. This activity focuses on radiation, the process by
which the Sun warms the ground. Energy from the Sun is the driving force behind
3. Solar energy increases the temperature of the atmosphere
weather and climate.
4. They interact through evaporation and precipitation processes. b) Modes of heat transfer affect agricultural activities simultaneously each with its
role based on the explanation above.
5. Troposphere and stratosphere because of the presence of ozone.

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 Guidance in activity 3.5 Guidance in activity 3.7
•• This activity introduces students to know water vapor. •• This activity introduces students to know air density and its effect in the earth’s
atmosphere.
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about water vapor in
the atmosphere and its composition and write the ideas in the note book. •• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge and write the ideas in
the note book.
•• Have sample group present their work to the class.
•• Check student’s responses and continue the discussion with a brief brainstorming
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue
of the concepts using student’s work and book.
the discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work
and book. •• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
expected feedback.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
expected feedback.
Expected feedback:
Expected feedback: The density of air (air density) is the mass per unit volume of Earth’s atmosphere and
a) It condenses into clouds that reflect and adsorb solar radiation, thus directly ithave an important effect upon engine performance and the take off characteristics of
affecting the energy balance which is very important in growing stages of the air-craft.
plant. It transports latent heat in the atmosphere
b) Yes, it plays a role in water cycle (hydrological cycle) describes the continuous Guidance in quick check1
movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. •• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about radiation and try
to respond by writing the answer in the notebook.
Guidance in activity 3.6 •• Check students’s answer and comment on students’ responses written in the
notebooks, and give them the expected feedback.
•• This activity introduces students to know the atmospheric pressure and its
variation.
Expected feedback:
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about atmospheric
pressure and its impact in agriculture and write the ideas in the note book. Each one is a source of radiation to some degree.
•• Have sample group present their work to the class. Answer for 3.2.4 checking my progress
•• Check student’s responses to review students’ ideas to continue the discussion 1. It is because the density of air decreases with increase in height so the pressure
with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and book. also decreases with increase in height.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
expected feedback. 2. a. As the altitude reduces ,the pressure increases.

b. It is around 200 Pa
Expected feedback:
Atmospheric pressure refers to the force per unit area exerted against a surface by the
weight of air above that surface.The effects of weather on crop production depends on
atmospheric pressure variation.

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 Lesson 3.3: Physical properties of soil Directions
1. Introduce the activity by brainstorming on the types of soil found of the Earth’s
a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction: surface.

This lesson uses knowledge from black body radiation from S.5 unit 1 •• Let students think about what they already know about how the color and
type of material affects how hot it gets in the sunshine. For example, ask
Building on the previous lesson, ask learners to relate students, “When it is a hot day, what color shirt would you wear to keep cool and
why? and “During the summer, what would it feel like to walk on gravel with no
shoes?”  
b)Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks
•• Learners explore how different types of surfaces found at the Earth’s surface
(such as sand, soil, and water) heat up when the Sun’s energy reaches them, and
c)Learning Activities: how they cool down when out of the sunshine.
•• Students notice that this experiment uses materials to model sunshine and Earth
Guidance in activity 3.8 materials. Show students the materials and explain how each relates to the
•• Students investigate how different surfaces of the Earth reflect and absorb heat Earth system. (The lamp represents the Sun in this model. The sand represents
and apply this knowledge to real-world situations. beaches, sand dunes, and rocks. The potting soil represents large areas of soil
outdoors. And the water represents lakes, rivers, and the ocean.)
••Time Required
2. If small groups are doing this activity on their own, distribute supplies to students.
•• Teacher introduction: 10 minutes
3. Do not turn on the lamp yet.
•• Student activity: 40 minutes
•• Discussion/assessment: 20 minutes 4. Let learners follow instructions and place a thermometer into each pie pan.

••Student Learning Objectives 5. Provide students with data tables and explain how the tables relate to the
experimental design.
•• Students will understand that the physical characteristics of the
Earth’s surface affect the way that surface absorbs and releases heat from 6. Students record the temperature right before they turn on the lamp and record
the Sun. the result.
•• Lesson Format 7. Students record the temperature following all instructions.
Hands-on activity or demonstration, data analysis, and class discussion
8. Students graph the temperature data using graph paper and colored pencils and
•• Materials for a class demonstration or for each team of students are available in prepare for the presentation.
learner’s book.
9. Schedule the presentation for sample and let them compare their graphs as they
•• Preparation discuss findings and try to use the skills gained to answer questions given.
•• Print the Heating and Cooling Data Tables for recording.
10. Help learners to comprehend their responses and give them the summarized
•• This activity can be done as a class demonstration or in groups of 3-4 students. If feedback.
you are doing it as a demonstration, you’ll need one set of materials and graph
paper and data tables for each student. If the activity will be done by small groups,
each group will need supplies.
•• Check the light bulbs to ensure they generate heat. Use incandescent light bulbs
instead of LED bulbs.

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Summary of the feedback Guidance in activity 3.10
1. Dark soil (dark-colored surfaces absorb most of the radiation instead of reflect) •• This activity introduces students to know the atmosphere and its composition.

2. Dark soil (the surface that absorbs the most heat, also emits the most heat) •• Decide on the method to use and have students use the materials you have
provided following the working procedures to obtain the results.
3. a) The land heats up more than the ocean throughout the day. The darker- •• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about atmosphere and
colored surface, the land, absorbs more of the Sun’s radiation compared to the its composition and write the ideas in the note book.
highly reflective surface of the ocean.
•• Have sample group present their work to the class.
. b) The ocean will cool more slowly at night because surfaces that reflect most •• Check student’s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue
the radation will also emit less radiation (analogous to Question 2) the discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work
4. City A will likely have the highest average air temperature because it has the and book.
darkest land Surface. Darker land surfaces absorb higher amount of radiation •• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
and this absorption leads to an increase in the temperature. expected feedback.
5. City C (large man-made desert lake).    A good reflector (desert lake) is a poor
absorber (and a poor emitter) of radiation. Expected feedback:

6. Refer back to the Earth’s Energy Budget. The sunlight that makes it to the a) Soil Structure refers to the aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay)
ground warms the Earth’s surface through absorption. The rest is reflected away into compound particles or cluster of primary particles which are b.separated by
by bright white clouds or ice or gets absorbed by the atmosphere. the adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness. The nature of the pore spaces
of a soil control to a large extent the behaviour of the soil water and the soil
atmosphere, and influence soil temperature
Guidance in activity 3. 9
i. Elements in soil particles are sand, silt and clay
•• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge
about soil texture and write their ideas in the note book. ii. Soil structure refers to the arrangement of soil particles (sand, silt and clay) and
pores in the soil and to the ability of the particles to form aggregates whereas
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ ideas and continue the pores are spaces in the soil
discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts in student’s work.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the iii. The pores between the aggregates are usually large (macropores), and their
expected feedback. large size allows good aeration, rapid infiltration of water, easy plant root
penetration, and good water drainage, as well as providing good conditions
for soil micro-organisms to thrive. The smaller pores within the aggregates or
Expected feedback: between soil particles (micropores) hold water against gravity (capillary action)
a) Elements in soil proportions are sand, silt and clay but not necessarily so tightly that plant cannot extract the water.

b) Soil Texture refers to the relative proportions of particles of various sizes

such as sand, silt and clay in the soil.

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 Guidance in quick check2 Expected feedback:
Rainfall and temperature can affect the rate in which rocks weather. Temperature affects the rate and type of weathering. At high elevations, cold nighttime
temperatures during much of the year can produce relentless freeze-thaw cycles.
The process is weathering. This process explains the presence of broken boulders and stony fragments that
litter mountaintops. And, the minerals in volcanic rock that formed at the highest
Answer for 3.2.5 checking my progress temperatures and pressures are the most vulnerable to chemical weathering at Earth’s
surface.
1. Soil texture and soil structure. They greatly affect crop production, land use and
management.
Activity 3.13: Importance of abrasion in real life situations
2. (i) Well structured soil refers to one with stable aggregates and many pores. Poor
With the help of knowledge gained in the concepts above, explain how abrasion is
structured soil refers to one with unstable aggregates and few pore space.
formed and suggest its importance in real life situations?
(ii) a) Sample 1 is 6% and sample 2 is 2%.
Guidance in activity 3.12
b).Sample A ( in sample 1)
•• This activity introduces students to know the atmosphere and its composition.
c).Sample A ( in soil sample 2) •• Decide on the method to use and have students use the materials you have
provided following the working procedures to obtain the results.
Lesson 3.4: Mechanical weathering •• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about atmosphere and
its composition and write the ideas in the note book.
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
•• Have sample group present their work to the class.
Through guided discovery, ask learners to state to state changes in the atmospheric
conditions they normally experience in their daily life (in their communities) •• Check student’s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue
the discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work
You can use concepts from: Environmental phenomena and related physics concepts. and book.
(S.3 unit 15) •• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
expected feedback.
b) Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks
c) Learning activities:
Expected feedback:
Guidance in activity 3.11 By gravity that makes the rock to tumbles down a mountainside or cliff and moving
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge on effects of temperature water that makes the water collide and bump against one another.
on mechanical weathering and write the ideas in the note book.
They are used in construction of structures.
•• Have sample group present their work to the class.
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ ideas to continue the Guidance in activity 3.13
discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and
•• This activity introduces students to know the causes of mechanical weathering.
book.
•• Decide on the method to use and have students use the materials you have
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
provided following the working procedures to obtain the results.
expected feedback.
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm about the observation and write the ideas in the
note book.
•• Have sample group present their work to the class.

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 •• Check student’s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue •• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about atmosphere and
the discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work its composition
and book.
•• and write the ideas in the note book.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
•• Have sample group present their work to the class.
expected feedback. Expected feedback:
•• Check student‘s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue
•• Rocks breaks into smaller pieces due to applied force.
the discussion with
•• Chemical effects
•• a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student‘s work and book.
•• Ice wedging, pressure release, plant root growth, and abrasion can all cause
•• Comment on students‘ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
mechanical weathering. Mechanical weathering results from changes in
expected
temperature and pressure surrounding rocks. The expansion or contraction of
air and pressure creates fractures in rock surfaces, ultimately making rocks break •• feedback. Expected feedback:
into smaller pieces. i. Soil erosion refers to washing away of the soil.
Guidance in activity 3.14 ii. Wind and water erosion.
•• This activity introduces students to know the factors affecting the rate of iii. Formed soil supports in variety of agricultural activities
weathering.
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm on the observation and write the ideas in the note
Answer for 3.2.6 checking my progress
book.
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ ideas to continue the 1. a) Mechanical weathering and soil erosion
discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and
b) i. depends on student‘s response.
book.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the ii. Mechanical weathering refers to breaking of rocks into small pieces due to
expected feedback. a variety of factors.

Guidance in activity 3.15 Soil erosion refers to the process of taking away soil from the banks of the
river by water flowing.
•• This activity introduces students to know the effects of thermal expansion and
contraction affect minerals. c). Mechanical weathering is caused by high temperature exposed on the rocks
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm on the observation and write the ideas in the note and other various factors.
book.
Soil erosion is caused by water flowing.
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ ideas to continue the
discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and d) Yes it is possible
book.
Soil formation mostly needed in agriculture (positive impact)
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
expected feedback. Soil destruction due to poor soil eroded which induces negative impact on
agriculture..
Guidance in activity 3.16
•• This activity introduces students to know the atmosphere and its composition.
•• Think of a method to use in this lesson and have students use the materials you
have provided
•• following the working procedures to obtain the results.

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3.6 Unit Summary •• More important than acute effects of extreme temperature stress are the chronic
effects of continuously warmer temperatures on crop growth and development.
•• The physical and chemical structure of the atmosphere, the way that the gases Chronic effects of high temperature include effects on grain growth discussed
interact with solar above. Record crop yields clearly reflect the importance of season-long effects on
•• energy, and the physical and chemical interactions between the atmosphere, crop yields: crops generally yield the most where temperatures are cool during
land, and oceans all growth of the harvested component.
•• combine to make the atmosphere an integral part of the global biosphere. •• Crop growth simulations show that rice yields decrease 9% for each 1°C increase
in seasonal average temperature. This chronic effect of high temperature differs
•• The earth’s atmosphere is a very thin layer wrapped around a very large planet. significantly from the acute effect of short-term temperature events, because
•• Two gases make up the bulk of the earth’s atmosphere: nitrogen (N2), which seasonal temperature effects are mostly a result of effects on crop development.
comprises 78% of •• Agro physics is a science that studies physical processes and properties affecting
•• the atmosphere, and oxygen (O2), which accounts for 21%. Various trace gases plant production. The fundaments of agro physical investigations are mass (water,
make up the air, nutrients) and energy (light, heat) transport in the soil–plant–atmosphere
and soil–plant–machine–agricultural products–foods continuums.
•• remainder.
•• Based on temperature, the atmosphere is divided into four layers: the
3.7 Additional Information:
troposphere, stratosphere,
•• mesosphere, and thermosphere. Mechanical weathering refers to physical processes that break down the structure
of rocks. It differs from chemical weathering, by which rocks are broken down by
•• Energy is transferred between the earth’s surface and the atmosphere via
reactions among chemicals inside and outside the rock. You can observe mechanical
conduction, convection, and radiation.
weathering’s effects nearly anywhere: In addition to producing some of the most
•• Human activities contribute slightly to water vapor concentrations through impressive rock formations on Earth, mechanical weathering is responsible for the
farming, manufacturing, power generation, and transportation. However, these cracked and smoothed rocks you see in your daily life.
emissions are so dwarfed in comparison to emissions from natural sources we
can do nothing about, that even the most costly efforts to limit human emissions Frost and Salt Wedging
would have a very small, perhaps undetectable, effect on global climate.
One of the most common forms of mechanical weathering is frost wedging. This occurs
•• Mechanical weathering breaks down existing rocks and minerals without
changing them chemically. when water gets into the small holes and gaps in rocks. If the water in the gap freezes,
it expands, splitting the existing gaps into wider cracks. When the water thaws, the
•• Ice wedging, abrasion, and some actions of living organisms and humans are wider gaps allow even more water to enter the rock and freeze. Frost wedging can
some of the agents of mechanical weathering.
repeat over months or years, turning microscopic gaps in the rock into large cracks.
•• Mechanical weathering refers to physical processes that break down the
structure of rocks. It differs from chemical weathering, by which rocks are broken Salt wedging is also caused by water intruding into rocks. When water containing salt
down by reactions among chemicals inside and outside the rock. You can observe evaporates from within a gap in a rock, the salt is left behind. Over time, salt builds up,
mechanical weathering’s effects nearly anywhere: In addition to producing some creating pressure that will split the gaps in the rock.
of the most impressive rock formations on Earth, mechanical weathering is
responsible for the cracked and smoothed rocks you see in your daily life. Unloading and Exfoliation
•• Significance of Mechanical Weathering Rocks that are weathered mechanically Many rocks form deep beneath the surface of the Earth under conditions of intense
eventually form very smaller particles called sediments, which are the basic pressure; hundreds of tons of rock or ice often press down on them. If the rocks above
structural ingredient of all types of soil. Sometimes, sediments are washed away these rocks erode, or the ice above them melts, the release of this weight causes the
from where they originally formed due to various natural forces - a process called
rock to expand upward and crack at its top. The release of weight is known as unloading.
erosion. The removed sediments are then transported to other areas, where they
When a rock expands and cracks this way, the top of the rock may split into sheets that
can become compacted into new rocks (sedimentary rocks). Thus, mechanical
rock weathering is an important part of the formation of both soils and new slide off the exposed rock. This process is called exfoliation.
rocks, and an important part of the entire rock cycle.

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Water and Wind Abrasion 8. Some minerals resist weathering. Quartz is a mineral that weathers slowly.

Abrasion occurs when the surface of rocks is exposed to water or wind. These elements 9. Rocks made up of minerals such as feldspar, calcite, and iron, weather more
can carry tiny particles of sediment or rock that then collide against the rock’s surface. quickly.
When these particles rub against the rock’s surface, they break off tiny pieces of the
rock. Over time, abrasion can wear down and smooth extremely large sections of rock. b) If the statement is true, write true. If it is false, change the underlined
word or words to make the statement true.
3.8 End unit assessment answers 1. Water vapor is very important in predicting weather. True

Part I: Multiple choices questions 2. Gravity is a reason why atmosphere is more dense close to the earth‘s surface.
False
1. E. Troposphere
3. Agrophysics plays an important role in the limitation of hazards to agricultural
2. C. I and II are correct but III is wrong objects and environment. True
3. E. The branch of natural sciences dealing with the application of physics in 4. Energy is transferred between the earth surface and atmosphere in a variety of
agriculture and environment. ways.False
4. E. All statements (A), (B), and (C) 5. As the temperature increases in the atmosphere, the maximum radiation occurs
at short wavelengths. False
5. B. Radiative balance and the hydrological cycle

c) Analytical questions
Part II: Structured Questions
1. i) Gravity is a reason why atmosphere is denser close to the earth’s surface.
a) Write the missing word or words on the space before each number. For
items 1-9 ii) The rocks contract slightly when the temperatures cool down.

1. Moisture speeds up chemical weathering. 2. It means that Marry will have a scientific journal with a purpose of studying how
sensor and communication machines work in agrophysics to track changes about
2. Weathering happens very slowly in hot and wet (humid) climates. physical conditions in agricultural and natural environments.
3. Weathering occurs very slowly in hot and wet climates.
4. Without temperature changes, ice wedging cannot occur
5. In very cold and dry areas, there is little weathering.
6. Most weathering occurs on exposed surfaces of rocks and minerals
7. The more surface area a rock has, the quicker it will weather.

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 Terms Impact of temperature and water vapor in
5. Climate change can disrupt food availability, reduce access to food, and affect
agricultural activities.
food quality.
Temperature Temperature affects on plant growth and development. 6. They are used to till the ground, plant seed and perform other tasks.

Increase in temperature can increase crop yields in some Application of machineries in the day to day farm activities increases marginal
places. output in food production and poverty eradication.

Water vapor It condenses into clouds that reflect and adsorb solar All stages benefit the use of technology (variation occurs depending on kind of
radiation, thus directly affecting the energy balance which plant).
is very important in growing stages of the plant.
7. Rock fragments separate and tumble down and makes the surface bulge upward.
It transports latent heat in the atmosphere. 8. Weathering is the breaking of rocks into smaller pieces whereas soil erosion is
washing away of soil.
It plays a role in water cycle (hydrological cycle) describes
the continuous movement of water on, above and below 9. time the rock breaks into smaller pieces its surface area or part exposed to
the surface of the Earth. weathering is increased.

3. 10. Mechanical weathering is minimized by effective practicability and implementation

of human activities.

Term An example of economic activities taking place in 11. Soil is formed due to disintegration of rocks into small pieces.
the corresponding layer if available
Part III: Essay Questions
1.Troposphere Various agricultural activities.
The outcome depends on students’ trial and research and the guidance of the respective
2.Stratosphere Strategic positioning of space crafts. teacher giving the students good approach of making and reporting scientific research
3. Mesosphere Strategic layer that allows for movements of rockets.

4. Thermosphere Many satellites actually orbit Earth within the

thermosphere.

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 UNIT4: EARTHQUAKE, LANDSLIDE, TSUNAMI,
FLOODS AND CYCLONE. 4
4.1 Key Unit Competence:
By the end of the unit the learner should be able to relate physics concepts to
earthquakes, Tsunami landslide and cyclone occurrences and impact on environment.

4.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills:

To learn this unit teacher need to know the general ideal related to Earthquake, tsunami,
landslide, floods and cyclone. We need also to know the physics’ concept related to
them such as waves, simple harmonic motion and others.

4.3 Cross Cutting Issues to be addressed

In this unit teacher need to focus on where and when and how she/he will integrate
crosscutting issues: for examples

1. Environmental sustainability: in whole unit it is addressed. During delivering

different lessons within a unit, let learners be familiar with the impact of
natural disasters (Earthquake, landslide, tsunami, floods and cyclone) on the
environment. This led to the recognition of the awareness on it and learners will
be responsible for the world around them and they will acquire knowledge, skills,
attitude and values which will enable them to deal with the environment and
climate change issues.

2. Standardization culture: learners develop culture of living in Building constructed

in those natural disasters standard.

3. Peace and value: it is clear that every learner focuses on the contribution to
the success our society, working with safe environment without ground’s
perturbation and contributes the peace culture to prevention measures and
being in harmony without natural disasters

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 4. GenderEducation: learning content and various activities used in learners book 3 Cause, effect and safe Relate physics concepts to 3
both boys and girls are treated on the same ways. It is advisable for the teacher measures of landslides landslide.
to be gender responsive.
Recognize that scientific
5. Inclusive education: Inclusive practice is closed to every learner regardless on
method for detecting
abilities with difficulties and disabilities.
landslides.
4 Cause, effect and safe Explain the phenomena of 3
4.4 Guidance on introductory activity measures of tsunami tsunami.
•• Show the illustration combined all events: earthquakes, tsunami, floods, Describe the cause and effect
landslides, cyclones for introductory activity on student book.
of tsunami
•• Give time to learner to discuss on that illustration. 5 Cause, effect and safe Explain causes of floods. 3
•• Through questioning teacher guide learners to discover of what happened, theirs measures of floods
causes, theirs impacts on the environment and suggesting the ways to minimize Analyse the Cause, effect and
them (This will help teacher to know their background/ information they have on suggest the way to minimize
natural disasters). their negative impact.
•• Finally teacher harmonizes by focusing on natural disasters related to earth’s 6 Cause, effect and safe Explain the phenomena of 2
movement. measures of cyclones cyclone.

Describe the causes, effects of

4.5 List of Lesson cyclone.

Show concern by safety

Lesson title Learning objectives. Periods
measures of cyclone.
1 Intensity and frequency Explain the phenomena of 2
7 End unit assessment 2
of Earthquakes Earthquake.

Relate physical concept to From learner centred approach, guide learners revise on earthquakes, tsunami,
earthquake. landslide, floods and cyclone. Remember that these learners have prior knowledge
about these concepts
Appreciate the significant
of physics in explaining After getting information from learners on natural disasters, Teacher should continue
earthquakes to relate each with the physics’ concepts Use these concepts to make learners discover
2 Cause ,effect and safe Outline impacts of 2 the definition, development, causes , effect(s) and safety measures of these natural
measures of Earthquakes earthquakes on buildings and disasters
other structures.

Describe Earthquake causes

as: geological fault, volcanic
activity, mine blast and nuclear
weapon test.

Show concern by suggesting

ways of minimizing negative
impacts of earthquakes.

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Teaching resources: Expected answer for activity 4.1:
Teacher should use the journals, scientific report, research documents in ministers of 1. Terms associated in earthquakes are: Elastic strain energy, compression and
natural disaster, computer simulations software which is in line with learning objective stretch, waves, simple harmonics motion, etc.
that teacher used.
2. Earthquake is shaking or trembling of the ground with unexpected energy is
By using the journal, it is preferable to choose different journals which provide enough usually associated with perturbation of ground’s medium in different direction
information on Earthquakes. When it is difficult to found them you assigned homework that causes the ground to be compressed and stretched. The stretching and
compression of the ground medium will result in the emission of waves that
to student and go to search different information’s related to Earthquakes in internet
propagate in all directions which cause the ground to be crashed. So the ground
or libraries.
moves in simple harmonic motion.
Use of scientific report, teacher should search a report written by scientist or other
information on internet or libraries which is in line with Earthquake. Lesson 4.2: Causes, effect and safe measures of Earthquakes
Uses smart room to show different simulations, so students will see what happened a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
during and after Earthquake, so they will understand more. Through brainstorming , teacher invites different learners to review on the previous
lessons.
Lesson 4.1: THE SCIENCE OF EARTHQUAKES
b) Teachingresources: Leaner book, flipcharts, markers and cello tope, or papers
a) Prerequisites/ revision/ introduction: and pens
Basing on learner’s prior knowledge and understanding from previous levels (Geography c) Learning activities:
S1 unit 11 and S2 unit 4), guide learners to comprehensively analyse natural disasters
focusing on earthquakes. Activity 4.2: Effect of Earthquakes

Teaching resources: Leaner book, flipcharts, markers and cello tope. or notebook and •• Instruct learner to observe and read the description of figure 4.4 from learner
pens book.
•• Distribute the tasks and give the instructions to learners on techniques that will
b) Learning activity be used: Learners will move from one corner to another by answering questions
asked in activity 4.2 from learner book.
Activity 4.1: Physics concept behind the earthquake. •• Through learning in corners technique, teachers guide learner to examine the
•• In groups, let learners brainstorm the physics concept behind earthquake. impact of earthquake on infrastructure and on people with referencing on the
above figure.
•• Guide learners to develop short notes basing on physics brainstormed until they
discover the definition of an earth quake •• With the same technique teacher inspect learners for the safety measures to do
before, during and after the situation shown on that figure.
•• Permit one learner from one group to read their findings and explain to the rest
of the class . •• Allow group(s) representatives to present their findings.

•• Moderate the logical sequence of learner’s findings •• Complete the ideas that are incomplete and confirms correct answers.

•• Summarise learner’s production. •• Harmonize learner’s ideas.

•• Guide learners to make connection of physics concept discussed above to how

they occur in real life.

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Answers to activity 4.2: If you are in bed when you feel the shaking:
1. Impacts on environments are: surface deformation, tsunamis, ground resonance, •• Stay there and Cover your head and neck with a pillow. At night, hazards and
landslides and ground failure, damage utilities, roads and structures such as debris are difficult to see and avoid; attempts to move in the dark result in more
bridges and dams, or cause fires and explosions. etc injuries than remaining in bed.

Impacts on people are: Loss of life, affected by trauma; others may be homeless,
If you are outside when you feel the shaking:
etc
•• If you are outdoors and the shaking starts, move away from buildings, streetlights,
2. Safety measures on Earthquakes and utility wires. Once in the open, “Drop, Cover, and Hold On.” Stay there until
the shaking stops.
Before An Earthquake
If you are in a moving vehicle when you feel the shaking:
•• Before an earthquake occurs, you should secure all items that could fall or move
and cause injuries or damage (e.g. bookshelves, mirrors, light fixtures, televisions, •• It is difficult to control a vehicle during the shaking and if you are in a moving
computers, water heaters etc). vehicle, stop as quickly as possible and stay in the vehicle. Avoid parking near
•• Move beds away from windows and secure any hanging items over beds, other or under buildings, trees, overpasses, and utility wires. Proceed cautiously once
places people sit or lie. the earthquake has stopped. Avoid roads, bridges, or ramps that the earthquake
may have damaged.
•• Protect yourselves: Cover your head and neck with your arms.
•• Create a strategic plan that you will use to communicate with family members. After an Earthquake
•• Consult a structural engineer to evaluate your home . •• When the shaking stops, look around. If the building is damaged and there is
•• In searching buildings to rent or buy, verify whether it’s materials have earthquake a clear path to safety, leave the building and go to an open space away from
standards. damaged areas.
•• If you are trapped, do not move about or kick up dust.
During An Earthquake •• If you have a cell phone with you, use it to call or text for help.
•• Drop down onto your hands and knees so the earthquake doesn’t knock you •• Tap on a pipe or wall or use a whistle, if you have one, so that rescuers can locate
down. Drop to the ground (before the earthquake drops you!) you.
•• Cover your head and neck with your arms to protect yourself from falling debris. •• Once safe, monitor local news reports via battery operated radio, TV, social
•• If you are in danger from falling objects, and you can move safely, crawl for media, and cell phone text alerts for emergency information and instructions.
additional cover under a sturdy desk or table. •• Check for injuries and provide assistance if you can.
•• If no sturdy shelter is nearby, crawl away from windows, next to an interior wall.
Stay away from glass, windows, outside doors and walls, and anything that could
fall, such as light fixtures or furniture.
•• Hold on to any sturdy covering so you can move with it until the shaking stops.
•• Stay where you are until the shaking stops. Do not run outside. Do not get in a
doorway as this does not provide protection from falling or flying objects, and
you may not be able to remain standing.

98 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 99

Answer for checking my progress •• Complete the ideas that are incomplete and confirms correct answers.

1. We try to show the physics concept of earthquake by making a clear understanding •• Harmonize learner’s ideas.
of it. •• Guide learners on how to handle themselves in case of a landslide.

In underground on the focus or hypocenter there is high pressure which increase

the high temperature. When the temperature increase inside the earth, heat Answer to activity 4.3: from learners’ book.
increases and rocks become molten rocks. Due to strong heat effect, molten a) Observation: Soils, rocks and vegetation have moved by underwater explosion
rocks tries to get the way to be exploded which induces elastic energy is released caused by rainfall
inside the earth. Therefore the wave spread out as result of shifting the plate
b) What happened; Landslide.
and internal disturbances which propagate away from the source. In additional
to that, the disturbance that moves makes the earth to vibrate. So quakes are c) Original facts of it: is the successive rain for a long time
accompanied with shock waves. d) When I live in the region where these disasters occur. I can:
2. The impact do Earthquakes have on Building include: •• Direct surface water sources away from the landslides means that you give a
direction line to the surface water.
•• Deformation of building.
•• Drain ground water streams away from the landslides;
•• Destruction of building. etc
•• Minimize irrigation on the surface of the soil etc.
3. Safety measure to do when you are sleeping inside your house when the ground
is shaking. Activity 4.4: Puzzle or cross words.
•• When you feel shaking of ground, automatically wake-up and move if is it possible •• Instruct learner to follow the instructions given to activity 4.4 from learner book
to move and run away of your house for a certain distance from your house in •• In group(s), let learners select words from puzzle from all direction and write it
order to leave the fall buildings. on flipcharts.
•• If is not possible to move away, stay there and cover your head, neck by using a •• Allow learners to fill in the missing sentences such that it has a meaning.
pillow or anything that can cover you. Etc
•• Authorize group representatives (1or 2) to present their products.
•• Correct the false ideas and confirms correct answers.
Lesson 4. 3: Cause, effect and safe measures of landslides •• Harmonize learner’s ideas.

a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
Answers for activity 4.4 from learner book
Through questioning, learners revise the effects of rainfall for a long period.
•• Loss of lives
b) Teaching resources •• Displacement of people
Learner book, flipcharts, markers and cello tope, or papers and pens •• Destruction of agriculture, land and crops
c) Learning activities: •• Destruction of infrastructures
•• Alteration of drainage (e.g: damming rivers)
Activity 4.3: Description of landslides
•• Loss of vegetation
•• Instruct learner to observe figure 4.4 from learner book and answer questions of
activity 4.3 •• Increase in government expenditures

•• In group(s), let learners discuss and answer that activity on flipcharts. •• Disease

•• Authorize group representatives (3or 4) to present their findings.

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Answer for checking my progress iii. Effects: People become homeless, Destruction of infrastructures, Flooding and
several erosion, etc
2. Water can increase or decrease the stability of a slope depending on the amount
present. iv. Advice for him/ her.

Small amounts of water can strengthen soils because the surface tension of
water increases soil cohesion. This allows the soil to resist erosion better than if Situation A Situation B.
it were dry.
Move away from the area If she/he has Psychological effects (Trauma), disabilities,
Too much water may act to increase the pore pressure, reducing friction, and affected by that natural automatically carries him/her to hospital.
accelerating the erosion process and resulting in different types of mass wasting disaster.
(i.e. mudflows, landslides, etc.) Report what happened to the local radio or television
for special assistance.

Lesson 4.4: Causes, effects and safety measures of tsunami Advise him/ her to be careful of damaged power line,
building etc.
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction
Through brainstorming, learners revise the natural disasters learned in the previous Check where to live.
lessons.
Answer for checking my progress
b) Teaching resources
Leaner book, flipcharts, markers and cello tope. or notebook and pens 1. B 4. F

c) Learning activities 2. E 5. C

3. . A 6. D
Activity 4.5
•• In groups, or individually depending on the method used. Let learners observe
and discuss what they see in the figure 4.7 from learner book. Lesson 4.5: Cause, effect and safe measures of floods
•• Guide learners to write their views on causes and effects of natural disaster
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
shown in that figure.
•• Allow learners to develop helpful guideline for their colleague. Through questioning technique, learner give their views on what happened for an
intensive rainfall.
•• Permit group(s) representatives to present their findings.
•• Allow other members from other group(s) to raise their points if they are different Teaching resources: Leaner book, flipcharts, markers and cello tope, or papers and
from what have been presented. pens

•• Together with students, summarise all the ideas presented and allow learners to b) Learning activities:
note down important points in their notebooks.
Activity 4.6
Answer for activity 4.5 •• In pairs, instruct learner to observe figure 4.10 and read carefully the questions of
i. Discussion: on the figure there are people who are running, destruction of activity 4.10 from learner book
infrastructures, underwater explosion, etc •• Initiate leaners to analyse critically the figure and answer questions asked.
ii. Cause: displacement of large volume of water. •• Help learners to analyse preventive and precaution measures of that disaster.

102 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 103

 •• Invite one or more pairs to present their findings and other pairs add a supplement.
•• Harmonise points that are not clear. Allow other members from other pairs to
raise their points in case they are different from what has been presented
•• Harmonize learner’s idea and give examples on effects of earthquakes

Answer for activity 4.6

UNIT 5: ATOMIC NUCLEI AND ADIOACTIVE DECAY 5
a) Discussion: Learners give their suggestion on what they see in the figure, some
including intensive water in the ground where it is difficult to drive, people to
pass through, crops and houses are underwater.
5.1 Key Unit Competence
b) Floods: (its definition in learner book)
By the end of the unit, the learner should be able to analyse atomic nuclei and
c) End result: Destruction of infrastructures, people become homeless, increase of
radioactivity decay
famine and diseases, killing animal and others insects, etc.
d) Safety measures:
5.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills
•• Make sure everything which is of importance is secured.
The success of this unit relies partly on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired in
•• Leave the area before it gets too late. Physics(Unit 9, S5Advanced Level)and other subjects in previous grades or units such
•• Don’t walk, swim or drive through floodwater as moving water can sweep you as Chemistry of Ordinary Levels (Unit 5, S1) and Chemistry S4 Advanced Level (Unit 1,
away. S4 Chemistry).
•• Clean the entire home, together with all the objects in it very well before you use
them again. They may be contaminated. 5.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed
Inclusive education (The teacher must promote education for all while teaching).
Answer for check my progress Regardless of the physical appearance and abilities, learners should be treated equally.
Generally during rains, rains bring more water than it can be drained or absorbed by the This makes all learners to be involved in teaching and learning process. They find out
soil. The natural behaviour of water (and flowing water) is that it moves from higher that they are all of great importance.
ground to lower ground. This means if there is a higher ground adjacent a lower ground, Peace and value Education (This is the respect of others views and thoughts during
the lower ground is at flood potential. class discussions). Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be correct
or not but what is important is to build on that Idea.

Gender education (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation).
Care should be taken that both sexes are given equal opportunities.

Standardization culture (Be aware of radiations so that they do not harm our health).
The teacher put emphases on the care that should be taken on harmful radioactive
substances and how to handle them efficiently. This should be done through the whole
lesson of radioactivity

104 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 105

Environment sustainability: During delivering different lessons within this unit, 5. They cause different diseases on human body: Both beta particles and gamma
let learners be familiar with the negative impact of radiations and chemicals on the rays can pass easily through the skin and can easily destroy or even kill cells,
environment. They will acquire knowledge, skills, attitude and values which will enable causing illness.
them to deal with the environmental change issues.
They can cause mutations in a cell’s Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA), which means
that it cannot reproduce properly, which may lead to diseases such as cancer.
5.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
Alpha particles cannot pass through the skin. However, they are extremely
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept. The dangerous when they get inside your body. This can happen if you inhale
activity should not take more than ten minutes. radioactive material.

•• Divide your students into groups (Grouping may depend on the nature of your 6. Discuss and explain the dangers of using radiations in real life.
class or number of learners you have). Always take care of learners with any kind
of disability while making groups. Radiations have sufficient energy to cause chemical changes in cells and
damage them. Some cells may die or become abnormal, either temporarily or
•• Tell the learners to open the introductory activity in the learner’s book. Give them permanently. By damaging the genetic material (DNA) contained in the body’s
clear information about the activity. cells, radiation can cause cancer.
•• While learners are doing this activity, you move around, guide or answer to
A very large amount of radiation exposure can cause sickness or even death within
the questions of slow learners. You may mark the working of those who have
hours or days. Pregnant women and children are sensitive to radiation exposure.
finished.
The cells in children and foetuses divide rapidly, providing more opportunity for
•• When everyone has finished the activity, invite some member(s) or group(s) to radiation to disrupt the process and cause cell damage.
present their findings to the whole class. Guide the discussion
7. They should be held with forceps and never touched with hands as ways of
•• Ask other members whether their answers correspond to the discussed points minimising their impact.
and if there is any point that is different from what have been raised to mention
it. No eating, drinking or smoking where radioactive materials are in use
•• Note some misconceptions and misunderstanding so that they will be corrected Wash your hands thoroughly after exposure to any radioactive materials
and harmonised in the lesson. Together with students, harmonize the points and Any cuts in the body should be covered before using radioactive sources
make a summary on the board. Give to the learners the opportunity to write the Arrange the source during experiments such that the radiation window points
main points in their notebooks. away from your body
•• Harmonize the lesson by linking what have been discussed and the summary of
the lesson.
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations.

Possible answers of the introductory activity

1. It is a sign indicating that the area contains radioactive materials. The symbol is a
symbol of radiation precautions

2. They come from radioactive substances (radionuclides elements)

3. Yes. There are alpha ,beta and gamma radiations

4. The sources of radiations are radioisotope materials, cosmic radiations and

unstable radionuclides. In short some radiations come from human made
materials and other sources are natural materials.

106 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 107

5.5 List of lessons
4 Application •• Identify the application of 3
of radioactivity in life.
S/No Lesson title Learning Objectives Periods radioactivity •• Appreciate that the nucleus of an
1 Introductory •• Define atomic mass and atomic 2 atom and quantum system has
activity number discrete energy levels
and Atomic
•• Identify the constituents of a 5 Hazards •• Appreciate the safety 1
nuclei-
nucleus and safety precautions to be taken when
nuclide handling radioactive materials.
precautions
•• Explain Einstein’s mass-energy of when
relation •• Appreciate that the nucleus of an
handling atom and quantum system has
•• Determine the stability of a nuclei radiations discrete energy levels

2 Mass Defect •• Define the terms mass defect 4 6 Evaluation 2

and Biding and biding energy
Energy •• Calculate the binding energy of
some elements
Lesson 1: Atomic nuclei-nuclide
•• Plot a graph of binding energy
against nucleon and explain its a) Introduction:
features. Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe an atom. You can make a recap
•• Use Einstein equation in problem using Units of chemistry mentioned above on Prerequisite Knowledge (5.2).You can use
solving probing questions techniques to remind the learners the structure of an atom.

3 Radioactivity •• Describe properties of different 6 b) Teaching resources:

and nuclei radiations.
stability Textbooks and Periodic tables.
•• Define Nuclei fusion and fission
•• Describe creation of artificial c) Learning Activities
isotopes.
Activity 5.1: Investigating the stable and unstable nucleus
•• Calculate the decay rate of
unstable isotopes. This activity aims to capture students’ attention and minds them towards the concept of
•• Classify radioactive detectors atomic nuclei and nuclide. Therefore, the following guidelines should help the teacher
to monitor the lesson efficiently.
•• Describe creation of artificial
isotopes. •• Divide your students into groups, accordingly. Tell the learners to open and read
•• Calculate the decay rate of the activity 5.1 in the learner’s book.
unstable isotopes. •• Instruct learners to observe fig.5.1 and read the questions and answer them by
writing in their notebooks. Give them the time to reflect on their prior knowledge
(thinking time).
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark the work of
those who have finished.

108 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 109

 •• When everyone is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to present Then the number of neutrons = mass number – atomic number (90-38=52neutrons
their findings to the whole class. Make sure that you are developing generic
competences in your learners: cooperation, critical thinking, etc. 7. Q = lithium; R = magnesium; S = argon; T = oxygen; X = potassium
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed Lesson 2: Mass Defect and Biding Energy
•• Together with students harmonize the points discussed and make a summary on
a) Introduction
the board. Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, this
will be the opportunity for the teacher to correct misconceptions met during In this lesson, you are going to guide learners to discover words in the Puzzle. Initially,
presentation. verify the prerequisite knowledge of your learner in English. These include the meaning
•• Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Make summative of a word and different parts of simple sentence. You can use probing questions
assessment to make sure that learning objectives have been achieved. techniques to remind the learners the structure of a sentence.
•• Link this lesson to real life. You should talk about cross-cutting issues to be b) Teaching resources textbooks.
addressed in this lesson like peace education.
c) Learning Activities

Possible answers Activity 5.1 Select words in the puzzle

1. The number A stands for the mass number (or number of nucleons) while Z The activity aims to capture students’ attention and develop critical thinking and
stand for the atomic number (number of protons in the nucleus) of the nucleus. collaboration on learners. The activity is divided into three sub activities: the first
2. The mass number A is the number of nucleons (neutrons plus protons) which is is to discover sentences and use them in their own sentences. The second is to fill
equal to the sum of number of nucleons in the nucleus. in the missing words in the sentences, and the third one is to discuss and explain
expression found in the sentences given in the book. These sub activities should be
3. An atom is stable when the number of protons equals the number of electrons, done individually, depending on the size of your class and the textbooks you have. To
it is unstable when it get more or less electrons. achieve this, the teacher should monitor efficiently the lesson when he/she follows the
following guidelines.
Some atom of the same element can contain different numbers of neutrons. Atoms
of the same element which have different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes. •• Through guided questions, ask learners to brainstorm about the formulation of
Isotopes of an element have the same proton number but different nucleon numbers a good sentence.
i.e. they have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
•• Then ask learners to open their books on page 9. Invite them to observe and read
the questions about the puzzle. Give them clear instructions so that they do not
d) Checking my progress write in the book.
35
1. a) nuclides b) Cl
17 •• Ask them to read the puzzle (Horizontally, Vertically or obliquely) in other to
find different words hidden in the puzzle. They write the list of words in their
2. a) proton b) neutron or proton c) neutron
notebooks, and then they close text books.
3. Protons= 56 and electrons = 56 X is Barium(Ba) •• Ask each learner to make at least one sentence (in Physics domain) using
discovered word an present it to the hole class. You eventually help learners to
4. B reformulate sentence that are not correct or clear. The activity should take seven
5. Using the formula (5.01) N=A-Z, we get minutes.
•• After the harmonization of the activity, ask learner to reopen their books and
a) 14 b) 16 c) 155 d) 114 copy the sentences below the puzzle. Invite them to fill in the missing words
90 using those that have been discovered in the Puzzle.
6. The atom of strontium 90 has a symbol of 38 Sr .
•• You should move around to mark the on-going work of the learners.
•• When all learners are done, ask learners to write the solution on the chalkboard

110 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 111

 and ask them to discuss about their findings, and correct misconceptions if any. Binding energy: is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its constituent
The activity should have seven minutes. particles.
•• Ask learners to form groups (depending on the size of the class) and tell them to
carry out activity in the corner. They circulate to discuss and explain the physical
Electronvolt: is the energy transferred to a free electron when it is accelerated trough
meaning of given expressions in the corner. a potential difference of one volt. The symbol is eV.

•• When they finish, let them to present their findings to the whole class. Engage Stable nuclides: these are nuclides that are not radioactive and so (unlike radionuclides)
learners in discussion aimed to correct wrong answers and harmonise the lesson do not spontaneously undergo radioactive decay. They are also called stable isotopes.
putting an emphases on key terms or expressions and related formula. From the
learner’s presentations, write the summary on the board including missing ideas. d) Check my progress
Give to learners the opportunity to write the summary on their notebooks.
1. a) The mass defect of a nucleus is the sum of the individual masses of the
•• Summarize the lesson by indicating cross cutting issues met in the lesson and separated nucleons minus the mass of the intact nucleus.
their role in real daily life.
b) Some mass is converted into energy as the nucleus is formed. Hence the
Expected answers nucleus has less mass than the particles it was made from. This is the mass defect
or in another way; as the particles come together to form the nucleus, they lose
1. Discovered words: electronvolt, kilogram, mass, energy, stability, Einstein, energy. This energy is ‘lost’ as radiation and manifests itself as a loss in mass.
nucleus and force
c) The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy required to separate it into its
2. The teacher corrects a formulated sentence according to Physics logic and the constituent protons and neutrons.
universal formulation of a correct sentence in English. 2 E
2. According to E = mc , the increase in mass of the water is m =
c2
3. Complete the following answers:
3. a) total mass mt = (2 × 1.0087) + (2 × 1.0078) = 4.033 u
a. An electronvolt is the SI unit of energy.
b) the mass defect = (4.0330-4.0026) = 0.0304 u
b. On the atomic scale, the kilogram is not the SI unit of mass.
Since 1u is equivalent to 931 MeV, it follows that the binding energy of helium is
c. The mass of nucleons is greater than the mass of a nucleus. 28.3 MeV.

d. The atom releases energy when its nucleus is formed from its constituent 4. (a) Binding energy
particles ( Z × mH + N × mn ) − mo = (8 ×1.007825 + 8 ×1.008665) − 15.994915 = 0.13700 u = 127.62 MmeV

e. The binding energy per nucleon gives an indication of the stability of the E
127.62
= 7.98 MeV / nucleon
(b) Binding energy per nucleon= b
16
nucleus.

f. The surprising suggestion that energy and mass are equivalent was made by
Einstein in 1905.

g. The mass of a nucleus is less than the combined mass of its protons and
neutrons

h. Protons and electrons are held together in the nucleus of an atom by an

attractive Force.

4. Mass defect: it is the difference between the mass of an atom and the sum of
the masses of its individual components in the free state.

112 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 113

 Lesson 3: Radioactivity and nuclear stability them to answer some questions that should consolidate further understanding
of the concepts.
a) Introduction •• Give them the time to write the summary. Conclude your lesson by developing
In this lesson, you are going to guide learners to open and to observe the figure 5.3 on cross cutting issues that have been aroused in the lesson such as Environment
learner’s book. Learners should have prerequisite knowledge in geography they learnt sustainability, peace education and financial education. Relates them to real-life
in ordinary level about the observation of image, picture, figure or maps. If you do not situation. Then end your lesson by giving the assignment or quiz to your learners.
have sufficient text books for all your learners or groups, you should use photocopies
of the picture. You may reformulate the questions using probing question techniques Expected answers
to facilitate the understanding of your learners.
1. IMAGE A: Town of Nagasaki, with Buildings, roads, bridges, and the town is
b) Teaching resources: Textbooks or photocopies of the picture, pencils, graph bombarded with an atomic bomb. It is exploding, and emits fire, radiations of
papers, erase and rulers. different wavelengths which destroy the entire city and all living things.

c) Learning Activities IMAGE B: On this image, all living things have been destroyed. Even water are
contaminated. There is no life at all.
Activity 5.3Investigating radioactivity
2. The atomic bomb was very harmful to human being because it killed more than
This activity aims to capture students’ attention and develop critical thinking, 70.000 people died in 9 seconds, and the city of Hiroshima was levelled.
collaboration and long-life learning solutions on learners. You may engage learners in
an organized discussion or debate. Make sure that everyone is participating actively. To 3. Beside shock, blast, and heat a nuclear bomb generates high intensity flux of
achieve this, follow the guidelines below: radiation in form of γ-rays, x-rays, and neutrons as well as large abundances of
short and long-lived radioactive nuclei which contaminate the entire area of the
•• Organize your class in groups depending on the nature of your class of time of explosion and is distributed by atmospheric winds worldwide.
the lesson. Give them clear instructions. tell them to open their books or provided
materials. through guided questions, ask learners to brainstorm about the image 4. They are called radionuclides materials or unstable radionuclides.
in their respective groups
These unstable materials have a tendency to break up for stability. They are said
•• Then ask learners to open their books on page 14. Invite them to observe and to undergo disintegration or decaying process. The result of this process is that
read the questions about the image. Give them clear instructions so that they do energy is released in the form of heat and radiation emitted from the nucleus.
not write in the books. They then emit alpha, beta and gamma decays.
•• Ask them to observe the figure and brainstorm on it. If no questions from the 5. Radioactive materials used above are probably be plutonium, Uranium
learners, let them answer to the task freely. Allow them time to finish. However, Hydrogen…
you may check if all learners are engaged in working.
•• After a period of time assigned to this activity, ask each group to present their 6. To generate heavy energy by using radioactive materials, fission and fusion are
findings. Notes the differences, misconceptions and or misunderstanding met by used in nuclear power plants.
learners. This will help you to harmonize all presentation accurately.
Fission is a splitting up of a radionuclide into two or more parts, emitting alpha,
•• Develop you summary based on key concepts and findings of learners. Allow beta and gamma radiations. The energy is found to be the difference between
the original materials and its constituents produces energy given by

Fusion is a process of combining two or more distinct entities into a new massive
nuclei with the concomitant release of energy.

114 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 115

 Activity 5.4:Investigating the mass decay of matter. •• The teacher helps learners to harmonise and summarise the content. Let them
write the summary on their notebooks.
This activity aims at encouraging learners to be familiar with the drawing of graphs
•• After they are done, allow learners to read questions number 4. This is a question
and their interpretation. The learners already have these prerequisites in the previous
for research, using library or Smart classroom. Give them at least 20 minutes to
topics (Unit 1 S3, Graphs of linear motion). You may make a recap on graph of linear
finalise the work, which will be presented as a report.
motion to be aware of learner’s ability to carry out the new activity. Then after that,
follow the following instructions to achieve your goals. •• You should allow the learners to present their working one group after another,
and then conclude the lesson by writing the summary.
•• Distribute the materials such as pencils, eraser and rulers.
•• Ask learners to open their books on activity 5.4 and read the questions attentively Expected answers
in their groups.
1. A: radioactive detector, B: Battery, C: alarm circuit, D: alarm.
•• Ask them to plot a graph of particles emitted per minute against time. Move
around to see what they are doing. 2. A smoke detector is a life-saving device that uses radioactive substances and is
used in houses. They detect smokes in the house and give an alert that something
•• When they finishes, ask each group to hang up their work so that everybody can
like smoke is in the house (or the house gets fire) so that intervention is needed
give his comments and remarks in order to agree on the model graph to use in
in urgency.
the next steps.
•• Instruct them to continue on the next step. You may guide slow learners in order 3. The functioning of a smoke detector.
to encourage them.
A tiny quantity of radioactive americium dioxide emits alpha particles, which
•• Finalise the lesson by bridging the findings of learners and the new concepts. ionize air molecules and consequently, permit a small current to flow between
Summarise the lesson by showing learners all the working. Let them write the the plates.
summary and give them assignment of consolidation of the activity.
When Smoke particles arise, they absorb the radiation and cause the current to
•• Emphasize on cross-cutting issues to be addressed. These include financial
drop significantly, thus activating an alarm circuit.
education and environment sustainability among others you may find.
4. Other radiation detectors include, Ionization Chamber, Proportional Counter,
Activity 5.5 Functioning of a radiation detector Geiger-Müller Counter, Semi-conductor detector, Neutron Detector, Scintillation
Counter, and Cerenkov Counter, Photographic Emulsion, Expansion Cloud
The purpose of the activity is to encourage students to discover and to carry out
Chamber, Diffusion Cloud Chamber, Bubble Chamber, Spark Chamber
research (in library and on internet) and make a report. One part of this activity should
be done in class, the other (question number 4) as homework, and harmonized during
the next lesson. The learner should have skills on electric circuits studied in S4, Unit Checking my progress
5 and S5, Unit 5. Those who did not study electricity in advanced level have probably
1. D. Beta particle (definition
studied electricity in Ordinary Level. This activity should be done in the Smart classroom
or library. 2. B. Atoms spontaneously break apart to produce energy. Beta decay, alpha decay
and positron emission are all forms of radioactive decay. Energy is released
•• Introduce your lesson by discussion about the detection of radiations that are
because for the nucleus to become stable the excess energy must be released
invisible rays. Let the learners brainstorm about this issues.
•• Give instructions about the new activity 3. B. The ratio for small stable atoms is 1:1, and the ratio for large stable atom is
greater than 1:1. As atomic weight goes up, the ratio of neutrons to protons for
•• Ask learners to open their books on page 24 and observe the figure of a smoke stable atoms increases up to as much as 1.8:1 ratio.
detector.
•• When they finish, recommend them to present their results to the whole class. 4. A. Polonium-214 the alpha decay removes 4 from the mass number and 2 from
This is the opportunity for the teacher to note similarities, misconceptions and the atomic number. The net result is a decrease of 4 in the mass number and no
errors of the learners as they present. They will be harmonised in the next step. change in the atomic number

5. (a) Charge: alpha (+2), beta (-1) and gamma (no charge)

116 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 117

 (b) Range in air: alpha (about 5cm); beta (about 500 cm) Gamma (no limit) •• Ask them to open books actictivity 5.6 in learn book and observe figure 5.6.

Alpha particles are stopped by a thin paper; beta particles pass through paper and •• Let them read in pair and answer to questions. After a while, tell them to exchange
cardboard and but are stopped a 2 mm thick aluminium sheet. Gamma radiations their works with other pairs. Give them a time to read and analyse other’s views.
penetrate all materials but are only stopped by thick lead (4 cm) thickness or This is a pair share exercises.
concrete blocks. •• Ask them to finalise the work and invite 3 or 4 pairs to present their final answers,
looking whether there are differences or similarities. Take notes of them.
6.
•• Harmonize the activity by adding additional information about what the learners
a) (i) radioactive decay is the disintegration of unstable nuclei in an attempt to have not mentioned.
achieve stability •• After that, distribute learners in groups depending on the size of the class.
(ii) The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time taken for half of the Instruct them about the new activity of research. Tell them what to do and where
unstable nuclei to decay. to find information.
T1 T1 T1 T1
•• When they finish (during about 25 minutes), the learners will present their new
b)(i) 32 g →16 g → 8 g → 4 g → 2 g
2 2 2 2

findings. The teacher supervises presentations. Engage learners in learning from

96 other’s views.
4T1 = 96days ⇔ T1 = = 24 days
4
2 2
•• Summarise your lesson by correcting misconceptions and bridge the lesson with
(ii) 2 g →1 g → 1 g → 1 g → 1 g
T1 T1 T1 T1
2 2 2 2 cross-cutting issues found in the lesson, e.g. financial education, peace and values
2 4 8 education, sustainable environment, etc.
1
g would remain after a further 96 days.
8
Expected answers
Lesson 4: Application of Radioactivity 1. People are disagreeing because they think about the security of their live and
a) Introduction environment in general. It is difficult to control radiations from nuclear power
station. In addition, one country may pretend to use nuclear power plant to
This lesson is divided into two parts. Part one refers to application of radionuclides in generate electricity while it is producing nuclear weapons.
industry, in tracers studies, in nuclear power stations and nuclear fusion. Part two refers
to applications in Medicine, agricultural sector and in food preservation and radiocarbon 2. Main parts are Reactor, steam generator, Turbine, Cooling towers and Generator
dating. The objective of this activity is to initialize learners to the discoveries of Physical
3. Nuclear energy- Heat energy- Mechanical energy- Electrical energy.
facts by research activities. Through this lesson, problems solving and lifelong learning
generic competences will be developed.

Using internet and library, learners will understand advantages of radioactive nuclides
in real life. Therefore encourage them to think critically on advantages or uses of
radioactive materials. Do not interrupt them when they brainstorm on this activity.
Organise your class and tasks for better time management.

b) Teaching resources: Textbooks, Internet and library

c) Learning Activities

Activity 5.6Use of nuclear energy to generate electricity

The following guidelines are set to facilitate teacher in teaching and learning process in
activity above:

•• Introduce your lesson by giving instructive guidelines of pair groups.

118 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 119

 4. Expected answers

Advantages of using nuclear Disadvantages of nuclear energy as a 1) A man

energy as a source of electricity source of electricity 2) In Hospital (Radiography department)
very large release of electricity High cost to implement
3) The image represent a human skeleton
Low cost electricity Lack of skilled people
4) He is suffering from thorax bones
Lack or insufficient equipment
5) Rectilinear propagation of light.
Lack of natural resources
6) Reflection of light. Because the image shows thoracic bones.
Difficult to monitor and to control
7) It is gamma radiation
5. Other application of radioactivity: It is used in carbon dating, in medicine, in
agriculture, tracer studies, food preservation and in industry Checking my progress
1. Medicine: Sterilization, Treatment of cancer, Diagnosis - Tracers and imaging
Activity 5.7
•• In groups, ask learners to open books activity 5.7 and observe clearly the figure Food and Agriculture: Fertilizers, Increasing genetic variability, Food irradiation
5…. Tell them to observe it and read attentively the questions. Remind them to and preservation and Control of fly pest
use their notebooks while giving the answers
2. a) Telephones, TVs sets and computers, food we eat like banana, culinary
•• You may move to mark answers of learners. When the time assigned to the utensils…
exercise is finished, invite them to present their findings.
b) They come from materials used to manufacture them. Some contains
•• Harmonise the lesson by putting additional information in order to consolidate
the understanding. They write the summary magnesium

•• Present another work of research. Ask them to use internet or library in order c) Cosmetics are sterilized with radiation to remove allergens (fig.5.1.5(a))
to investigate how radionuclides radiations are used in food preservation, in
radiocarbon dating and in agriculture. Non-stick pans are treated with radiation to fix the non-stick coating to the pan
(fig.5.1.5(b))
•• Each group should have one task in order to save time. Guide each group, and
assist those who may encounter difficulties in research. This research should Computer disks (e.g. Floppy disk) remember data better when they are treated
have 25minutes
with radioactive materials (fig.5.1(c)).
•• When they finish, invite each group to present their findings. Monitor the group
presentation so that you will add other missing elements that your learners did
not mention.
•• Harmonise the lesson by engaging learners to discover cross-cutting issues
they found in the lesson. Give them a time to take notes and to pose pertinent
questions they may have. You should prepare another assignment of search on
internet to consolidate their skills.

120 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 121

 Lesson5. Dangers of radionuclides substances radioactive materials. Any cuts in the body should be covered before using radioactive
sources. Arrange the source during experiments such that the radiation window points
a) Introduction: away from your body
Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe the fig.5.14. You can make a recap
using Prerequisite Knowledge of the previous lessons on advantages of radionuclides 5.6 Summary of the Unit
described above. You can use probing questions techniques to remind the learners the
advantages of radionuclides. Apart from the picture, invite learners to continue research
using different resources to further information about the dangers of radiations safety Nucleus and nuclide
precautions when handling materials with radiations. A nucleus is composed of two types of particles: protons and neutrons. In representing
a) Teaching resources: Textbooks, Library and internet. nuclei, it is convenient to use the symbol ZA X to show how many protons and neutrons
are present in the nucleus. X represents the chemical symbol of the element.
b) Learning Activities
•• The atomic number or the number of protons Z in the nucleus (sometimes called
Activity 5.8: Investigating the safety in a place with radiations the charge number).

This activity aims at investigating risk management of radiations on human body. Engage •• The neutron number or the number of neutrons in the nucleus N.
learners in learning accurately in order to acquire skills and behaviours o radiations so •• The mass number or the number of nucleons in the nucleus, A = Z + N.
that they preserve their life in class and outside the class.
Each type of atom that contains a unique combination of protons and neutrons is called
•• Start the lesson by asking learners to open their books. Let them observe the fig. nuclide
5.8
Depending on the combinations of protons and neutrons in the nucleus, nuclides can
•• Let learners discuss in their groups and find answers. Initiate learners to think on be classified in the following 3 categories: Isotopes, Isobars and Isotones.
the impact of radiations to the human body and measures to be taken.
•• Move around to see whether all learners are working. Mark answers of the
learners. Mass defect and biding energy

•• Ask one group to present its responses to the whole class. The mass of a nucleus is less than the combined mass of its protons and neutrons
(nucleons). The missing mass is called the mass defect. This observed mass defect
•• Ask other groups to mention the supplements answers which are not raised.
represent a certain amount of energy in the nucleus known as the binding energy E_
•• Complete the learner’s ideas that are incomplete and confirms correct answers. band calculated using the Einstein formula as:
•• Harmonize learner’s ideas. Eb = ∆ mc 2
•• Connect the impact of radiations on human body to real life and focus on cross-
cutting issues to be addressed. These include: financial education, standardisation The biding energy is the energy released when a nucleus is formed from its constituent
culture, etc. particles or the energy required to break up (to split) the nucleus into protons and
neutrons.
Possible answers
Instead of looking at the total binding energy of a nucleus, it is often more useful to
1. Leukaemia and other immune system diseases, redness of muscles, stomach diseases consider the binding energy per nucleon. This is the total biding energy divided by the
when swallowed, sterility, DNA damage, Cancer of thyroid, cataracts of the eye. total number of nucleons. 2
Eb ∆mc
=
2. Use of radiation level badges. Check the radiation level regularly. Store and transport A A
radioactive materials in thick lead-walled containers. Use of remote control equipments
behind thick glasses or lead walls to handle safely radioactive materials. They should be
held with forceps and never touched with hands. No eating, drinking or smoking where
radioactive materials are in use. Wash your hands thoroughly after exposure of to any

122 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 123

Radioactivity Disadvantages
Radioactivity is one of the dynamic properties of nuclei, in this process the system makes When produced in uncontrolled manner it will result in the fabrication of atomic bomb
a transition from a high energy state to a low energy by emitting α and β-particles or that may release a large amount of heat energy and damaging radiations. The emitted
γ-rays. radiations have both short term and long term effect on the living things.

b) Nuclear fusion
Characteristics of radioactive substances
When lighter nuclides merge together in a process called fusion, energy is produced
Radioactive substances (nuclides) present one or more of the following features and mass is lost. For example, two heavy mass of hydrogen may fuse together to form
helium and a neutron.
•• The atom of radioactive elements are continually decaying into simpler atoms as
a result of emitting radiation
•• The radiations from radioactive elements produce bright flashes of light when Applications
they strike certain compounds. The compounds fluoresce. For example, rays
Radioactive isotopes are widely applied in industries, in medicine, in agriculture, in
from radium cause zinc sulphide to give off light in the dark. For this reason, a
carbon dating, in security, in tracer studies, in nuclear fission and fusion.
mixture of radium and zinc sulphide is used to make luminous paints.
•• They cause ionization of air molecules. The radiations from radioactive substances
knock out electrons from molecules of air. This leaves the gas molecules with a Dangers of radioactivity
positive charge.
•• Both beta particles and gamma rays can pass easily in the skin and can easily
•• Radiations from radioactive substances can penetrate the heavy black wrapping destroy or even kill cells, causing illness.
around a photographic film. When the film is developed, it appears black where
•• They can cause mutations in a cell’s DNA, which means that it cannot reproduce
the radiations struck the film.
properly, which may lead to diseases such as cancer.
•• Radiations from radioactive substances can destroy the germinating power of
•• Alpha particles cannot pass through the skin. However, they are extremely
plants seeds, kill bacteria or burn or kill animals and plants. Radiations can also
dangerous when they get inside your body. This can happen if you inhale
kill cancers.
radioactive material.

Nuclear fission and nuclear fusion Safety precautions when Handling Radiations

a) Nuclear fission The precautions taken by workers who deal with radioactive materials are:

Heavy unstable nuclides can be broken up to produce energy in a process called nuclear •• Wearing protective suits
fission. When uranium decays naturally, alpha and beta particles are emitted. However, •• Wearing radiation level badges
when uranium-235 is bombarded by neutrons it forms uranium-236. Uranium-236 is
unstable and breaks down, splitting into two large particles and emitting three neutrons. •• Checking the radiation level regularly
•• Using thick lead-walled containers for transporting radioactive materials
Advantages •• Using remote control equipment from behind thick glass or lead walls to handle
radioactive materials.
The energy can be released in a controlled manner in nuclear power station and used in
•• They should be held with forceps and never touched with hands.
driving steam turbines and produce electric power.
•• No eating, drinking or smoking where radioactive materials are in use
•• Wash your hands thoroughly after exposure of to any radioactive materials
•• Any cuts in the body should be covered before using radioactive sources
•• Arrange the source during experiments such that the radiation window points
away from your body

124 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 125

5.7 Additional information for teacher: Do not consider that all types of a certain materials or objects contain radioactivity
or emit radiation; for example, some smoke detectors and old watches contain
radioactivity, but not all do. And these radioactivity-containing elements don’t pose a
Radioactivity at home
radiation hazard to you unless you were to eat them—and eat a lot of them!
Everything we meet in our daily life may contain radioactive substances. Some of them
are natural others are man-made. This is a simple fact of life. On the Earth, radiations are
1. a) F, b) T, c) T, d) F e) T
all around us, every day in our homes. Here are some items that contain radiation in far
greater amounts than the iodine-131 found in the milk samples. 2. a) T, b) T, c) F, d) F, e) T
Products in your home that contain radioactivity, but are not hazardous to anyone’s 3. a) F, b) T, c) F, d) F, e) T
health, include smoke detectors, some foods, fertilizers and others. 4. B, 5 C, 6 B, 7 B, 8.E,
Examples include: 9.B 9. B c. 10. D

•• Bananas contain potassium, a metal that decays, releasing infinitesimal amounts a)400 c)Carbon -14,age c) AY → AY + γ
of radiation. Z Z

•• Watches - Some old watches and clocks, even gyroscopes, have dials painted in
radium to make them glow in the dark. Radium emits Alpha and Gamma    rays.
Type of Mass Charge Penetrating Ionization
More recently, Tritium, a radioactive isotope of Hydrogen, has been used to paint
Emission power abiliwty
the dials, but it is too weak to penetrate the watch lens.
Alpha
6.66 ×10−27 kg 2 5 cm of air Yes
+

•• Smoke detectors - Contain an alpha and beta ray producing radioactive isotope
of the element Americium that senses smoke. This is sealed, though, and may Beta 3 - 6 mm of Yes
9.31×10−31 kg β − negative
not give you any reading.
Aluminium
•• TVs. The X-rays emitting from TV and computer screens have much lower levels β + positive
of radiation than medical images. Gamma None None 30 cm of lead Yes
•• Brazil nuts, which contain radium that the trees absorb from the ground. Many
other plants have naturally occurring radiation from metals in the soil. a) What are the properties of Alpha particles are made up from 2 protons
•• The house itself. Radon, a naturally occurring radioactive gas, can become alpha radiation? and 2 neutrons. They have a charge of +2 and
trapped inside walls and basements, elevating long-term cancer risks. You can a relative mass of 4. They are highly ionizing
test your home with an inexpensive kit or have a professional do it. but not very penetrating. They are affected by
electric and magnetic fields.
•• Camera Lenses - It has been reported that certain old Leica camera lenses
coloured yellow owe their appearance to the presence of the radioactive b)How do you calculate the half- Choose a point on the Y-axis and then halve the
element, Thorium. life from a graph? number of un-decayed nuclei from the Y-axis
and count the corresponding amount of time on
•• Pottery - Some older pottery such as the Fiesta Ware brand often found in X-axis.
antique stores is glazed with Uranium oxide. When broken, the dust can emit
Alpha particles of radiation. c) What is the difference An object or a person would be contaminated
between contamination and if unwanted radioactive particles get on them
•• Furniture - More recently, certain metal objects in the home are reported to be irradiation? or into them. An object or a person would be
partly made of spent radioactive material. irradiated if exposed to radiations

126 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 127

d) d) How should radioactive Always point away from yourself and others,
samples be handled safely? never handle sources with your fingers: use
tongs, only remove sources from their lead lined
box when in use and do not eat or drink when
using radioactive sources.

14. a) x = 82 and y = −10 e b) x = 214 and y = 84

c) x = 226 and y = 88 d) x = 24 He and y = 84 e) x = 13 H

0
15. a) x= 83 since −1 e is by dentition a β − particle ,the reaction β − decay.

b)x=82 and y=206 The reaction is γdecay, since 2 protons and 2 neutrons are emitted.

c) x = −10 e The increase by 1 in the atomic number and the lack of charge in the mass
number together indicate that a proton appeared, therefore this is a β − deacay.

d) x=88 and y=226, since the process is decay ,neither the atomic number nor the atomic
mass number is changed.

16. After 5730 years the amount of carbon-14 remaining will be one-half the original
amount or 400 μg in amount 5730 years it will be one-half as much again. This reasoning
allows you to make the calculation summarized in the table below and construct a plot. 17 a. The charged particles are deflected and follow a curved path in an electric or
magnetic field. The γ particles are uncharged and hence are not affected. The α are
Time (years) 0 5730 11460 17190 22920 28650 charged, but are very heavy and are less deflected than the β
Amount ( μg) 800 400 200 100 50 25

Graph of isotope of carbon-14 against its half-life

b) The γ particle is the most penetrating because it has neither mass nor charge, hence
it interacts relatively weakly with matter.

c) The α particle has the highest ionizing power, with the largest charge (+2e), but are
not very penetrating.

d) β and electrons are exactly the same, they were named β before it was known
that they were electrons. β +are positrons, or positively charged electrons. They have
the same mass as an electron, and the same magnitude of charge, but are positive.

128 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 129

e) X-rays and γ rays are both photons, they have no charge and no mass. γ Rays have 5.8 End Unit Assessment
higher energy (and higher frequency) than x-rays, and both are higher energy than
photons of visible light. Types of Symbol Risks Precautions
compounds
18.a) Background radiation comes from many sources; from outer space, from the
+description
earth and from inside our bodies. Radiation from outer space, called cosmic radiation,
comes from exploding stars and from the Sun and includes penetrating gamma rays
Compressed gas Could explode due to Ensure container is
and fast moving nuclear particles. The rocks and soils on earth contain small quantities
pressure always secured
of radioactive uranium, thorium and potassium-40 with their daughter products. Material that
The radioactivity levels in granite areas are higher due to a greater concentration of is normally Could explode if Store in a designated
these elements. Indeed, the natural background activity is 2 to 3 times higher than gaseous and heated or dropped area
the average background radiation in these areas. Small traces of naturally occurring kept in a
isotopes (potassium-40 and carbon-14) are present inside all of our bodies! pressurized Do not drop or allow to
container. fall
b) The lungs generally receive the highest dose of radioactivity, from airborne
radioisotopes such as radon-222 gas. The lungs exchange more material with the
Flammable May ignite Ensure container is
environment than any other organ. Smokers may have a much higher dosage rate
combustible spontaneously always secured
than non-smokers as many cigarettes use tobacco which is dried in the open air and
materials
accumulates radon dust which settles on it. May release Avoid flames and sparks
Material that flammable products
c) The background radiation at higher altitudes is greater because of a higher cosmic Avoid heating
continue to burn when exposed to
radiation. The atmosphere acts as a shield and attenuates (reduces) the cosmic radiation
when exposed water
reaching the earth considerably. Thus as one goes to higher altitudes, the ‘filtering’ Ensure that electrical
to a flame or
action of the atmosphere is reduced. For example, the mean dose rate at sea level is 0.2 sources are secured
near an ignition
mSv/year whereas the dose rate at 4 000 m is 1 mSv/year (one millisieverts per year).
source
This is the reason that pilots and flight attendants have a higher exposure to radiation
than most other people as they spend a lot of time at high altitudes.
Toxic materials Fatal if ingested or Avoid breathing dust or
19.a) The process of α decay can be modelled as a particle in a potential well (the immediate and inhaled vapors
nucleus) escaping from the well. α Decay is possible because the potential energy well severe
May be absorbed Avoid contacts with skin
is not infinitely deep. When the potential energy well is not infinite the wave function of
Poisons and through the skin or eyes
the trapped particle extends beyond the walls, and hence the probability of its existing
fatal materials
outside the well, which is equal to the square of the wave function, is non-zero. This Small volumes have a Wear protective clothing
that cause
process of a particle escaping the well is called tunnelling. toxic effect and face and eye
severe and
immediate harm protection.
b) The higher the energy of the emitted α particles for a given element the shorter the
half-life. The probability of tunnelling increases with increasing energy of the trapped Work in a well-ventilated
particle (the α particle), hence the higher the energy, the greater the probability of area and wear breathing
decay, the more decays per unit time and the shorter the half-life. (The tunnelling protection
probability also depends on the barrier height.)

c) A nucleus can change its charge by capturing an electron from one of the inner
orbitals, turning a proton into a neutron. In the process a tiny uncharged particle called
a neutrino is emitted.

130 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 131

 5.9 Additional activities
Bio hazardous May cause Avoid forming aerosols
infectious anaphylactic shock
Avoid breathing vapors 5.9.1. Remedial activities
materials
Includes viruses, 1. Which sign is used to indicate the presence of radioactive materials?
Infectious yeasts, moulds Avoid contamination of
agents or , bacteria and people and/or area
biological toxin parasites that affect
Store in a designated
causing a serous humans
areas
disease and
death Includes fluids
Special training is
containing toxic
required to handle
products 2. The activity of radioactive source is measured in
materials
Includes cellular a. Joules d. Grays
Work in a designated
components
biological areas with
b. Becquerel e. Watts
appropriate engineering
control c. Sieverts

Corrosive ma- Eye and skin irrita- Wear body ,hand, eye 3. Which of the following choices lists the four known types of forces in nature in
terials tion on exposure protection order of decreasing strength?

Materials Severe burns/tissue Use breathing appara- Electromagnetic, strong nuclear, weak nuclear, gravitational
which react damage on longer tus Strong nuclear, gravitational, weak nuclear, electromagnetic
with metals exposure Work in a well-ventilat-
and living Strong nuclear, weak nuclear, electromagnetic, gravitational
Lung damage if ed area
tissue inhaled Strong nuclear, electromagnetic, gravitational, weak nuclear
Avoid all direct body
May cause blind- contact Strong nuclear, electromagnetic, weak nuclear, gravitational
ness if contact with Ensure protective 4. The fact that the binding energy per nucleon is roughly a constant over most of
eyes the range of stable nuclei is a consequence of the fact that the nuclear force is
equipment is appropri-
ate a. Short range. d. Strong
Use appropriate stor- b. Long range. e. Repulsive
age containers
c. Weak.

5. The interaction that describes the forces among nucleons that hold nuclei
together is

a. The electromagnetic interaction. d.The gravitational interaction

b. The weak nuclear interaction. e. None of these is correct.

132 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 133

 C. The strong nuclear interaction. . The number of electrons in the atom is the same as the atomic number, 2.

6. A certain radioactive element has a half-life of 20 d. The time it will take for 7/8 of (b) The atomic number of carbon is 6; hence the nucleus must contain 6 protons.
the atoms originally present to disintegrate is The number of neutrons is equal to 12 – 6 = 6. The number of electrons is the
same as the atomic number, 6.
a) 20 d b) 40 d
(c) The atomic number of lead is 82; hence there are 82 protons in the nucleus and
c) 80 d d) 100 d 82 electrons in the atom. The number of neutrons is 206 – 82 = 124.
0.9889 ×12 + 0.0111×13
e) 60 d 9. Average atomic weight = 12.011
1.000
7. Prepare a comparative table between alpha, beta and gamma radiations?
5.9.2. Consolidation activities
8. How many protons, neutrons, and electrons are there in (a) 3 He (b) 12C and (c)
206 1. In one type of radioactive decay, an atom of Uranium (m=234.03714 u) decays
Pb
to an atom of thorium (m = 228.02873 u) plus an atom of helium (m=4.00260
9. Carbon has two stable isotopes. Natural carbon is 98.89% carbon 12 and 1.11% u) where the masses given are in atomic mass units (1 u = 1.6605x10-27 kg).
carbon 13. Calculate the average the average atomic weight of carbon. Calculate the energy released in this decay.

(The atomic weight of 2. When two moles oh hydrogen and one mole of oxygen react to form two moles
12
C is exactly 12). of water, the energy released is 484 kJ. How much does the mass decreases in
this reaction?
Answers 56
3. Calculate the total biding energy and the biding energy per nucleon for 26 Fe ,
1. D 2.B 3.A 4.A 5.C 6.E the most common isotope of iron.

4. What is the biding energy of the last neutron in 136C ?

Answer:
1. The initial mass is m = 232.03714 u, and after the decay the mass is 228.02873 u
7. + 4.00260 u =232.03133 u, so there is a decrease in mass of 0.00581 u. this mass
which is equal to (0.00581 u)(1.66x10-27 kg) = 9.64 x10-30 kg is changed into energy.
Alpha are made up from Beta particles are high A proton becomes a
2 protons and 2 neutrons. energy electrons that neutron + a positron. We have ∆E =∆mc 2 =(9.64 ×10−30 kg )(3.00 ×108 m / s ) 2 =8.68 ×10−3 J
They have a charge of +2 are released from the This causes the atomic
and a relative mass of 4. nucleus of the atom. They number (proton number) Since 1 MeV = 1.60x10-13 J, the energy released is 5.4 MeV
They are highly ionizing but have a charge of +1 and a to decrease by 1 while the 2. Using Einstein’s equation, we have for the change in mass ∆m:
not very penetrating. They relative mass of 1/2000. mass number (nucleon
are affected by electric and They are ionizing and fairly number) stays the same. ∆E (−4884 ×10−3 J )
∆m = 2 = =−5.38 ×10−12 kg
magnetic fields. penetrating. They are c (3.00 ×108 m / s ) 2
affected by electric and The initial mass of the system is 0.002 kg + 0.016 kg = 0.018 kg.
magnetic fields.
Thus the change in mass is relatively very tiny and can be neglected.

8. (a) The atomic number of helium is 2; therefore the nucleus must contain 2 3. We subtract the mass of a 2656 Fe atom from the total mass of 26 hydrogen atoms
protons. Since the mass number of this isotope is 3, the sum of the protons and and 30 neutrons. Then we convert mass units to energy units, finally we divide
neutrons in the nucleus must equal 3; therefore there is 1 neutron. by A= 56, the total number of nucleons. 2656 Fe Have 26 protons and 30 neutrons

134 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 135

 whose separate masses are
99m
26( 11H ) 26(1.007825
= = u ) 26.20345 u includes 26 electrons Activity of Tc vs time

=30mn 30(1.008665
= u ) 30.25995 u 1200

Activity (counts/s)
The sum is 56.46340 u therefore the mass defect is ∆m = 0.52846 u. 1000
800
=
The total biding energy is thus Eb (0.52846
= u )(931.5 MeV / u ) 492.26 MeV
Eb 492.26 MeV 600
=
And the biding energy per nucleon is A = 8.79 MeV
56 400
4. We subtract the mass of from the masses of the atom with one less neutron, , 200
and a free electron. 0
13
C = 12.00000 u 0 4 8 12 16 20
The mass of 6
Time (hours)
The mass of 01n = 1.008665 u
The total is 13.008665 u 133
2. Xe is a radioactive gas which is used in studies of lung function. It has a decay
54
13
Subtract the mass of C we get 13.008665 u - 13.003355 u = 0.005310 u
6
constant= λ 1.51×10−16 s −1 . You have just taken delivery of a 4.0 MBq sample for
an experiment you wish to conduct.
The energy produced is (931.5 MeV/u)(0.005310 u) = 4.95 MeV.
133
a. What is the half-life of 54 Xe in seconds and in days?
13
That is, it would require 4.95 MeV input energy to remove one electron from C 6
b. What will be the activity of your sample in 15.93 days? In 18 days?
5.9.3. Extended activities
The experiment you wish to conduct requires an activity of at least 3.0 MBq.
1. Show that if two ions of the same charge and velocity but different masses pass
through a uniform magnetic field, the radii of the path are proportional to the c. How long do you have before finding a volunteer subject?
masses. (This is the principle of mass spectrograph). Find an expression for ∆m if
d. What mass of 133
54 Xe did you initially acquire?
∆r is a change in radius.
3. Nuclear power is used in many places in the world. There are over 400 nuclear
2. Technetium is used to image the brain, thyroid, lungs, liver, spleen, kidney, gall
power plants currently in operation, over 100 of which are in the USA, providing
bladder, and skeleton and blood pool. It is the most commonly used radioisotope
20% of the electricity consumed in that country. These plants use uranium fuel (
in medical imaging. The graph below is for a sample of 99Tc . 235 235
U
92 U
enriched with 3% 235
92 U ) to produce electricity. It is the fission of the 92

Using the graph find: nuclei which provides the majority of the thermal energy that is used to generate
the power.
1.a. What is the half-life of this sample? 235
a. Complete the following decay equation: 92 U + n → 3793 Rb + 141
55 Cs + _____
b. What is the decay constant for the sample?
b. Use the data in the table below to find the energy released in this reaction.

c. How many decays per second would it take to run a 60W light globe?

d. If a power plant only converts 10% of the excess mass into useful energy, how
many decays per second would you need?

136 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 137

 Useful masses: Here we are given the activity after a certain time, A, as 3 MBq. The initial
activity is 4 MBq and one needs to find the value of the time, t:
4
α
Particle 235
U 93
Rb 141 3 4= or 0.75 e −1.51 x 10
−6 t

Cs
− λt
= e
92 37 55
2 As t is in the exponent part of the equation, one needs to find the logarithm of
Mass 235.04392 92.92172 140.91949 4.002603 0.000545 0.0000000 both sides; in this case, the natural log of both sides is the more appropriate. Note
(amu) that the time, t, will be expressed in seconds since λ is given in s-1.
−1.51×10−6 t
−1.51×10−6 t and −0.288 =
ln(0.75) =
−27
1. u 1.660566 × 10
= kg Hence, t = 190 518 s = 52.9 hours = 2.2 days
2. Electromagnetic Radiations from mobile towers can have multi-faceted harmful d. By definition, 1 g of radium-226 has an activity of 3.7 x 1010 Bq.
effects on human body. Using research on internet, investigate different effects That is, it has a specific activity of 3.7 x 1010 Bq/g. If we have a radionuclide of
caused by mobile towers in your region while exposed near them. shorter half-life and smaller atomic mass, then it will have (in direct proportion)
a greater specific activity than Ra-226. (Note for Ra-226, T½ = 1600 years and AR
= 226).
Answers Hence, the specific activity of any nuclide, X, of half-life TX and atomic mass AX is
1. a) we can write the following relations: given by,
226 1600 years
m1v 2 Specific activity =3.7 ×1010 × ×
Ax Tx ( years )
= qvB
r1 (1) The only restriction with units is that both half-lives should be in the same units of
133
time. In our case, 54 Xe has a half-life of 5.31 days and has an atomic mass of 133.
m2 v 2 Hence;
= qvB
r2 (2)
133 226 1600 × 365 days
Specific activity of X e =3.7 ×1010 ×
× =6.9 ×1015 Bq ⋅ g −1
m r 133 5.31 days
By equating equation (1) and equation (2) and simplify, we get 1 = 1 ⇒ r ∝ m
m2 r2 That is, 1 g of has an activity of 6.9 x 1015 Bq, or 1/6.9 x 1015 g has an activity of 1
6 15
b)Let us then take equations (2)-(1). We get. Bq. Hence 4 MBq (initial activity) will have a mass of 4 × 10 / 6.9 × 10 g , which
( m2v 2 − m1v 2 ) =
( r2 − r1 ) qvB is 5.8 ×10−10 g .
qB This very small mass is the amount of pure Xe-133 gas which is mixed with the non-
Hence ∆mv = ∆rqB ⇔ ∆m = ∆r
v radioactive (Xe 131) part.
0.693 0.693
=
2. a. The half-life, T1/2, is given by, T1 = = 458 940=s 5.31 days
2 ë 1.51 x 10 −6 s −1
b. After 15.93 days, this is 3 half-lives.
The activity reduces by two for each half life, after 1sthalf life activity = 2 MBq,
after 2nd half-life activity = 1 MBq, and after 3rd half-life activity = 0.5 MBq.

Hence the activity after 15.93 days (i.e., 3 half-lives) is 0.5 MBq
− λt
After 18 days, one must use the relationship, A = Ao e λ 1.51×10−6 s −1
Now=

and t = 18 days = 18 × 24 × 3600 s = 1.56 × 106 s

− λt
Hence A =Ao e =4 ×106 × e −2.35 =3.8 ×105 Bq
− λt
c. Again we use A = Ao e

138 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 139

 3. Energy from nuclear reactions.
235
a. U + 01n → 3793 Rb + 141
92
1
55 Cs + 2 0 n

=
b. The energy released is given by Q mi c 2 − m f c 2
2
Q= (235.043924 u + 1.00866501 u ) − (92.92172 u − 140.91949 u − 2 ×1.00866501 u )c = 2.9 ×10 −11
J.
UNIT 6: APPLICATIONS OF OPTICAL FIBER IN
TELECOMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 6
To run a 60 W light globe we need 60 J in one second. The number of decays, n, is:
60 J
n= 2.068 ×1012 =
= 3 ×1012
2.9 ×10−11 J .

c. A power plant only converts 10% of the excess mass into useful energy,
so we only get the energy from one in every ten decays, hence we need 6.1 Key Unit Competence
12 13
10 × 3 ×10 = 3 ×10 decays.
By the end of the unit, the learner should be able to differentiate optical fiber
5. Headache, Nausea, Brain Tumours, Dizziness, Depression, Paralysis, Insomnia, transmission and other transmitting systems.
Muscles Pain, Alzheimer, Infertility, Miscarriage…

6.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills

The success of this unit 6 relies partly on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired in
Physics (Unit 1 and unit 2, S4& Unit 11, S5 Advanced Level) and other subjects in previous
grades or units such as Physics of Ordinary Levels (Unit 13, S1, unit 14, S2, Unit 12 and
Unit 13, S3).

6.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed

The following cross cutting should be addressed in this unit. Depending on the situation,
they should appear at the beginning, through the lesson or at the end of the lesson

Inclusive education (The teacher must promote education for all while teaching).
Regardless of physical appearance and abilities, learners should be treated equally. This
makes all learners to be involved in teaching and learning process. They find out that
they are all of great importance.

Peace and value Education (This is the respect of others views and thoughts during
class discussions). Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be correct
or not but what is important is to build on that idea.

Gender education (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation). Care
should be taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities.

Standardization culture (Be aware of radiations that do not harm our health). The
teacher puts emphases on different types of optical fiber and shows their standards so
that learners are aware of the best types they should use in real life.

140 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 141

Financial education: The teacher should show the role of optical fiber in 3. Challenges are: digital skills gap, limited infrastructure, lack of capital, unskilled
telecommunication how it is efficient in order to encourage learners to save their people to exploit internet on maximum…
money while using internet connectivity.
4. Transfer of information, internet connectivity and communication.
Environment sustainability: be aware of materials in optical fiber that harm our
5. Used in surgery, used as a source of light, used to transport laser ray
environment.

6.5 List of lessons

6.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the new concept S/ Lesson Title Learning Objectives Periods
of optical fiber. No
•• Divide your students into groups (Grouping may depend on the nature of your
class or number of learners you have). Always take care of learners with any kind 1 Introductory activity • Explain the functioning 4
of disability while making groups (hearing, reading, seeing, etc.). and Principles of Oper- of optical fiber
•• Tell the learners to open the introductory activity in the learner’s book. Give them ations of Optical Fibers
• Identify and explain the
clear information about the activity.
components of optical fi-
•• Ask learners to observe and read the text bellow the figure before answering ber system
questions. While learners are doing this activity, you move around, guide or
answer to the questions of slow learners. You may mark the working of those
who have finished.
2 Types of Optical Fibers • List and explain the func- 2
•• When everyone has finished the activity, invite some member(s) of group(s) to tioning of different types
present their findings to the whole class. Guide the presentation. of optical fiber
•• Ask other groups to present what others did not raised or mentioned.
• Describe telecommunica-
•• Note some misconceptions and misunderstanding so that they will be corrected tion system
and harmonised in the lesson. Together with students harmonize the points and
make a summary on the board. Give to learners the opportunity to write the main 3 Mechanism of Attenu- • Explain attenuation and 3
points in their notebooks. ation Solve problem related
to attenuation giving an-
•• Harmonize the lesson by linking what have discussed and the summary of the
swers in decibels
lesson.
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations. • Describe functions of
amplifiers in optical fiber
Possible answers of the introductory activity transmission

1. Figure 6.1 has three images: On image A, there are bundles of optical fiber • Describe noise produc-
installation. It is probably in one of the town of Rwanda. On figure B, the activities tion in optical fiber
of fiber installation are ongoing. Two parts of fiber optics will be connected
together. Part C is either the receiver or emitter of fiber optical signals. It is called
transducer.

2. Internet for All” project is a Rwandan policy to connect the whole country to
available internet connectivity by using fiber optics

142 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 143

 4 Optical Transmitter ••Explain the major role of 3 Lesson 1: Principles of Operations of Optical Fibers
and Optical Receiver optical transmitter and
a) Introduction:
optical receiver
Through guided discovery, assist learners to the figure on learner’s book. You can make
••Analyse the difference a recap using Units of Physics mentioned above on Prerequisite Knowledge. You can
between optical use probing questions techniques to remind the learners the laws of reflection and
transmitter and optical refraction of light.
receiver.
b) Teaching resources
5 Uses of Optical Fibres • Distinguish optical fiber 2
and other telecommuni- Textbooks
cation systems
c) Learning Activities
• Recognize the impor-
tance of fiber optics in Activity 6.1 Investigating the stable and unstable nucleus
communication This activity aims to capture students’ attention and minds them towards the concept
Advantages and Dis- • Appreciate significance 2 of optical fiber. Therefore, the following guidelines should help the teacher to monitor
advantages of Optical of optical fiber telecom- the lesson efficiently.
Fibres munication system
•• Divide your students into groups, accordingly. Tell the learners to open and
• Acknowledge reshaping read the activity 6.2 in the learner’s book.
of signals transmitted •• Instruct learners to observe fig.6.2 and read the questions and answer them
along an optical fiber re- by writing in their notebooks. Give them the time to reflect on their prior
duces noise effects knowledge (thinking time).
6 Evaluation 2 •• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark the work of
those who have finished.
•• When everyone is done, invite some groups to present their findings to the
whole class. Make sure that you are developing generic competences in your
learners: cooperation, critical thinking, etc.
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to
the ones discussed. If not, invite them for the presentation of new ideas.
•• Together with students harmonize the points discussed and make a summary
on the board. Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class,
this will be the opportunity for the teacher to correct misconceptions met
during presentation.
•• Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Make summative
assessment to make sure that learning objectives have been achieved.
•• Link this lesson to real life. You should talk about cross-cutting issues to be
addressed in this lesson like peace education.

144 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 145

Possible answers and n1 (sin θ1 ) = n2 (sin θ 2 )
1. The term critical means an angle of incidence beyond which rays of light passing
Therefore θ 2 = 480
through a denser medium to the surface of a less dense medium are no longer
refracted but totally reflected. When the angle of incidence is critical angle, the n2 1
a. sin nc = ⇒ sin nc = ⇒ nc = 24.40
angle of refraction is 900. n1 2.42
a. (i) Refraction occurs
2. Total internal reflection is caused by the differences in optical media. The medium
of incidence is denser than the medium of refraction. (ii) Total internal reflection occurs and light reflects back in at 24.4°

3. Uses of total internal reflection Lesson 2: Types of Optical Fibers

i. Reflecting prisms. In optical instruments, right-angled prisms are widely used
to divert the course of light rays. As the total internal reflection takes place a) Introduction
within them, the loss of light energy can be kept to a minimum. So, the prisms In this lesson, you are going to guide learners to discover types of optical fiber using
are preferred to mirrors for the purpose of reflection. research. You can use remind them how to use books or search engines on internet
ii. Mirage: On hot summer days or in the deserts, patches of water appear to us, while making a scientific research.
some miles in front of us, only to find none when we approach them. This b) Teaching resources:
phenomenon is caused by the total internal reflection. The air layers on the
ground become hot and less dense in these places and light, when comes Textbooks library or internet
down has to pass through these less-dense layers. At a certain point, the light
exceeds the critical angles and the total internal reflection takes place on a c) Learning Activities
vast scale, creating the illusive puddles of water.
Activity 5.2 Investigating the types of optical fibers
iii. The sparkles inside diamonds are cause by total internal reflection. Diamond
is well-known for its toughness. It has a large refractive index compared with The activity aims to capture students’ attention and develop critical thinking and
the air. Therefore, when light enters a diamond, the possibility of it being collaboration on learners. The learners will be encouraged to make a scientific research
subjected to total internal reflection is very high, that in turn causes sparkles. using different resources in order to get information about types of optical fibers.

iv. Optic fibres revolutionized the communication that we take for granted today. •• Divide your class into groups according to the number of learners you have.
This device with a thin flexible glass fibre with a coating, carries light through a •• Assign each group a task to be carried out. Give them instructions or guidelines
distance of kilometres and kilometres, with a very little loss of its energy. This of the research.
is possible because of total internal reflection
•• Supervises them while working to avoid laziness or misconduct in the lesson.
v.Medical uses - the endoscope •• Ask them to write a report on what they found.
•• When they finish (after a reasonable time for this activity), invite them to re-
Checking my progress join their class and make presentation. Each group present its findings.
1. 1-a, •• From the presentations of learners, help them to summarize the content
based on the facts of optical fiber. Write the summary and ask learners to
2. 2-D, copy it in their notebooks.

3. 3-B •• Remember to conclude your lesson by connecting it to real life situation

n 1
=
4. We know that the critical angle is given by θ c sin
= −1 −1
( 2 ) sin= ( ) 48.80
n1 1.33
The critical angle for light travelling from water to air is 48.80

5. n1 (sin θ1 ) = n2 (sin θ 2 ) and (0.1)(sin 30) = n2 (sin 20) Then n2 = 1.46

146 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 147
Possible answer learning and teaching.

There are three types of optical fibers: Monomode, multimode and multipurpose b) Teaching resources: Textbooks
optical fiber. Multimode are classified into step-index multimode type and graded index c) Learning Activities
multimode type. Multipurpose fiber optics are Polarization-maintaining and Photonic-
crystal fiber. Activity 6.3 Light transmission analysis in optical fiber
Monomode fibers use a straight transmission called one mode. Multimode fiber optics The activity aims to capture students’ attention and develop critical thinking and
use light that travels through the fiber following different light paths called “modes”. collaboration on learners. The learners will be encouraged to respond actively in their
respective groups.
Multipurpose fiber optics are used either as fiber optic sensors or as diffracting materials
of light •• Divide your class into groups according to the number of learners you have.
•• Ask learners to open their books on activity 6.3 and read the questions on figure
Checking my progress provided. Supervises them while working to avoid laziness or misconduct in the
lesson.
1. False 2. H 3. C •• Ask them to rise a hand if they have finished. Mark their responses.
4. Match the words of column A to their meaning of column B •• When all of them finish (after a reasonable time for this activity), invite them to
do presentation. Each group present its findings.
Column A Column B •• From the presentations of learners, help them to summarize the content based
Multimode fiber The core is only 5μm in diameter, and the only one on the facts of optical fiber. Together with students develop the summary and
straight path for transmission. ask learners to copy it in their notebooks.
Photonic-crystal fiber Is commonly used in fiber optic sensors due to its •• Remember to conclude your lesson by connecting it to real life situation and
ability to maintain the polarization of the light emphasize on cross-cutting issues.
Graded index multimode Light travels through the fiber following different
type light paths called “modes Possible answer
Mono mode fiber The refractive index of the glass varies 1. No some amount of energy are scatted away and do no reach the destination.
continuously from a higher value at the Centre of
the fiber to a low value at the outside, 2. Poor optical fiber, absorption, leakage in fiber optics, bad connectors used,
Polarization-maintaining fiber Such fiber uses diffraction effects instead of or in impurities in the glass fiber, low refractive index and so on.
addition to total internal reflection, to confine light 3. Use of different devices such as Repeaters, Regenerators and Optical Amplifiers
to the fiber’s core.

Checking my progress
1. False
1→c 2→ e 3→d 4→ a 5→b
2. True
Lesson 3: Mechanism of Attenuation 3. True
a) Introduction
In this lesson, you are going to guide learners to answer to questions related to the Answers
provided activity. In this activity, learners will discover defects or power loss of optical a) Attenuation is the measure of the rate of loss of signal strength along the length
fiber and how this problem may be handled. The teacher must create a good climate of of the fiber.

148 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 149

 b) Energy is lost by the scattering and absorption of the light rays as they travel ones discussed. If not, invite them for the presentation of new ideas.
through the glass fiber.
•• Together with students harmonize the points discussed and make a summary
c) After each km, it retains 95% of the signal strength it had at the beginning of that on the board. Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class,
km. this leads to an exponential decay curve. this will be the opportunity for the teacher to correct misconceptions met during
presentation.
•• Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Make summative
assessment to make sure that learning objectives have been achieved.
•• Link this lesson to real life. You should talk about cross-cutting issues to be
addressed in this lesson like peace education, financial education, and environment
sustainability.

Possible answers

1. It is generated by a transmitter. It is composed by a coder and light emitting diode
Lesson 4: Optical Transmitter and Optical Receiver (LED). LEDs transmit information in the form of light.

a) Introduction: 2. They are modulated at high frequency.

Through guided discovery, assist learners to the figure on learner’s book. You can make 3. The most commonly used optical transmitters are semiconductor devices such
a recap using Units of Physics mentioned above on Prerequisite Knowledge. You can as light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes. The main component of an optical
use probing questions techniques to remind the learners the laws of reflection and receiver is a photo detector (photodiode) which converts the infrared light signals
refraction of light. into the corresponding electrical signals by using photoelectric effect before they
b) Teaching resources: Textbooks are processed by the decoder for conversion back into information.

c) Learning Activities
Lesson 5: Uses of Optical Fibres
Activity 6.4Investigating the signal sources and signal receiver for optic
a) Introduction
fibers
In this lesson, you are going to guide learners to answer to questions related to the
This activity aims to capture students’ attention and minds them towards the concept provided activity.
of optical fiber. Therefore, the following guidelines should help the teacher to monitor
the lesson efficiently. b) Teaching resources: Textbooks

•• Divide your students into groups, accordingly. Tell the learners to open and read c) Learning Activities
the activity 6.4 in the learner’s book.
Activity 6.5 Light transmission analysis in optical fiber
•• Instruct learners to observe fig.6.4 and read the questions and answer them by
writing in their notebooks. Give them the time to reflect on their prior knowledge The activity aims to bring students’ attention and develop critical thinking and
(thinking time). collaboration on learners. The learners will be encouraged to respond actively in their
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark the work of respective groups.
those who have finished. •• Divide on the method to use in the lesson into groups according to the number
•• When everyone is done, invite some groups to present their findings to the whole of learners you have.
class. Make sure that you are developing generic competences in your learners: •• Ask learners to open their books on page 50 and read the questions on figure
cooperation, critical thinking, etc. provided. Supervises them while working to avoid laziness or misconduct in the
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the lesson.

150 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 151

 •• Ask them to rise a hand if they have finished. Mark their responses. •• While students are doing this activity, you supervise and assist your learners to
encourage them.
•• When all of them finish (after a reasonable time for this activity), invite them to
do presentation. Each group present its findings. •• When every group is done, invite some groups to present their findings to the
whole class. Make sure that you are developing generic competences in your
•• From the presentations of learners, help them to summarize the content based
learners: cooperation, critical thinking, etc.
on the facts of optical fiber. Write the summary and ask learners to copy it in their
notebooks. •• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed. If not, invite them for the presentation of new ideas.
•• Remember to conclude your lesson by connecting it to real life situation and
emphasize on cross-cutting issues. •• Together with students harmonize the points discussed and make a summary
on the board. Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class,
Possible answer this will be the opportunity for the teacher to correct misconceptions met during
presentation.
1. No some amount of energy are scatted away and do no reach the destination. •• Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Make summative
assessment to make sure that learning objectives have been achieved.
2. Poor optical fiber, absorption, leakage in fiber optics, bad connectors used,
impurities in the glass fiber, low refractive index and so on. •• Link this lesson to real life. You should talk about cross-cutting issues to be
addressed in this lesson like peace education, financial education, and environment
3. Use of different devices such as Repeaters, Regenerators and Optical Amplifiers sustainability.

Checking my progress Possible answers:

d) A and B Advantages
Capacity: Optical fibres carry signals with much less energy loss than copper cable and
with a much higher bandwidth.
Lesson 6: Advantages and Disadvantages of Optical Fibres
Size and weight: Optical fiber cables are much lighter and thinner than copper cables
a) Introduction:
with the same bandwidth.
Through guided discoveries, give guidelines to learners in order to carry out research
on library or on internet. Security: Optical fibres are much more difficult to tap information from undetected; a
great advantage for banks and security installations.
b) Teaching resources: Textbooks, library and internet
Running costs: copper system consumes far more electrical power than fiber, simply to
c) Learning Activities
carry the signals.

Activity 6.6Investigating the signal sources and signal receiver for optic
Disadvantages
fibers
Price: In spite of the fact that the raw material for making optical fibres, sand, is
This activity aims to capture students’ attention and minds them towards the concept abundant and cheap, optical fibres are still more expensive per metre than copper.
of advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber. Therefore, the following guidelines
should help the teacher to monitor the lesson efficiently. Special skills: Optical fibres cannot be joined together (spliced) as an easily as copper
cable and requires additional training of personnel and expensive precision splicing and
•• Divide your students into groups, accordingly. Tell the learners to open and read measurement
the activity 6.6 in the learner’s book.
•• Instruct learners to read the questions and answer them by writing in their
notebooks all information from found either by using internet or library. Use the
available resources.

152 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 153

Checking my progress reflection at the core–cladding interface, it is useful to enlarge upon the geometric
optics approach with reference to light rays entering the fiber. Since only rays with a
1. See the answers in activity above sufficiently shallow grazing angle (i.e. with an angle to the normal greater than φc ) at
2. False the core–cladding interface are transmitted by total internal reflection, it is clear that
not all rays entering the fiber core will continue to be propagated down its length.
6.6 Summary of the Unit
The geometry concerned with launching a light ray into an optical fiber is shown in
An optical fiber (fiber optics) is a medium for carrying information from one point to Figure 6.1, which illustrates a meridional ray A at the critical angle φc within the fiber at
another in the form of light. It uses a flexible, transparent fiber made by silica glass or the core–cladding interface. It may be observed that this ray enters the fiber core at an
plastic and has a diameter slightly thicker than that of a human hair. angle θα to the fiber axis and is refracted at the air–core interface before transmission
to the core–cladding interface at the critical angle. Hence, any rays which are incident
The underlying main physics concept behind the functioning of an optical fiber is a into the fiber core at an angle greater than θα will be transmitted to the core–cladding
phenomenon known as total internal reflection. interface at an angle less than φc and will not be totally internally reflected.
There are three main types of Optical Fibers: Monomode (or single mode), Multimode
and special purpose optical fibers.

In fiber optics, attenuation also known as transmission loss, is the reduction in intensity
of the light beam (or signal) as it travels through the transmission medium.

Attenuation can be caused by several factors both extrinsic and intrinsic and can be
reduced by using regenerators, amplifiers, etc.

The process of communicating using fiber-optics involves the following basic steps:

•• Creating the optical signal involving the use of a transmitter, usually from
an electrical signal.
•• Relaying the signal along the fiber, ensuring that the signal does not become too
distorted or weak.
Fig.6. 1 The acceptance angle θα when launching light into an optical fiber
•• Receiving the optical signal.
•• Converting it into an electrical signal.
Optical fibres offer huge communication capacity in the communications industry and This situation is also illustrated in Figure 6.1, where the incident ray B at an angle greater
In medicine Although there are many benefits to using optical fibres, there are also than θα is refracted into the cladding and eventually lost by radiation. Thus for rays to
some disadvantages such as lack of skilled people and high cost be transmitted by total internal reflection within the fiber core they must be incident on
the fiber core within an acceptance cone defined by the conical half angle θα

6.7 Additional information for the teacher Hence θα is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order
to be propagated, and is often referred to as the acceptance angle ( θα is sometimes
6.7.1. Acceptance angle referred to as the maximum or total acceptance angle) for the fiber.Invalid source
specified.
Having considered the propagation of light in an optical fiber through total internal
If the fiber has a regular cross-section (i.e. the core–cladding interfaces are parallel and
there are no discontinuities) an incident meridional ray at greater than the critical angle
will continue to be reflected and will be transmitted through the fiber. From symmetry
considerations it may be noted that the output angle to the axis will be equal to the

154 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 155

input angle for the ray, assuming the ray emerges into a medium of the same refractive limiting cases into (*) gives 1
index from which it was input. θ1 (n12 − n22 ) 2
n0 sin =
(**)
6.7.2. Numerical aperture Equation (**), apart from relating the acceptance angle to the refractive indices, serves
as the basis for the definition of the important optical fiber parameter, the numerical
The acceptance angle for an optical fiber was defined in the preceding section. 1

aperture (NA). Hence the NA is defined as: NA θ1 (n1n − n2n ) 2

= n 0 sin=
However, it is possible to continue the ray theory analysis to obtain a relationship
between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three media involved, Since the NA is often used with the fiber in air where n0 is unity, it is simply equal to sin
namely the core, cladding and air. This leads to the definition of a more generally used θa.
term, the numerical aperture of the fiber. It must be noted that within this analysis, as
with the preceding discussion of acceptance angle, we are concerned with meridional It may also be noted that incident meridional rays over the range 0 ≤ θ1 ≤ θa will be
rays within the fiber. Fig.6.2 shows a light ray incident on the fiber core at an angle θ1 propagated within the fiber.
to the fiber axis which is less than the acceptance angle for the fiber θα . The ray enters
the fiber from a medium (air) of refractive index n0, and the fiber core has a refractive The NA may also be given in terms of the relative refractive index difference Δ between
index n1, which is slightly greater than the cladding refractive index n2. the core and the cladding which is defined as:
n12 − n22 n1 − n2
=∆
2n12
≈
n1
for ∆ 1
Hence combining the equation of numerical aperture and the equation of relative
refractive index difference, we can write: 1
= n1 (2∆) 2
NA

The relationships given in equations above for the numerical aperture are a very useful
measure of the light-collecting ability of a fiber. They are independent of the fiber core
diameter and will hold for diameters as small as 8 μm. However, for smaller diameters
they break down as the geometric optics approach is invalid. This is because the ray
Fig.6. 2 theory model is only a partial description of the character of light. It describes the
direction a plane wave component takes in the fiber but does not take into account
interference between such components. When interference phenomena are considered
Assuming the entrance face at the fiber core to be normal to the axis, then considering it is found that only rays with certain discrete characteristics propagate in the fiber
the refraction at the air–core interface and using Snell’s law given by n0 sin θ1 = n1 sin θ 2 . core. Thus the fiber will only support a discrete number of guided modes. This becomes
critical in small-core-diameter fibers which only support one or a few modes.
π
Considering the right-angled triangle ABC indicated in Figure 2.5, then: φ = = −θ 2 where
2 Ex1: A silica optical fiber with a core diameter large enough to be considered by ray
φ is greater than the critical angle at the core–cladding interface. Hence the equation
theory analysis has a core refractive index of 1.50 and a cladding refractive index of 1.47.
n0 sin θ1 = n1 sin θ 2 becomes: n0 sin θ1 = n1 cos φ
Determine: (a) the critical angle at the core–cladding interface; (b) the NA for the fiber;
Using the trigonometrical relationship, sin φ + cos φ =
2
1 the equation above can be
2 (c) the acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
written in The form:
1
θ1 n1 (1 − sin φ )
n0 sin= 2 2
(*) Solution:
−1 n2
When the limiting case for total internal reflection is considered, φ becomes equal (a) The critical angle φc at the core–cladding interface is given
= by φc sin
= ( ) 78.50
n 1 1
n1
to the critical angle for the core–cladding interface and is given by sin φc = 2 . Also in (b) NA =(n12 − n22 ) 2 =(1.502 − 1.47 2 ) 2 =0.30
n1
this limiting case θ1 becomes the acceptance angle for the fiber θa. Combining these

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 (ii) Using equation in 1 (c), the critical angle is 79.40
is θα sin
−1 1
=
(c) the acceptance angle in air = NA sin −= (0.30) 17.40
(b)
Ex2: A typical relative refractive index difference for an optical fiber designed for long
distance transmission is 1%. Estimate the NA and the solid acceptance angle in air for
the fiber when the core index is 1.46. Further, calculate the critical angle at the core–
cladding interface within the fiber. It may be assumed that the concepts of geometric
optics hold for the fiber.

Solution:
1 1

Since Δ= 0.01, the NA is given by: NA= n1 (2∆) 2 = 1.46(0.02) 2 = 0.21

For small angles the solid acceptance angle in air ζ is given by:
ξ ≈ πθ
= 2
α π sin 2 =
θα π ( NA) 2
n (constant) = 1.5 from A to B, slight decrease and constant from B to C
ξ ≈ π × 0.04 =0.13 rad
n − n2 n2 At C, n decreases to 1, remains at 1 from C to D.
For the relative refractive index ∆ gives ∆ ≈ 1 = 1−
n1 n1 3.a) Attenuation is a measure of the rate of loss of signal strength along the length of
n
Hence, 2 = 1 − ∆ = 1 − 0.01 = 0.99 the fiber.
n1
The critical angle at the core–cladding interface is b) Energy is lost by the scattering and absorption of the light rays as they travel through
the glass fiber.
−1 n2
=φc sin
= ( ) sin
= −1
0.99 81.90
n1 c) After each km it retains 95% of the signal strength it had at the beginning of that km.
This leads to an exponential decay curve.

6.8 End unit assessment

1. (a) (i)Coherent − used to transfer / transmit image (out of body)

Coherent − same fiber arrangements at both ends of bundle

Allow same relative position, do not allow symmetrical

(ii) Non-coherent − used to transfer light into body (to illuminate)

Non-coherent − random fiber arrangement along bundle

Do not allow not symmetrical

(b) sin θC =
1.49
⇒ θC = 790
1.52
After 35 km, the signal strength=
is 0.9535 ×=
A 0.166 A (where A is the original
signal strength).
2. (a) (i) Core. So that total internal reflection can occur 6
4a) Length of cable about 5000 km (estimation) t= s= 5 × 10 = 0.025s
v 2 ×108

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(b) Path of microwave about 86 000 km is t 8.6 ×107 in all other types.
= = 0.28s
3 ×108
(c) The delay using the optical fiber is not noticeable. Remembering that the signal
6.9.2 Consolidation activities
delay there and back would be double the value estimated, this would be noticeable
with a satellite link. 1. Prepare a comparative table between a multimode and a single mode fiber optics

2. Write in your own words the description of step index fiber and graded index
fiber

6.9 Additional activities

Answers1.
6.9.1 Remedial activities 1.
1. The principle called total internal reflection explains why light is not guided in an
optical fiber. Multimode fiber Single mode
a. True Low cost sources High cost sources
Low cost connectors High cost connectors
b. False
Lower installation cost Higher installation cost
3. The symbol for refractive index is:
Higher fiber cost Lower fiber cost
c. n b. c Higher loss, lower bandwidth Lower loss, high bandwidth
d. M d) & e.None of the above Distance up to 2 km Distance to 60 km
3. Do fibers have losses? 2. The teacher should mark this activity by considering the information given in the
table bellow
Answer
Step index fiber Graded index fiber
All things in the universe are inefficient. This means that when a measured amount of
The refractive index of the The refractive index of the core is made to
something enters a system, less comes out than originally went in. If you pour a liter of
core is uniform throughout and vary gradually such that it is maximum at the
water into one end of a pipe, you will always get less than a liter out of the other end. If
undergoes on abrupt centre of the core
you apply a voltage to the extreme of one wire, no matter how you do it, you will get a
lesser value at the other end. The diameter of the core is The diameter of the core is about 50 in the
about 50-200µm in the case of case of multimode fiber
Fiber optics are no exception, the light entering one end encounters all kinds of multimode fiber and 10µm in the
obstacles and flaws, resulting in losses; from 2 to 10% for every running meter. case of single mode
4. Can fibers be bent at right angles? Why? The path of light propagation is The path of the light is helical in manner
zig-zag in manner

Answer
No. All fibers must be bent with a radius, which will not alter the internal architecture
of the fiber. For every type and size of fiber, there is a minimum radius of curvature,
specified and recommended by the manufacturer. Bending fiber optics at right angles
will cause the conductor to shatter in the case of glass, and be permanently damaged

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 Attenuation is more for multimode Attenuation is less.
step index fiber but for single
mode, it is very less. Explanation: here the light ray travel with
different velocity in different paths because of
Explanation: When a ray travels their different refractive indices. At the outer
through the longer distances, edge it travels faster than near the centre.
there will be some difference in But almost all the rays reach the exit at the
reflected angles. Hence high angle same time due to helical path. Thus there no
rays arrive later than low angle dispersion Fig.6. 3 A digital optical fiber link using a semiconductor laser source and an avalanche photodiode (APD) detector

rays causing dispersion resulting in

distorted output.
4. When the mean optical power launched into an 8 km length of fiber is 120 μW, the
mean optical power at the fiber output is 3 μW. Determine:
6.9.3 Extended activities
1. One kind of optical fiber consists of two very very thin rods one inside the other. a. The overall signal attenuation or loss in decibels through the fiber assuming
there are no connectors or splices;

b. The signal attenuation per kilometre for the fiber.

c. The overall signal attenuation for a 10 km optical link using the same fiber with
splices at 1 km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB;

d. The numerical input/output power ratio in (c).

Answer
1. (i) In X, The ray is incident at O at a small angle (less than the critical angle). Most
of the light is refracted along OP: only a small amount is reflected along OQ.
i. Explain why only a small amount of light is piped trough the fiber in X.
(ii) In Y, the ray is incident at an angle of incidence which is greater than the
ii. Why does the light travel along the fiber in Y without losing its intensity.
critical angle and total internal reflection occurs. The ray continues throughout
iii. State how the inner and outer surfaces differ in their refractive indices. the fiber and all the ray is piped along the curved path.

iv. Why is a fiber coated with a layer of plastic? (iii) The inner surface has a slightly higher refractive index than the outer surface,
since it is a slightly denser medium.
v. State two applications of optical fibers.
(iv) To protect it from damage by preventing it from becoming scratched.
2. Do fiber optics transmit radiations?
2. Light is a radiation; therefore, the answer is yes. Some fibers, depending on the
3. Make a study of the following diagram of optical fiber below and discuss its nature of the materials from which they are made, transmit one band of radiation
functioning more or less wide or restricted.

Generally, the fibers used for lighting transmit little or no ultraviolet, a very small
amount of infrared and variable quantities of the visible light frequencies.

Heat is a radiation on the infrared region and does not transmit well on standard

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 lighting fibers. To put an example; the amount of heat that will build up inside a
case with a volume of one cubic meter of air, is only one degree in 24 hours, from
a 5mm diameter PMMA light guide powered by a 150 W metal halide illuminator

3. The figure above shows a block schematic of a typical digital optical fiber link.
Initially, the input digital signal from the information source is suitably encoded
for optical transmission. The laser drive circuit directly modulates the intensity of
the semiconductor laser with the encoded digital signal. Hence a digital optical
Unit 7: BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TELECOMMUNICATION
7
signal is launched into the optical fiber cable. The avalanche photodiode (APD)
detector is followed by a front-end amplifier and equalizer or filter to provide
gain as well as linear signal processing and noise bandwidth reduction. Finally, the
signal obtained is decoded to give the original digital information.

4. (a) The overall signal attenuation in decibels through the fiber is: 7.1 Key unit competence:
p 120 ×10−6 By the end of the unit the learner should be able to construct and analyze block diagram
Signal attenuation
= 10 log10 i 10
= log10 −6
16.0 dB
p0 3 ×10 of telecommunications
(b) The signal attenuation per kilometre for the fiber may be simply obtained by
dividing the result in (a) by the fiber length which corresponds to it where:
16.0 dB
7. 2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills
The signal attenuation of the total length L=
is α dB = 2.0 dBkm −1
8 km The success of this unit relies partly on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired in
16.0 dB
=
Then α dB = 2.0 dBkm −1
Physics (Unit 10 and 11, S5 Advanced Level) and (unit 13, S3 Ordinary level).
8 km
c) As Asα dB = 2.0 dBkm −1 , then the loss incurred along 10 km of the fiber is
given by 7.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed
α dB L =2 ×10 =20 dB Inclusive education (The teacher must promote education for all while teaching).
Regardless of physical appearance and abilities learners should be treated equally. This
d) However, the link also has nine splices (at 1 km intervals) each with an
makes all learners to be involved in teaching and learning process. They find out that
attenuation of 1 dB. Therefore, the loss due to the splices is 9 dB. Hence, the
they are all of great importance.
overall signal attenuation for the link is: Signal attenuation = 20 + 9 = 29 dB
Peace and value Education (This is the respect of others views and thoughts during
To obtain a numerical value for the input/output power ratio, the relation
total attenuation in dB ) class discussions). Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be correct
Pi Pi (
Signal attenuation 10 log10 can be equal to = 10 10
or not but what is important is to build on that Idea.
P0 P0
Hence Gender education (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation). Care
29
should be taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities.
Pi ( )
= 10
= 794.3
10
Environment sustainability: During delivering different lessons within this unit, let
P0
learners be familiar with des advantages of system communication. This led to the
recognition of the awareness on them and learners will be responsible for the world
around them and they will acquire knowledge, skills, attitude and values which will

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enable them to deal with the environment change issues. 7.5 List of Lessons

S/ Lesson Title Learning Objectives Periods

7.4 Guidance on the introductory activity No
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept. The 1 Operating principle of Outline the function of a 2
activity should not take more than ten minutes. microphone microphone
•• Divide your students into groups (Grouping may depend on the nature of your 2 Channels of signal Identify types channels 3
class or number of learners you have). Always take care of learners with any kind transmission
of disability while making groups.
3 Carrier wave and Concept of carrier wave 2
•• . Give them clear instructions about the activity. modulator modulation
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around, guide slow learners and 4 Oscillator, radio Differentiate oscillator, modulator 3
mark their working. frequency amplifier and and power amplifier
•• When everyone has finished the activity, invite some member(s) or group(s) to power amplifier
discuss their findings to the whole class. Describe terms applied in
telecommunications systems
•• Ask other members whether their answers correspond to the discussed points
and if there is any point that is different from what have been raised to mention 5 Antennas Outline the function of antenna 2
it. 6 Block diagrams of Identify parts of a block diagram 2
•• Note some misconceptions and misunderstanding so that they will be corrected telecommunication of telecommunication system
and harmonised in the lesson. Together with students harmonize the points and
make a summary on the board. Give to learners the opportunity to write the main Describe terms applied in
points in their notebooks. telecommunication systems
•• Harmonize the lesson by linking what have discussed and the summary of the Construct, analyse and judge block
lesson. diagrams of telecommunication
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations. system

Realise that parts of a

telecommunication on system are
dependent
7 End unit assessment 2

Lesson 7.1: Operating principle of microphone

a) Introduction:
Through guided discovery, assist learners to discuss about mobile communication. You
can make a recap using Units mentioned above on Prerequisite Knowledge.You can use
probing questions techniques to remind the learners mobile communication.

b) Teaching resources:
Internet and textbooks, and other available resources

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 c) Learning Activities: loud, a big current is generated, if you talk softly, the current is smaller. Thus
a microphone is thought to be an energy converting device: It turns the sound
Activity 7.1 investigating what is a microphone energy in your voice into electrical energy using a device called Transducer. The
loudspeaker in a phone works in magnetism to convert the electrical energy
This activity aims to capture students’ attention and minds them towards investigating back into sound energy you can hear. In some phones, the loudspeaker and the
what is a microphone. Therefore, the following guidelines should help the teacher to microphone units are virtually identical, just wired up in opposite ways.
monitor the lesson efficiently.
5. The functions of a microphone: Basically a microphone has a diaphragm which
•• Divide your students into groups, accordingly. Tell the learners to open and read moves when pressures sound moves pushes it. This movement can be converted
the activity 7.1 in the learner’s book. into proportional voltage using several possible transducers. A transducer is
•• Instruct learners to observe the figure 7.1 and read the questions and answer device which receives electrical, mechanical or acoustic waves from one medium
them by writing in their notebooks. Give them the time to reflect on their prior and converts them into related waves for a    similar or different medium. Thus,
knowledge (thinking time). it can be said that a microphone is a transducer that    converts acoustic energy
(sound vibrations) into electrical energy.
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark the work of
those who have finished. The function of a speaker: To understand the working principle of a speaker, we need
•• When everyone is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to present to understand first the concept of a sound. A sound is a vibration in air particles. When
their findings to the whole class. Make sure that you are developing generic a sound source generates a sound, it generally makes a vibration in its surrounding
competences in your learners: cooperation, communication, critical thinking, etc. air particles which finally to our eardrum. Generally a speaker is device that produces
vibrations in air particles in order to generate sound by converting the voltage or
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed current into sound vibrations in the air by moving the diaphragm of the speaker.

•• Together with students harmonize the points discussed and make a summary
on the board. Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, Lesson 7.2: Channels of signal transmission
this will be the opportunity for the teacher to correct misconceptions met during
a) Introduction:
presentation.
•• Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Make summative Through guided discovery, assist learners to discuss about signal transmission. You can
assessment to make sure that learning objectives have been achieved. make a recap using Units mentioned above on Prerequisite Knowledge (10, 11).You can
use probing questions techniques to remind the learners the transmission of signals
•• Link this lesson to real life. You should talk about cross-cutting issues to be
addressed in this lesson like peace education. b) Teaching resources:
Internet and textbooks and available resources
Possible answers
c) Learning Activities
4. The function of a telephone is to make and receive a call. It helps people to
communicate and exchange either oral or written information land, undersea Activity 7.2: Investigating signal transmission
and in air. At the top of a telephone cell, there is a loudspeaker pressed against
the air. At the bottom, there is a microphone near the mouth. Coming out of the This activity aims to capture students’ attention and minds them towards investigating
handset, wrapped inside a single thick, coiled cable are two pairs copper wires. investing signal transmission. Therefore, the following guidelines should help the
One pair is an output: it takes outgoing electrical signals from the microphone teacher to monitor the lesson efficiently.
to the telephone system. The other pair is an output: it takes incoming signals
from the telephone to the loudspeaker. The microphone and loudspeaker work •• Decide on the method of teachers to use in this lesson.
in similar but opposite ways: The microphone contains a flexible piece of plastic •• Give the instructions to students and read the questions and answer them by
called a diaphragm an iron coil attached to it and a magnet nearby. When you writing in their notebooks. Give them the time to reflect on their prior knowledge
speak into the mouthpiece, the sound energy in your voice makes the diaphragm. (thinking time).
Vibrate, moving the coil nearer to the farther the magnet. This generates an
electric current in the coil corresponding to the sound of your voice: If you talk •• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark the work of

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 those who have finished.
•• When everyone is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to present
their findings to the whole class. Make sure that you are developing generic
competences in your learners: cooperation, communication, critical thinking, etc.
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed
•• Together with students harmonize the points discussed and make a summary on
the board. Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, this
will be the opportunity for the teacher to correct misconceptions met during
presentation.
•• Allow Students to write the main points in their notebooks. Make summative
assessment to make sure that learning objectives have been achieved.
•• Link this lesson to real life. You should talk about cross-cutting issues to be
addressed in this lesson like peace education.

Possible answers The receiver consists of two parts: the receiving (top) part of the telephone, and Carl’s
ear. The current, sent along the copper wire, arrives at the top end of the telephone.
Example of how the voice can be transmitted from transmitter to receiver Inside this top end is a device called an electromagnet and right next to that is a
diaphragm. The current, containing all of Monica’s talking frequencies, enters into
The transmitter consists of Monica (who is talking) and the transmitting (bottom) end the electromagnet. This electromagnet causes the diaphragm to vibrate with all of
of the telephone. Monica speaks, and her vocal cords vibrate. This causes vibrations Monica’s talking frequencies. The vibrating diaphragm causes vibrations in the air, and
in the air, which travel through and out her mouth, and then travel to the bottom end these vibrations travel to Carl’s ear. His eardrum vibrates, and these vibrations cause
of the telephone. Inside the bottom end of the telephone is a diaphragm. When the electrical signals to be sent to his brain, which interprets this as Monica’s sound. (Nasar,
vibrations of the air arrive at this diaphragm, it, like an eardrum, begins to vibrate. 2001)
Directly behind the diaphragm are a bunch of carbon granules. These granules are
part of an electrical circuit, which consists of a 4-V source, copper wire, and the carbon
granules. The carbon granules act as a resistor (with variable resistance) in the circuit. d) Checking my progress
When the diaphragm is pushed back by the vibrating air, it causes the carbon granules
1 .D
(right behind it) to mush together. In this case, the granules act like a low-resistance
resistor in the circuit. Hence, the current flowing though the electric circuit is high. 2. Used for radio broadcasting of voice and music to shortwave listeners over
When the diaphragm is popped out by the vibrating air, it causes the carbon granules very large areas; sometimes entire continents or beyond.
(right behind it) to separate out. In this case, those carbon granules are acting like a
high-resistance resistor in the electrical circuit. Hence, the current flowing though the Used for military communication,
circuit is low. Overall, vibrations in the diaphragm (its “pushing back” and “popping
out”) cause the same vibrations (frequencies) to appear in the current of the electrical Used for Diplomatic communication,
circuit (via those carbon granules). The channel is a copper wire. The vibrating current 3. The part of the medium frequency radio band used mainly for Amplitude
generated by the transmitter is carried along this wire to the receiver. Modulation radio broadcasting. It is the original radio broadcasting band, in use
since the early 1920’s

4. Distinguish between Amplitude modulation and frequency modulation

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In amplitude modulation (AM), the amplitude of the high frequency carrier wave is When recording an art product in studio (producers)
made to vary in proportion to the amplitude of the audio signal as shown in fig…..
d. Checking my progress
In frequency modulation (FM), the frequency of carrier wave is made to change to in
proportion to the audio signal’s amplitude as shown in fig….. 1. A) AM

2. Analog and digital signals are used to transmit information, usually through
Lesson 7.3: Carrier wave and modulator electric signals. In    analog and digital signals are technologies, the information
such as any audio or video, is transformed into electric signals. . The difference
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction: between analog and technologies is that in analog, the information is transmitted
a) Teaching resources: into electric pulses of varying amplitude. In digital, translation of      information
is into binary format (o or 1).
Internet and textbooks and other available resources
3. The carrier wave in telecommunication is defined as the continuous
a. Learning Activities electromagnetic radiation, of constant amplitude and frequency, that is given
out by a transmitter and it is modulated in direct proportion to the signal, such as
Activity 7.3: Modulation techniques the voice or music that is to betransmitted.
This activity aims at making students how sound can be produced 4. The purpose of the carrier is:
•• Put your students in groups. •• To transmit the information through space as an electromagnetic wave (as in
•• Instruct learners to read the questions and relate them to Fig 7.6 radio communication).

•• Tell the students to attempt the questions in their notebooks. •• To allow several carriers at different frequencies to share a common physical
transmission medium by division multiplexing examples cable television.
•• When students are doing this activity; you move around and mark their work.
•• when everyone is done and you are done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to
Lesson 7.4: Osciallator, radio frequency amplifier and power amplifier
discuss their findings to the whole class.
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the a) Introduction:
ones discussed Through questioning, learners revise the transmission o signals learned in the previous
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. lessons.
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks
b) Teaching resources:
Possible answers: Internet and textbooks

This system can be applied in a number of applications such as: c) Learning activities

•• When a spokesperson uses a microphone uses a microphone conveying a speech This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap on the
to the audience previous lessons.
•• When a journalist or a radio/ television presenter is on a scene in studio or a stage •• Divide learners into groups.
presenting a show
•• Where possible, take your students in a computer lab and instruct them
•• When someone is talking on a telephone. It concerns a calling person and a to investigate the uses of oscillator and radio frequency amplifier in the
person being called telecommunication. You can instruct them how to find them in the search engine.
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention
and assist them if there is any problem about searching on internet.

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 •• When every group is done; invite groups (s) (like 2 groups) to discuss and present Lesson 7.5: Antennas
their findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent
their finding. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be a) Introduction:
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment.
Through brainstorming, teacher invites different learners to review on the previous
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the lessons.
ones discussed in their groups.
b) Teaching resources:
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board.
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking to the Internet, textbooks, flipcharts and other available resources.
summary and what have been discussed in class.
c) Learning Activities:
Possible answers: •• Instruct learner to observe fig 7.13 from learner book and answer questions of
activity 7.5
1. A radio frequency is any of the electromagnetic wave frequencies which is in the
extend range from around 20 kHz to 300GHz. Is used in telecommunication to •• In group(s), let learners discuss and answer that activity on flipcharts.
increase the amplitude signal •• Authorize group representatives to present their findings.
2. An oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electric •• Complete the ideas that are incomplete and confirms correct answers.
signal, a sine or square wave. They are used in telecommunication to convert •• Correct the false ideas and confirms correct answers.
direct current from a power supply to an alternating current signal. Most
signals generated by oscillators are   used in broadcasting radio and television •• Harmonize learner’s ideas.
transmission
Possible answers:
3. They are used in devices which generate clock signals that regulate the computers
and quartz clocks in i devices able to produce electronic beeps (electronic 1. Wire antennas and Reflector antennas
beepers) and video games. They are used as sources of carrier signals which are
used to modulate and help the original signal to reach the destination. 2. Aperture antennas, Array antennas, Isotropic antennas, Biconical dipole antenna,
Biconical dipole antenna, Micro strip antennas, etc
d) Checking my progress 3. After a radio frequency (RF) signal has been generated in a transmitter, an
1. (a) Audio Frequency (AF) oscillators (frequency range is 20 Hz to 20 kHz) antenna must be used to radiate this signal through the space to a receiver. The
transmitter signal energy is sent into the free space by the transmitting antenna
(b) Radio Frequency (RF) oscillators (frequency range is 20 kHz to 30 while the radio frequency signal is then picked up from the space by receiving
MHz) antenna.

(c) Video Frequency oscillators (frequency range is dc to 5 MHz) The RF energy is transmitted into the space in the form of electromagnetic field. As the
(d) High Frequency (HF) oscillators (frequency range is 1.5 MHz to 30 travelling electromagnetic field arrives at the receiving antenna, the voltage is induced
MHz) into the antenna as it is the conductor. This RF voltages induced into the receiving
antenna are then passed into the receiver and converted back into the transmitter RF
(e) Very High Frequency (VHF) oscillators (frequency range is 30 MHz to information.
300 MHz)
2. Electronic circuits that produce a periodic waveform on its output with only the
DC supply voltage as an input

3. a: Microphone b: Oscillator c: Audio frequency

d: Radio frequency e: Antenna      f: Amplifier

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 d) Checking my progress •• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed in their groups.
1. An antenna is an electrical device connected (often through a transmission line)
to the receiver or transmitter which converts electric power into radio waves, •• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board.
and vice versa Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking to the
summary and what have been discussed in class.
2. Array antenna

3. The Array antennas Yagi-Uda antennas or micro-strip patch arrays or aperture Possible answer:
arrays, slotted waveguide arrays
the communication system, as the system that conveys information form one point
Aperture antennas to another via physical channels that propagate electromagnetic, acoustic, particle
density or other waves. The communication system provided in the illustration (fig 7.
The aperture antennas are horn antennas and waveguide opening and they are 18) has the main parts which are:
usually used in aircrafts and space crafts.
Input transducer: this device turns the sound energy in a voice into electrical energy
transforming it into an input signal to be fed to the transmitter. This signal must be
Lesson 7.6: Block diagrams of telecommunication modulated and encoded. The transmitter converts the input signal to transmitter signal
a) Introduction: suited for the transmitting after using modulation and using an encoder it. Here the
signal is affected by various process take place in the channel within which the signal
Through guided discovery, assist learners to discuss different parts of block diagram of will b fed to transmission
telecommunication.
•• Transmission channel: medium that bridges the distance from the source to the
You can make a recap using Unit 10: analog and digital signals( S5) and unit 11: Mobile destination. It can be either wired or wires.
phone and radio communication (S5).
•• The receiver is a device that converts the received signal in a form appropriate
b) Teaching resources: for output transducer after amplifying, filtering, demodulating and decoding it.

Internet and textbooks. •• Output transducer: it converts the output signal into a desired message form.
It is corresponding to the original signal from the source, though sometimes
c) Learning Activities through the   transmitting channel, it can be subjected to various transmission
impairments such as:
Activity 7.6: investigating communication system 1. Attenuation which is the decease of the signal strength in the channel
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards terms applied in 2. Distortion of the signal waveform due to the linearity, frequency response,
telecommunication overloads,      directional response channel.
•• Divide learners into groups. 3. Noise which random natural signal, most of the time unwanted signal added
•• Where possible, take your students (in a period of 10 to 15 min) in a computer lab to the original or transmitted signal, sometimes produced by characteristics
and instruct them to search about block diagram of telecommunication. You can of the channel such as linearity, frequency response, overloads and the
instruct them write in the search engine “ Telecommunication system” surrounding environment. Once added to the original, they contaminate it.

•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention 4. Interference to the original signal due to signals from human sources,
and assist them if there is any problem about searching on internet. machinery, power lines, digital switching circuits, coupling circuits.
•• When every group is done; invite some groups (s) to discuss and present their
findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent their
findings. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment.

176 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 177

 d) Checking my progress A transmitter is a device that converts the input signal to transmitted signal suited
for the transmitting channel after using a modulator and using an encoder it. Here the
1. Power amplifier in simple radio transmitter provides the necessary electrical
signal can be affected by various phenomena which take place in the channel within
power to operate the transmitter
which the signal will be fed for transmission.
2. a. physical time-variable quantity usually in smooth and continuous form.
1. Transmission cannel is a medium that bridges the distance from source to the
b. ordered sequence of symbols selected from finite set of elements destination. It can be either wired or wireless. E. g: fiber optics, coaxial cables,
waveguide, atmosphere
3. Block diagram of simple radio receiver (is drawn in learner book)
2. The receiver is device that convert the received signal in a form appropriate for
the output transducer after amplifying, filtering, demodulating and decoding it.
7. 6 Summary of the Unit
3. Output transducer it converts the output electrical signal into a desired message
Telecommunication in real life is the transmission of signs, signals, text messages, form. This message must correspond to the original signal from the source,
writings, images and sounds and other types of data of any nature by wire, radio, optical though sometimes through the transmitting channel, it might have been
or other electromagnetic systems of communication. Telecommunication occurs when subjected to various transmission impairments such as:
the exchange of information between communicating participants includes the use of
a. Attenuation which is the decrease of the signal strength in thechannel
signs or other technologically based materials such as telephone, TV set, radio receiver,
radio emitter, computer, and so on. All can be done either mechanically, electrically or b. Distortion of the signal waveform due to the linearity, frequency response,
electronically. overloads, directional response channel

A message is information put in an appropriate form for transmission. Each message c. Noise which is any random natural signal, most of the time unwanted signal added
contains information. A message can be either analog message (a physical time-variable to the original or transmitted signal, sometimes produced by characteristics
quantity usually in smooth and continuous form) and a digital message (anordered of the channel such as linearity, frequency response, overloads, directional
sequence of symbols selected from finite set of elements response and the surrounding environment. Once added to the original, they
contaminate it.
An antenna or aerial is an electrical device connected to the receiver or transmitter
d. Interference to the original signal due to signals from human sources,
which converts electric power into radio waves, and vice versa. It is usually used with a
machinery, power lines, digital switching circuits, coupling circuits.
radio transmitter or radio receiver
To be able to reuse the receive the message which was sent from the source, the
Input transducer is a device that turns the sound energy in a voice into electrical energy
receiver should be able to demodulate and decode it using a demodulator and a
transforming it into an input signal to be fed to the transmitter. This signal must be
decoder. Thus, demodulation is the reverse process of modulation, which is used to
modulated and encoded.
get back the original message signal while decoding is the reverse process of encoding
Thus, modulation is the process by which some characteristics such as amplitude, to retrieve the original message and make it human understandable message. At the
frequency, and phase of a carrier are varied in accordance with a modulating wave transmission and the reception, we use antennas. Antennas are the devices which
while encoding is the process of coding the message and change it in the language convert radio frequencies signals or electrical signals into electromagnetic or wave
understandable by the transmitter. The oscillators are sources of carrier signals which signals or vice versa. Functionally, antennas are devices used to send information in
are used to modulate and help the original signal to reach the destination. Normally, the form of electromagnetic wave signals to communicate in wireless or unguided ways.
resulting signal must be raised at a level that will permit it to reach its destination. This
operation is accomplished by amplifiers.

An amplifier is an electronic device which can increase the amplitude or the power
of the input signal to its input parts, without the needs of modifying the form of that
signal.

178 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 179

7.7 Additional Information 6. Digital systems of communication are transmitted in data bits (zeros and one), so
they are not subjected interference, the way the signal leaves the transmitter (or
the station for thatmatter) it is exactly the way you receive it. Since it is digital,
Telecommunication and society the signal is either on       or off. Unlike analog where it could be on with lots of
The societal importance of telecommunications is well accepted and broadly understood, interference from       anything including distance from the transmitter, mountains
etc.
reflected in its near ubiquitous penetration and use. Noted below are some of the areas
of impact: •• Power consumption of digital transmitter is very low and enables provision of
mobile TV services
•• Telecommunication provides a technological foundation for societal
communications. •• They provide sharper, cleaner , and more detailed images than analog pictures
Communication plays a central role in the fundamental operations of a •• There is the possibility of delivering interactive video and data services
society from business to government to families. In fact, communication
among people is the essence of what distinguishes an organisation, 7. Examples:
community, or society from a collection of individuals. Communication
•• Improvement of total factor productivity, particularly in those industries
from web browsing to cell phone calling to instant messaging has become
that are ICT-intensive but also in Those that are not creation/ relocation of
increasingly integrated into how we work, play and live. enterprises relocation of enterprises based on the availability of high capacity
telecommunications networks (as one of many infrastructure factors) and
•• Telecommunications enable participation and development. Telecommunications
quality of life (driven by availability of networks in schools, hospitals, public
plays an increasingly vital role in enabling the participation and development of
administration etc)
people in communities.
•• Employment creation of employment as a result of relocation of companies
•• Telecommunications provides vital infrastructure for national security. From searching for labour cost arbitrage.
natural disaster recovery, to homeland security, to communication of vital
intelligence to continued military superiority, telecommunication plays a pivotal •• Creation of qualified self-employment resulting from the availability of
role. communication networks

It is difficult to predict the impact of telecommunications technologies, services and •• Creation of employment in manufacturing and installation of telecommunications
equipment economic growth increase in efficiency of industries with high
applications that have not yet been invented. For example, in the early days of research
transaction costs (retail distribution, finance etc…)
and development into the internet in the late 1960s, who could have foreseen the full
impact of the internet’s which widespread use today? •• Consumer surplus generated by the availability of new telecommunications
services…….

7.8 End Unit Assessment 7.9 Additional activities (Questions and Answers)
1. A.
7. 9.1 Remedial activities
2. C.
1. In amplitude modulation, the .........of carrier is varied according to the strength
3. a) Amplifier b) Modulator of the signal

4. System in which information is transmitted from one physical location, A, to a a. amplitude b. Frequency
second Physical location, B
b. Phase d. None of the above
System which allows this information to be sent beyond the range of usual vocal
or visual communications.

5. Draw a labelled diagram showing the elements of radio transmitter see LB

180 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 181

 2. Over modulation ( amplitude) occurs when signal amplitude is.........carrier Answer
amplitude
1. A 2. B 3. C 4. B 5. A
a. Equal to b. Greater than
6. A 7. C 8. D 9. C
c. Less than d. None of the above

3. Demodulation is done.......... 7.9.2 Consolidation activities

10. With a block diagram explain the following elements of telecommunication
a. Receiving antenna b. Transmitter
system
c. Radio receiver d. Transmitting antenna
Transmitter and Receiver
4. As the modulation level is increased, the carrier power......
11. What is the meaning of the term attenuation in communication system?
a. Is increased b. Remains the same
12. What does the term transducer main in communication system?
C. Is decreased d. none of the above

5. In radio transmission, the medium of transmission............... Answer

a. Space b. an antenna 10.A transmitter is an electronic device used in telecommunications to produce

radio waves in order to transmit or to send data with the aid of an antenna.
c. Cable d. None of the above
A receiver is a device that converts the received signal in a form appropriate for
6. Man made noise are........variations the output transducer after amplifying, filtering, demodulating and decoding it.

a. Amplitude b. Frequency 11. The loss of strength of a signal white propagating through a medium.

C. Phase d. both phase and frequency 12. A device that converts signals to electrical form or vice-versa.

7. In TV transmission, picture signal is.......modulated

7.9.3 Extended activities
a. Frequency b. Phase
13. Modulation allows us to send a signal over a band pass frequency
C. Amplitude d. none of the above range. If every signal gets its own frequency range, then we can transmit
multiple signals simultaneously over a single channel, all using different
8. In a radio receiver, noise is generally developed at....
frequency ranges. Another reason to modulate a signal is to allow the use
a. . IF stage b. Receiving antenna of a smaller antenna

c. audio stage d. RF stage

9. When the modulating the modulating signal controls the frequency of the carrier,
we get.

a. Phase modulation b. amplitude modulation

c. Frequency modulation d. May be any of the above

182 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 183

 Unit 8: NATURE OF PARTICLES AND THEIR
INTERACTIONS 8

8.1 Key unit competence

By the end of the lesson, learners should be able to analyse the nature of particle and
their interactions

8. 2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills

The success of this unit relies partly on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired
in Chemistry S4 (Unit 2: Electron configurations of atoms and ions) and other related
subjects in previous grades

8.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed

•• Inclusive education (promote education for all while teaching). Regardless of
physical appearance and abilities learners should be treated equally. This makes
the learners to find out that they are all of great importance. Regarding to this
unit, you can show learners that as small elementary particle in reaction together,
they create matter or energy through their interaction, thus, as students all,
regardless of their physical ability, in a team they can make the society beautiful
•• Gender education (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation).
Care should be taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities. In this
unit, we have seen baryons and mesons together, they form hadrons at equal
proportion, thus as male and female working together with equity, they build
their society.
•• Environment sustainability: During delivering different lessons within this unit, let
learners be familiar with the application and importance of skills and knowledge
obtained about elementary particles.

8.4 Guidance on the introductory activity

This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept

•• Divide your students into groups (Where possible, mix equally the number of

184 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 185

 girls to number of boys. If there are students with impairment, let them take the
lead of groups during doing activity). The choice of method to use may depend 3 Particle and ••Explain the concept of antiparticle 3
on size, type and time of the lesson anti particle
••Interpret concepts of an
•• Tell the learners to open the introductory activity in the learner’s book. Pauli’s antiparticle
•• Instruct learners to re-write the questions and answer them following the exclusion
principle ••State Pauli’s exclusion Principle
instructions from learner’s book.
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work. ••Analyise Pauli’s exclusion principle
•• When everyone is done and you are done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to
4 Fundamental ••Outline fundamental interactions 2
present and discuss their findings to the whole class.
interactions by exchange of particles
•• Ask other members whether their answers correspond to the discussed points by particle
and if there is any point that is different from what have been raised to mention exchange ••Analyse fundamental interactions
it. You can talk about those points (in a discussion together with other students). by exchange of particles
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board.
6 Uncertainty Explain uncertainty principle for time 2
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. And then linking to
the summary and what have discussed in class, emphasize on the main types of principle , energy and particle creation
elementary particles. You can take some minutes and explain them. and particle
creation Discuss uncertainty principle for time
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations and energy in the context of particle

8.5 List of Lessons 5 Matter and •• Explain the concepts of matter 2

antimatter and antimatter
S/ Lesson Title Learning Objectives Periods (pair
No production ••Acquire scientific attitudes of
and reasoning to interpret elementary
1 Elementary ••Describe elementary particles 3 annihilation) particle phenomenon
particles
••Describe elementary particles
6 End unit 2
••Appreciate application of assessment
elementary particles

2 Classification ••Explain classification of 4

of elementary particles
elementary
particles. ••Explain classes of particle by spin

••Classifier and describe particles by

spin

••Acquire scientific techniques for

identifying elementary particles

186 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 187

 Lesson 8.1: Elementary particles 4. Elementary particle is any of the particles of which matter and energy are
composed or which mediate the fundamental forces of nature. In particle physics,
a) Introduction: it is a particle whose substructure is unknown thus it is unknown whether it is
composed of other particles
•• Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe main types of elementary
particles. 5. There are three main types of elementary particles are: Gauge bosons, leptons
•• You then guide them to find explanations about elementary particles, the four and hadrons
fundamental forces and their unification
•• You can ask learners questions about elementary particles and four fundamental d. Checking my progress
forces and their unification 1. A.
b) Teaching resources 2. i) Gauge bosons ii) Leptons and quarks
Internet and textbooks, and other available resources
3. A.
c) Learning Activities:
4. The study of the fundamental constituents of matter and their interactions
Activity 8.1 Investigate the presence of smaller particles
Lesson 8.2: Classification of elementary particles
This activity aims to capture students’ attention and minds them towards the presence
of small particles. Therefore, the following guidelines should help the teacher to a) Introduction:
monitor the lesson efficiently. •• Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe different types of elementary
•• Decide on the method of teaching to use. Tell the learners to open and read the particles and how to classifier elementary particles basing on the properties
activity 8.1 in the learner’s book. •• You then guide them to find explanations about types of elementary particles
•• Give the instructions to learners and read the questions and answer them by and their classification. You can make a recap using the lesson 1 of this unit.
writing in their notebooks. Give them the time to reflect on their prior knowledge •• You can ask learners questions about elementary particles and their classifications
(thinking time).
b) Teaching resources:
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark the work of
Internet and textbooks and available resources
those who have finished.
•• When everyone is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to present c) Learning Activities
their findings to the whole class. Make sure that you are developing generic
competences in your learners: cooperation, communication, critical thinking, etc. Activity 8.2: Classes of elementary particles
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the This activity major focuses on classification of elementary particles.
ones discussed
Make groups (or you can vary the method depending on the type of your class)
•• Together with students harmonize the points discussed and make a summary
on the board. Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, instruct learners to read instructions carefully brainstorm the questions and then write
this will be the opportunity for the teacher to correct misconceptions met during
them in their notebooks and then attempt the questions.
presentation.
•• Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Make summative Invite some group(s) to present their findings to the whole class and allow others to
assessment to make sure that learning objectives have been achieved. give their Points incase they are different from what have been discussed.
•• Link this lesson to real life. You should talk about cross-cutting issues to be Together with learners make a summary (use student’s work/findings) linking to the
addressed in this lesson like peace education.
summery you made with students, explain clearly types of elementary particles and
their classification.
Possible answers

188 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 189

8.2Possible answers •• Divide While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their
attention and assist them if there is any problem about searching on internet.
1.
•• When every group is done; invite groups (s) (like 2 groups) to discuss and present
•• Gauge bosons: The particles in the gauge boson category include the photon, their findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent
which      carries the electromagnetic force their finding. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment.
•• Leptons: comprise three charged particles, each existing in both a positive
and a negative form the electron, the muon, the tau and neutrinos of three •• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
corresponding types the electron neutrino, the muon neutrino, and the tau ones discussed in their groups.
neutrino.
Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. Allow
•• Hadrons: they include the neutron, the proton, the pion, and other particles learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking to the summary and
with larger    rest masses. Hadrons are further divided by mass and spin into the what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain intensively the need to know
mesons and the heavier baryons. about particle, antiparticle and Pauli’s exclusion principle.
2. There are three properties that describe an elementary particle ’mass,’’ ‘’charge’’
and ‘’spin’’ Activity 8.3: What is antiparticle?

8.2.3 Checking my progress Possible answers

1. Elementary particles can be classified by their properties “mass,Spin and charge” An antiparticle is a particle of antimatter corresponding to a give particle in every
respect except that charge and certain other discrete properties charge sign. The
2. D. 3. D
positron, for example, is the antiparticle the electron. In collision between a particle
4. Elementary particle is any of the particles of which matter and energy are and its antimatter counterpart, both are annihilated.
composed or which mediate the fundamental forces of nature. In particle physics,
d) Checking my progress
it is a particle whose substructure is unknown thus it is unknown whether it is
composed of other particles. 1. An antiparticle (its definition in learner book)

2. The principle of Pauli’s exclusion states that two or more identical fermions
Lesson 8.3: Particle and anti particle cannot occupy the same quantum state within a quantum system simultaneously.
a) Introduction: 3. ‘No two particles, fermions (electrons) can be in the same quantum state’. As the
Through brainstorming, teacher invites different learners to review on the previous Pauli’s exclusion principle suggests, if any two particles for examples electrons
are found be sharing the same state, any one particle will be excluded from
lessons.
sharing state.
b) Teaching resources:
Internet and textbooks and available resources

c) Learning Activities
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap on the
lesson 2 Classification of elementary particles.

•• Decide on the methodology of teaching to use in this lesson.

•• Where possible, take your students in a computer lab and instruct them to search
about the concept of particle and antiparticle. You can instruct them write in the
search engine “particle and antimatter”.

190 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 191

 Lesson 8.4: Fundamental interactions by particle exchange Electromagnetic forces between electric charges,

a) Introduction: Strong force (nuclear force) between subatomic particles,

Through brainstorming, learners revise the elementary particles in the previous lessons. Weak forces that arise in certain radioactive decay processes
b) Teaching resources:
Lesson 8.5: Uncertainty principle and particle creation
Internet, textbooks and other available resources
a) Introduction:
c) Learning activities
Lesson
Through guided 8.5: Uncertainty
discovery, assist learnersprinciple
to discuss and
aboutparticle creation
uncertainty principle for
Decide on the method to use in this lesson (You can use group work, individual or whole
time and energy in the context of particle creation. You can make a recap using the
class)
a) Introduction:
previous lessons.
•• Tell learners to open their books to activity 8.4
b) Teaching
Through resources:
guided discovery, assist learners to discuss about uncertainty principle for time and en
•• Instruct them to read the instructions of the questions and attempt the questions in the context of particle creation.
in this activity Internet, textbooks and other availableYou can make a recap using the previous lessons.
resources

•• Call some student(s) or group(s) to present their findings to the whole class. b)
c) Teaching
Learningresources:
Activities Internet, textbooks and other available resources
Under your guidance
•• Decide on the method to use in this lesson (You can use group work, individual or
•• Explain their findings about antiparticles in the whole class. c) Learning Activities
whole class) Tell learners to open their books to activity 8.5
•• Together with students, come up with a summary and allow learners to write
●•• Decide
Instructonthemthetomethod
read thetoinstructions
use in this of the questions
lesson (You canand useattempt
group the questions
work, individual or whole c
some important concepts in their notebooks. in this activity
Tell learners to open their books to activity 8.5
●•• Call
Instruct
somethem to reador
student(s) thegroup(s)
instructions of the questions
to present and to
their findings attempt the questions
the whole class. in this activ
8.4 Possible answers: ● Under
Call some student(s) or group(s) to present their findings to the whole class. Under
your guidance
In particle physics: guidance
•• Explain uncertainty principle and derive its equation.
● Explain uncertainty principle and derive its equation.
1. Gravitational force is responsible for the motion of the planets and Stars in the ●•• Together
Together with
withstudents,
students,come
comeup upwith
witha asummary
summary and note
and notedown
downmajor points
major points to the board
Universe to the board and allow learners to write some important
allow learners to write some important concepts in their notebooks. concepts in their
notebooks.
2. The electroweak interaction is the unified description of two of the four known
Activity 8.5: Investigation of particle creation and position
fundamental interactions of nature: electromagnetic and the weak interaction Activity 8.5: Investigation of particle creation and position
3. Strong force is an attractive between protons and neutrons that keep the nucleus Possible answers:
together. Possible answers:
Particle creation meaning, high energy particle from accelerator can collide to produce
4. Weak force is the mechanism of interaction between sub-atomic particles that Particle creation meaning, high energy particle from accelerator can collide to produce
particles. They can produced by nuclear reaction. No, we can‘t know exactly the position
causes radioactive decay and thus plays an essential role in nuclear fission new particles. They can produced by nuclear reaction. No, we can’t know exactly the
momentum of particle uncertainty principle
(meaning is responsible for radioactive decay of certain nuclear position and momentum of particle uncertainty principle
8.5 Checking my progress
8.4.2 Checking my progress 8.5 Checking my progress
1. The Uncertainty principle.
1. B The Uncertainty principle.
2. By 1940, the recognized forces of nature (fundamental forces) were four:  h
a. x p  where    1.055  10 34 J  s
2 2
Gravitational forces between objects, b. Heisenberg
The The Heisenberg uncertainty
uncertainty principle
principle says says
that that
no no matterhow
matter how precise
precise your
your measurements
more you know about one variable the less it is possible to know about the other, and
192 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physicsproduct of the
S6 -Teacher’s two uncertainties is always greater than or equal 193
guide to Planck‘s cons
h
  1.055  10 34 J  s .
2
c. All experiments involve some uncertainty due to inaccuracies in measurements; t
uncertainties are also often called ―errors‖. In a first year physics experiment these uncertai
 1. The Uncertainty principle.

 h
a. x p  where    1.055  10 34 J  s
2 2
b. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle says that no matter how precise your measurements, the
measurements, the more youmore knowyouaboutknow
one about one
variable thevariable
less it isthe less ittoisknow
possible possible to know about thePossible
other, and the
answers:
product of the two uncertainties is
about the other, and the product of the two uncertainties is always greater than or always greater than or equal to Planck‘s constant,
equal to Planck’s constant, .   h  1.055  10 34 J  s . 1. Matter is defined as substance that has inertia and occupies physical space. in
2 modern physics, it consists of various types of particles, each with mass and size.
All experiments involve some uncertainty due toinvolve
inaccuracies Examples: the electron, the proton and the neutron then combinations of these
c. All experiments somein measurements;
uncertainty duethese to inaccuracies in measurements; these
particles form atoms.
uncertainties are also often calleduncertainties
“errors”.areInalso often
a first called
year ―errors‖.
physics In a first
experiment year physics experiment these uncertainties
these
uncertainties are enormous comparedare enormous
to thatcompared to that from
from the uncertainty the uncertainty
relation, so it can berelation, so it can be ignored
2. in the first and give examples of antimatter particles. Examples A positron is the
Antimatter
year laboratory.
ignored in the first year laboratory. antiparticle of the electron. Antiproton is the antiparticle of proton
d. The uncertainty principle places no limit on how accurately you can measure the position or
The uncertainty principle places no limit of
velocity on how accurately
an object. you canhow
It limits measuremuch theyou
position
can know about position and3. momentum
Pair production is the creation of an elementary particle and its antiparticle from
or velocity of an object. It limitssimultaneously,
how much you can know about position and momentum
the more you know about one, the less you can know about the other. neutral boson. Examples Include creating an electron and a positron, a muon and
simultaneously, the more you know about one, the less you can know about the other. antimuon, or proton and an antiproton.
11
2. a)2.The
a) The electron
electron couldbebeanywhere
could anywherewithin the region, x  5.000
within the 11  10 m so11we take as its 4. The processes in which a particle and antiparticle unite, annihilate each other,
2. a) could
2. a) The electron The electron could
be anywhere be
Theanywhere
2. a) within the region,
electron could xthe
withinbe 5region,
 anywhere x m5so
.000  10within.000
the 10
take m
weregion, so
as its
x we5.000
takeas 11
10 its m so we take and
as its
produce one or more photons.
position uncertainty. For a given value of the uncertainty in momentum is minimum when the
soposition
position uncertainty.
we take uncertainty.
For
as aitsgiven
position For
value a given
of
position value
the
uncertainty.
uncertainty. For of Forvalue
uncertainty
a given athe
in uncertainty
momentum
given value
of the of in momentum
is minimum
uncertainty the is minimum
when
in uncertainty
momentum the when the
in momentum is minimum when the
product
is minimum 181
product product when the product product d. Checking my progress
1. D
Hence
Hence Hence Hence
2. Annihilation
b) We can rewrite the no relativistic expression of kinetic energy
b) b)
WeWe
b) We can rewrite cancan
the no rewrite
rewrite thethe
relativistic
no no relativistic
expression
b) We
relativistic expression
ofexpression
kinetic
can rewrite the energyof kinetic
noofrelativistic
kinetic energy
expression
energy of kinetic energy 3. When antimatter meets matter (we assume that their particles are of the same
type) the process annihilation occurs, and energy is released

4. Antimatter is the same as matter in every way, looks the same and behaves the
same, except its particles have electrical charges opposite to matter.. Examples:
Lesson 8.6: Matter and antimatter (pair production and annihilation) electrons are negatively charged, while a positron is positively charged.
Lesson and
Lesson 8.6: Matter 8.6: antimatter
Matter and(pair
Lessonantimatter
Matter(pair
8.6: production production
and and and annihilation)
annihilation)
antimatter (pair production and annihilation)
Lesson 8.6: Matter and antimatter (pair production and annihilation)
a) Introduction: 8. 6 Summary of the Unit
a) Introduction: a) Introduction: a) Introduction:
a) Introduction:
Through guided discovery, assist learners to discuss about the concepts of matter and antimatter. Elementary particles have been organized into groups according to their fundamental
Through guided Through guided
discovery, discovery,
assist Throughassist
learners toguidedlearners
discuss aboutto the
discovery, discuss about
concepts
assist theof the
learners concepts
matter
to of
andmatter
discuss matter
theand
antimatter.
about antimatter.
concepts of matter and antimatter.
You Through
can makeguided
a recapdiscovery,
using the assist learners
previous lessonto8.2discuss about concepts of and
properties, including mass, spin and charge.one classification scheme treated particles
You can make You canusing
a recap
antimatter. make
You the a recap
can make using
previous
You can the
lesson
a recap previous
make8.2a the
using recaplesson
using8.2
previous the previous
lesson 8.2 lesson 8.2
as gauge bosons, leptons, and Hadrons.
b) Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks.
b)Teaching
b)
b) Teaching resources:Teaching resources:
resources:
Internet Internet and
andb)textbooks.
Teaching textbooks.
resources: Internet and textbooks. •• Gauge besons the class of particles that interact through the electroweak force
c) Learning
Internet Activities
and textbooks. and contains the photon and the W beson and Z beson.
c) Learning Activities
c) Learning Activities c) Learning Activities
•• Leptons the class of particles that interact through the weak nuclear force and
Activityc)8.7:Learning
Describing Activities
the matter and antimatter contains the electron, the muon, the tauon and the three types of neutrino.
Activity 8.7:
Activity 8.7: Describing theDescribing andthe
matterActivity matter
antimatter and antimatter
8.7: Describing the matter and antimatter
Activity 8.7: Describing the matter and antimatter •• Hadrons the class of particles that chiefly interact through the strong nuclear
Possible answers:
Possible answers:Possible answers: Possible answers: force and contains the neutron, the proton , the pion and other particles of large
mass
1. Matter is defined as substance that has inertia and occupies physical space. in modern physics, it
1. Matter
1. Matter is defined is definedthat
as substance as has
1. substance
inertia
Matter that
and has
is defined inertia
occupies
as and occupies
physical
substance has physical
space.
that in modern
inertia space.
and in modern
physics,
occupies physics,
itphysical space.itin modern physics, it are assumed to consist of three quarks, and mesons to consist of a quark
consists of various types of particles, each with mass and size. Examples: the electron, the •• Baryons
consists
consists of various typesof of
various types
particles, of of
each
consists particles,
with masseach
various andwith
types size. Examples:
mass andeach
of particles, size.
the Examples:
electron,
with mass and thesize.
the electron, the
Examples: the electron, the
proton and the neutron then combinations of these particles form atoms.
proton and the proton
neutronand thenthecombinations
neutron thenof
proton combinations
these
and the particles
neutron ofthen
thesecombinations
form particles form
atoms. ofatoms.
these particles form atoms.
2. Antimatter and give examples of antimatter particles. Examples A positron is the antiparticle of
2. Antimatter 2. andAntimatter
give examples and give examples
of2.antimatter
Antimatter ofand
particles. Examples
antimatter
give particles.
examples Examples
Aofpositron A
is the
antimatter positron is the
antiparticle
particles. of antiparticle
Examples A positronof is the antiparticle of
the electron. Antiproton is the antiparticle of proton
the electron.
the electron. Antiproton Antiproton
is the the is
antiparticle the antiparticle
of proton
electron. Antiproton of proton
is the antiparticle of proton
3. Pair production is the creation of an elementary particle and its antiparticle from neutral boson.
3. Pair
3. Pair production production
is the creation is 3.the
of creation
anPair
elementary of an
production elementary
particle
is theand itsparticle
creation of anand
antiparticle its
fromantiparticle
elementary neutral from
and neutral
boson.
particle boson. from neutral boson.
its antiparticle
Examples
194 Include creating an electron and a positron, a muon and antimuon,
Physics S6 -Teacher’sor guide
proton and an Physics S6 an
-Teacher’s guide 195
Examples Include Examples
creating Include creating
an electron andana electron
Examples positron, and a positron,
a muon
Include creating a muon
andelectron
an andand
antimuon, or antimuon,
proton
a positron, and or proton
an
a muon and an
and antimuon, or proton and
antiproton.
antiproton. antiproton. antiproton.
4. The processes in which a particle and antiparticle unite, annihilate each other, and produce one
4. The processes 4. The processes
in which in 4.
a particle which
and aprocesses
particle and
Theantiparticle antiparticle
unite,
in which annihilate unite,
a particle each annihilate
andother, andeach
antiparticle other,one
produce
unite, and produce
annihilate eachoneother, and produce one
or more photons.
or more photons. or more photons. or more photons.
that interact through the electroweak force and contains the
. Elementary particles have been organized into groups according to their fundamental properties,
including
interact through the mass, spin
weak nuclear forceandandcharge.one
contains the classification scheme treated particles as gauge bosons,
leptons, and Hadrons.
three types of neutrino.
hiefly interact through the strong nuclear force and contains
other particles of ● Gauge
large
andmass besons the class of particles that interact through the electroweak force and contains the
an antiquark. proton and an antiproton.
photon and
three quarks, and mesons the W beson
to consist and Z beson.
of a quark and an
Meson: the elementary
● Leptons the classparticle originally
of particles thatpredicted
interact to be responsible
through the weakfornuclear
the strong
force and contains the Annihilation is the processes in which a particle and antiparticle unite, annihilate each
nuclearelectron,
force and now a class of particle
the muon, the tauon and the three types of neutrino. other, and produce one or more photons.
Hadrons for
ly predicted to be●responsible the class of particles
the strong nuclearthat chiefly interact through the strong nuclear force and contains
force
There are four fundamental forces or interactions:
the neutron, the proton , the pion and other particles of large mass
Baryons are assumed to consist of three quarks, and mesons to consist of a quark and an
●•• Gravity 8.7 Additional Information
ractions: antiquark.
•• The weak force is responsible for the radioactive decay of unstable nuclei and for
interactions of neutrinos and other leptons with matter. 1. Classifications of hadrons
Meson: the elementary particle originally predicted to be responsible for the strong nuclear force
•of
radioactive decayand• Electromagnetic
now a class
unstable forcefor interactions of
of particle
nuclei and
er. •• Strong force binds quarks together and holds nucleons (protons and neutrons)
There are four fundamental forces or interactions:
in nuclei.
d holds nucleons (protons and neutrons) in nuclei. Spin Mesons Baryons
Antiparticle is a subatomic particle identical to another subatomic particle in mass but
● Gravity Spin 0 1 1/2
opposite to it in electric and magnetic field (such as signal of charge) that when brought
● The weak
ical to another subatomic force
particle is responsible
in mass for the
but opposite to itradioactive decay of unstable nuclei and for interactions of
together with its counterpart produces mutual annihilation. Name Pion Kaon Anti eta rho Hyper- Antihy- Omega Sigma Proton Xi Lambda
s signal of charge) neutrinos
that whenand other leptons
brought togetherwith
withmatter.
its -Kaon Kaon perkaon

. ● Electromagnetic force
Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no more than one particle can occupy any
● Strong
quantum force binds quarks together and holds nucleons (protons and neutrons) in nuclei.
state. Charge 1,0,-1 1,0 0,-1 0 1,0 0,-1 0 0 1,0,-1 1,0 0,-1 0

o more than one particle can occupy any quantum state.

Antiparticle
Heisenberg is a subatomic
uncertainty particle
principle: identical
we cannot to another
measure subatomicand
the momentum particle in mass
position of but opposite to it Strangeness 0 1 -1 0 0 1 -1 0 -1 0 -2 -1

in
cannot measureanthe electric
momentum
object and and
magnetic
simultaneously positionfield
to better (such
ofthan
an as signal of
object
an uncertainty charge)
given by that when brought together with its
counterpart
 produces mutual annihilation.
ainty given by x p  Not that, in a similar way, the
2 2. Particle physics
ven no conserved, Pauli’s exclusion principle states that no more than one particle can occupy any quantum state.
Notfor a very
that, short way,
in a similar period
theofenergy
time, according
of an object can be uncertainty, even no conserved,
Protons, electrons, neutrons, neutrinos and even quarks are often featured in news
34
J s. for a very short period of time, according to
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: we cannot measure the momentum and position of an object of scientific discoveries. All of these, and a whole “zoo” of others, are tiny sub-atomic
Matter is a substance that has mass and takes upgiven
a space  particles too small to be seen even in microscopes. While molecules and atoms are the
simultaneously to better than an uncertainty by byxhaving
p  a volume.
Not that,This
in a similar way, the
include atoms and anything made up of these but no other energy 2
phenomena or wave basic elements of familiar substances that we can see and feel, we have to “look” within
d takes up a space by having a volume. This include atoms
energy of ansound
object atoms in order to learn about the “elementary” subatomic particles and to understand
such
her energy phenomena as or
light or
wave such ascan beor
light uncertainty,
sound even no conserved, for a very short period of time, according
 h the nature of our Universe. The science of
to E t  where    1.055  10 34 J  s .
2
the antiparticle to the corresponding 2 or ordinary
particle This study is called Particle Physics, Elementary Particle Physics or sometimes High
tiparticle have Antimatter
the same mass as one another
is a material composed butofopposite
the antiparticle to the corresponding particle or Energy Physics (HEP).
uantum numbers. Matter is a substance that
ordinary particles. In theory a particlehas massandand
its takes up a space
antiparticle have theby having
same massa volume.
as one This include atoms
and anything
another madeelectric
but opposite up of these
chargebutand
noother
otherdifferences
energy phenomena
in quantumor numbers.
wave such as light or sound Atoms were postulated long ago by the Greek philosopher Democritus, and until the
lementary particle and its antiparticle from neutral boson. beginning of the 20th century, atoms were thought to be the fundamental indivisible
aAntimatter
and a positron,Pair muon and is
production a material
antimuon,
the creation composed
or of
proton andofanthe
an elementary antiparticle
particle to the corresponding
and its antiparticle from neutralparticle or ordinary building blocks of all forms of matter. Protons, neutrons and electrons came to be
particles.
boson. ExamplesIn theory
Include a creating
particle an
andelectron
its antiparticle have the
and a positron, sameand
a muon mass as oneoranother but opposite
antimuon, regarded as the fundamental particles of nature when we learned in the 1900’s through
electric charge and other differences in quantum numbers. the experiments of Rutherford and others that atoms consist of mostly empty space
183 with electrons surrounding a dense central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.
Pair production is the creation of an elementary particle and its antiparticle from neutral boson.
Examples Include creating an electron and a positron, a muon and antimuon, or proton and an The central nucleus contains protons and neutrons which in turn contain quarks.
antiproton. Electron clouds surround the nucleus of an atom. The science of particle physics surged
forward with the invention of particle accelerators that could accelerate protons or
183
196 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 197
electrons to high energies and smash them into nuclei to the surprise of scientists, a 8.8.2 Structured questions
whole host of new particles were produced in these collisions.
4. A = Leptons B = Baryons
By the early 1960s, as accelerators reached higher energies, a hundred or more types of
5. (a) (i)
particles were found. Could all of these then be the new fundamental particles?
•• Positron is an antimatter particle; proton is a matter particle
Confusion reigned until it became clear late in the last century, through a long series
of experiments and theoretical studies, that there existed a very simple scheme of •• Positron is a lepton; proton is a hadron
two basic sets of particles: the quarks and leptons (among the leptons are electrons •• Positron has a smaller rest mass than a proton
and neutrinos), and a set of fundamental forces that allow these to interact with each
•• Positron is not composed of other particles; proton is made up of quarks
other. By the way, these “forces” themselves can be regarded as being transmitted
through the exchange of particles called gauge ii) Proton path has greater radius of curvature than positron
Be
(iii) Radius of curvature r = , where v, B and e are constant therefore r
mv
proportional to m mass of proton (m) is (much) greater than massof positron at
same speed

6. Rest mass of electron m0 = 0.51 MeV therefore total energy available

E= 2.2 + 2 × 0.51= 3.22 MeV

Gamma photons produced have average energy E = 3.2 = 1.6 MeV

2
8.8.3 Essay question
Fig.8. 1The structure of an atom
π meson (pion) is a particle that can be positive, negative, or neutral.
Bosons. Example of these is the photon, the quantum of light and the transmitter of
the electromagnetic force we experience every day. A π + or π − meson has a mass of 273 electrons. A neutral meson has a mass of 264
electro masses.

8.8 End unit assessment A muon( µ ) is a particle having a mass of 207electron masses. It formed in the
decay of a π + or π − meson and can be either positive or negative. It becomes just
like a heavy electron
8.8.1 Multiple choices
decay of a π A neutrino is a neutral particle of almost zero rest mass that is emitted in
1. A. (The positron is a particle of matter with the same mass as an electron but an
beta and in π + or π − meson decays. Six kinds of a neutrinos are known, three of which
opposite charge. It is a form of antimatter because, when a positron encounters,
are antineutrinos.
the two completely annihilate to yield energy’).
An antiparticle is a particle of antimatter corresponding to a give particle in every
2. C
respect except that charge and certain other discrete properties charge sign. The
3. C (All of the fundamental forces act on a variety of objects, including our bodies. positron, for example, is the antiparticle the electron. In collision between a particle
Although the strong and weak forces are very short range, the electromagnetic and its antimatter counterpart, both are annihilated.
force is a long-range force, just like gravity. One reason we notice the “weak”
A hadron is a particle that exhibits the strong nuclear force (example: Protons,
gravity force more than the electromagnetic force is that most objects are
neutrons, and mesons)
electrically neutral, so they do not have significant net electromagnetic forces on
them. It is true that the gravitational force between people and other objects of Lepton is a particle that does not exhibit the strong nuclear force (example: electrons
similar size is too small for us to notice, but due to the huge mass of the Earth, we muons, neutrinos
are always aware of the influence of the Earth’s gravitational force on us)

198 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 199

8.9 Additional activities (Questions and Answers) Answer 5.c

6. Which of the four fundamental forces has the shortest rang?

8. 9.1 Remedial activities
a. Strong b. Weak c. Electromagnetism d.Gravity
1. The gluon is the force carrier for
Answer: 6. b.
a. weak force b. Gravity c. The fifth force d. Strong force e. electromagnetic
force 7. Lepton number is
Answer: d a. Violated in weak interactions
2. Fundamental or elementary particle are particles that aren’t made up of small b. Violated in strong interactions
particles. What is the most common types of fundamental particle in the universe?
c. Conserved only in electromagnetic interaction
a. Atom b. Meson c. Neutrino d. Quarks
d. Conserved for all forces
Answer: c
e. Conserved only in weak interaction
3. What are the fundamental particles of an atom?
Answer: 7. d.
a. Quarks, gluons and electrons
8. State the Heisenberg uncertainty principle?
b. Protons, neutrons and electrons
Answer: (is in a learner’s book. lesson 8.5)
c. The nucleus and electron orbit
9. Elementary particles that interact by the weak force are called:
d. An atom can not be broken down into anything small than itself
a) Pion b)muon c) Neutron c) Proton d) W beson
Answer: 3. a. Atoms are made up of fundamental particle called Quarks, gluons
and electrons. Quarks and gluons make up protons and neutrons, which find Answer: 9.b
in nucleus of an atom. Each proton and neutron consists of three quarks held
together by gluons, which transmit the strong force. Electrons, which orbit
8.9.2 Consolidation activities
around the nucleus, are the third type of fundamental particles in an atom.
10. What happens when antimatter collides with its matter?
4. What determines the allowed time of existence for a virtual particle?
Answer:they annihilate resulting into formation of energy.
a. Time-energy uncertainty relation b. Its momentum
11. What is meant by the following terms: pair production and annihilation?
c. Special relativity d. Decay time
Answer: (is in a learner’s book: lesson 8.6)
Answer 4. a.
12. The uncertainty of the x-component of the electron’s position is 0.05 nm. Use
5. Which of the following particles interacts with itself the         position momentum Uncertainty principle to find:
a. Neutrino The uncertainty in the momentum.
b. Photon Then use the Classical expressions for the momentum and kinetic energy to
estimate the electron’s kinetic energy,
c. Gluon

200 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 201

 Compare it to the ground-state kinetic energy predicted by the Bohr mode. Find
the uncertainty in the gamma-ray energies. (Take the time needed for the gamma
rays to be emitted to be )

c) ∆x∆p ≥  so
2
∆p ≥

=
6.626 ×10−34
2∆x 4π × 5.00 ×10−9
=1×10−24 kg ⋅ m / s
UNIT 9: PROPERTIES AND BASIC PRINCIPLES OF QUARKS.
9
1 p2 (1×10−24 kgm / s ) 2
d) k =2
mv 2 = =
2m 2 × 9.11×10−31
5.488 ×10−19 J =
= 3.43 eV

  1. ×10−24
e) ∆E ∆t ≥ ⇔ ∆E = = = 3 ×10−4 eV
2 2∆t 2 ×1×10−12
9.1 Key Unit Competence
By the end of unit the learner should be able to organize the properties and basic
8.9.3 Extended activities principles of quarks.
13. In which of the four force interactions does each of the following particles play a
role? 9.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills
a) Electron b) positron c) proton d) neutron e) neutrino The success of this unit relies partly on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired
in Physics (Unit 8: Nature of particle and their interaction, S6), in Chemistry S4 (Unit
Answers : 2: Electron configurations of atoms and ions) and other related subjects in previous
a) electromagnetic, weak and gravity grades.

b) electromagnetic, weak and gravity

9.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed
c) weak, strong, and gravity •• Inclusive education (promote education for all while teaching). Regardless of
physical appearance and abilities learners should be treated equally. This makes
d) electromagnetic, weak, strong and gravity
the learners to find out that they are all of great importance. Regarding to this
e) Weak unit, you can show learners that as small elementary particle in reaction together,
they create matter or energy through their interaction, thus, as students all,
14. Why does pair production need a nucleus? regardless of their physical ability, in a team they can make the society beautiful.
(You should not this after providing summary at the end of the lesson 4)
Answer: ‘ the photon must be a nucleus in order to satisfy conservation of momentum, •• Gender education (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation).
as an electron-positron pair producing in free space cannot both satisfy conservation Care should be taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities. In this unit,
of energy and momentum. Because of this, when pair production occurs, the atomic we have seen that quarks and antiquarks together, they form meson at equal
nucleus receives some recoil’. proportion, thus as male and female working together with equity, they build
their society.
•• Environment sustainability: During delivering different lessons within this
unit, let learners be familiar with the application and importance of skills and
knowledge obtained about formation of matter, properties and principles of
quarks as elementary particles.

202 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 203

9.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 9.5 List of lessons
•• This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept
S/No Lesson Title Learning Objectives Periods
•• Decide the method to use in this lesson (Where possible, mix equally the number
of girls to number of boys. If there are students with impairment, let them take List types of quarks, identify quarks,
the lead of groups during doing activity) antiquarks and hadrons (baryons and
mesons)
•• Tell the learners to open the introductory activity in the learner’s book.
•• Instruct learners to re-write the questions and answer them following the Identify quarks, antiquarks and hadrons
instructions from learner’s book. (baryons and mesons)
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work. 1 Types of quarks 4
Explain types of quarks
•• When everyone is done and you are done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to
present and discuss their findings to the whole class. Explain quarks as components of proton
and neutron.
•• Ask other members whether their answers correspond to the discussed points
and if there is any point that is different from what have been raised to mention Adapt scientific thinking about particle
it. You can talk about those points (in a discussion together with other students). elements
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. Define baryon number and state the law
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. And then linking to of conservation of baryon number.
the summary and what have discussed in class, emphasize on the types of quarks.
You can take some minutes and explain them. Baryon number Interpret the baryon number and apply
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations if you can find 2 and the law of the law of conservation of baryon 4
one like a fruit ant is seeds (eg: papaya) conservation number.

Formulate the spin structure of hadrons

Possible answers of the introductory activity. (baryon and mesons)
During this introductory activity, let learners present their upbringing about the about Identify the spin structure of hadrons
quarks and elementary particles in general, and then find out the hub of their curiosity (baryons and mesons)
Spin structures
about quarks. The summary of the introductory question provided in the LB
of hadrons Formulate the spin structure of
3 4
5. As regarded from unit 8, we have seen that electrons are composed by leptons; (hadrons and hadrons(baryon and mesons)
protons and neutron are composed by quarks and photons. Let students bring mesons)
back their background knowledge about elementary particles that they may Acquire knowledge of analyzing and
know. modeling behavior of quarks.
Color in Explain how colour forms bound states
6. When a charged particle penetrates in matter, it will interact with the electrons and
forming of of quarks.
nuclei present in the material through the electromagnetic force. For instance, if 4 2
the particle has 1 MeV or more as energy, as is typical in nuclear phenomena, the bound states of
quarks. Explain colour of quarks and gluons
energy is large compared to the binding energy of the electrons in the atom. Any
charged particle undergoing acceleration will emit electromagnetic radiation. If State colours of quarks and gluons.
a high-energy charged particle deviates from its trajectory due to a collision with Colour as
a nucleus, this collision is necessarily accompanied by electromagnetic radiation. component Explain colour of quarks and gluons
5 2
The emission is strongly peaked in the direction of flight of the charged particles of quarks and
(Blemstrahlung). gluons. Acquire ability to logically and
systematically pursue a line of thoughts.
6 Evaluation 2

204 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 205

 Lesson 1: Types of quarks (4 periods) the weak nuclear force.
•• Leptons: comprise three charged particles, each existing in both a positive
a) Introduction: and a negative form the electron, the muon, the tau (also called the tauon)
•• Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe different types of and neutrinos of three corresponding types the electron neutrino, the muon
elementary particles. neutrino, and the tau neutrino.
•• You then guide them to find explanations about quarks and their types as well as •• Hadrons: they include the neutron, the proton, the pion, and other particles with
introduce their properties. You can make a recap using Unit 8: Nature of particle larger rest masses. Hadrons are further divided by mass and spin into the mesons
and their interaction (S6) and from chemistry Unit 2: Electron configurations of and the heavier baryons.
atoms and ions (S4).
2. Quarks are types of elementary particles and a fundamental constituent of matter.
•• You can ask learners questions about elementary particles and quarks as well as Quarks combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which
referred to unit 8 (S6) and unit 2 of chemistry S4. are protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. They are particles that
b) Teaching resources interact chiefly through the strong nuclear force
•• Internet 3. The study of elementary particles plays a major role of opening our curiosity to
•• Fruit (avocado, papaya, etc) know about the origin of matter and energy or how interaction between them may
produce matter, energy or both of them.
•• Text books
c) Learning Activities Activity 9.2: Investigating quark particles
Activity 9.1: Investigating about elementary particles This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap on
elementary particles especially about quarks and types of quarks.
•• This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap
on elementary particles. •• Decide the method to use in this lesson
•• Divide your students into groups or any method that is appropriate for your class. •• Where possible, take your students to computer lab and instruct them to search
•• Instruct learners to discuss about the prerequisite unit 8 about elementary about the concept of quarks. You can instruct them write in the search engine
particles; then let them answer to questions in activity 9.1 in the learners book like “Types of quarks”.

•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention. •• While students are searching on internet, you move around and mark their
attention or assist them where some groups may be distracted on internet.
•• When every group is done; invite groups (s) (like 2 groups) to discuss and present
their findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent •• When every group is done; invite groups (s) (like 2 groups) to discuss and present
their finding. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be their findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment. their findings. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment.
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed in their groups. •• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed in their groups.
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the
board. Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking •• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the
to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain board. Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking
intensively the need to know about elementary particles as well as quarks. to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain
intensively the need to know about types of and their properties.
•• Suggested answer to activity 9.1
There are three main groups of elementary particles:

•• Gauge bosons: The particles in the gauge boson category include the photon,
which carries the electromagnetic force, and the W ± and Z bosons, which carry

206 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 207

Suggested answer to activity 9.2 matter is composed; subdivided into leptons and quarks while Bosons: according
to the standard model, the particles responsible for the fundamental forces of
Quarks are elementary particle and fundamental constituent of matter. Quarks nature.
combine to form composite particles called hadrons, the most stable of which are
protons and neutrons, the components of atomic nuclei. Due to a phenomenon (b) Leptons: the class of particles that interact through the weak nuclear force;
known as color confinement, quarks are never directly observed or found in isolation; contains the electrons, the muons; the tauons, and the three types of neutrino.
they can be found only within hadrons, such as baryons (of which protons and While
neutrons are examples) and mesons.
Hadrons: the class of particles that chiefly interacts through the strong nuclear
There are six types of quarks, known as flavors: up, down, strange, charm, top, and force; contains neutron, the proton, the pions, and other particles of large mass.
bottom
(c) Meson: the elementary particle originally predicted to be responsible for the
d) i. Suggested answer to checking my progress 9.1.3 string nuclear force; now a class of particles. While baryon number is a property
1
1. (C) Each hadron consists of a proper combination of a few elementary components of elementary particles; quarks have a baryon number of 2 .
called quarks. 12. An electron takes part in the electromagnetic interaction (it is charged), the weak
2. (A) Which of the following is not conserved in a nuclear reaction? Nucleon interaction, and the gravitational interaction (it has mass). A neutrino takes part
number. in the weak interaction and the gravitational interaction (it has a small mass).
A proton takes part in the strong interaction (baryon), the electromagnetic
3. (A) The first antiparticle found was the positron. interaction (it is charged), the weak interaction, and the gravitational interaction
(it has mass).
4. (B) The proton, neutron, electron, and the photon are called fundamental
particles.
Suggested answer to checking my progress 9.1.3
5. (D) The exchange particle of the electromagnetic force is the photon.
1. (C) A proton is made up of two up quarks and a down quark
6. (B) Particles that interact by the strong force are called hadrons.
2. (B) Particles that are un affected by strong nuclear force are leptons
7. (B) At the present time, the elementary particles are considered to be the leptons
and quarks. 3. (A) Particle which explains about mass of matter is called Higgs boson

8. (B) The electron and muon are both leptons. 4. There are six types of quarks, known as flavors: up, down, strange, charm, top,
and bottom. Up and down quarks have the lowest masses of all quarks. The
9. (A) Particles that make up the family of hadrons are baryons and mesons. heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of
particle decay (the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass
10. (A) It is not possible for a particle to be both a lepton and a baryon. A lepton is state). Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most
an elementary particle, not composed of quarks, while baryons are made up of common in the universe, whereas strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks can
three quarks. only be produced in high energy collisions (such as those involving cosmic rays
and in particle accelerators).
(b) Yes, it is possible for a particle to be both a baryon and a hadron. All baryons
are spin = ½ hadrons. Notice to all lessons: Remember the essence of this activity (checking my progress) is
to master and apply what they have already acquired from the previous lessons of the
(c) No, it is not possible for a particle to be both a meson and a quark. A meson is unit and activities provided.
made up of two quarks.
•• Assign this activity as homework/exercise/ group work/ Assignment or any
(d) No, it is not possible for a particle to be both a hadron and a lepton. A lepton depending on what you want to achieve.
is an elementary particle, while a hadron is made up of three quarks.

11. (A) Fermions: according to the standard model, the particles from which all

208 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 209

 •• Make sure you check or mark the activity when students are done with the work. •• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to
the ones discussed in their groups.
•• Give them feedback and invite some members to discuss their findings to the
whole class. •• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the
board. Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking
•• Together with students harmonize and make a summary and tell your students to
to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain
write down key points in their notebooks.
intensively the need to know about elementary particles as well as quarks.
Lesson 2: Baryon number and the law of conservation (4 periods) c. Suggested answer to activity 9.3
a) Introduction Baryon number is a property of elementary particles; e.g: quarks have a baryon
number of 1/2 Baryon number is a generalization of nucleon number; it can be
•• Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe the properties of quarks
and then define the baryon number of quarks. conserved in nuclear reaction and decays. All nucleons are defined to have baryon
numberB=+1, and all antinucleons (antiprotons, antineutrons) haveB=-1. All other
You then guide them to find explanations about quarks and their types as well as types of particles, such as photons, mesons, and electrons and other leptons have
introduce their properties. You can make a recap using Unit 8: Nature of particle and B=0
their interaction (S6) and from chemistry Unit 2: Electron configurations of atoms and
ions (S4) as well as the lesson 1 of this unit. d) Suggested answer to checking my progress about 9.2
•• You can ask learners questions about types of quarks and then their baryon 1. Particle interactions have been observed to conserve the number of baryons
numbers. present; hence the introduction of another quantum number, the baryon number,
b) Teaching resources and the law of conservation of baryon number. Quarks are assigned a baryon
number of 1 , since three quarks are required to construct a baryon.
•• Internet 3

•• Text books The law of baryon of conservation state that:

c) Learning Activities “The total baryon number before a particle interaction equals the total baryon
number after”
Activity 9.3: Investigating about particle’s baryon numbers.
2. (a) p + p → p + p + n + p
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap on
baryon numbers of elementary particles. On the left hand side, we have, B=+1+1=+2 ,
•• Decide on the method of teaching to use in this lesson. the right hand side gives B = +1 - 1+ 1 + 1=+2
•• Where possible, take your students (in a period of 10 to 15 min) in a computer
lab and instruct them to search about the concept baryon number of elementary Hence, the baryon number is conserved.
particles. You can instruct them write in the search engine “Baryon number of
(b) p + p → p + π
+
elementary particles”.
•• Instruct learners to discuss about the types of quarks; then let them present their On the left hand side, we have B=+1+1=+2,, the right hand side B=+1+0=+1.
findings about activity 9.3.
Hence, the baryon number is not conserved.
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention
and assist them if there is any problem about searching on internet.
•• When every group is done; invite groups (s) (like 2 groups) to discuss and present
their findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent
their finding. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment.

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 Lesson 3: Spin structures of hadrons (baryons and mesons) (4 periodes) bound states that are allowed. These are the baryons, which have half-integer spin
and are assumed to be bound states of three quarks (3q); the antibaryons, which are
a) Introduction their antiparticles and assumed to be bound states of three antiquarks ( 3q ); and the
•• Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe spin structure of hadrons. mesons, which have integer spin and are assumed to be bound states of a quark and
an antiquark (q.q). Some examples of baryons and mesons that we shall meet later in
•• You then guide them to find explanations about quarks and their types as well as
this unit, together with their quark compositions are summarized in the learner’s book
introduce their properties. You can make a recap using lesson 1 and 2 of this unit .
(see Table 9.6 and 9.7 from LB)
•• You can ask students questions about hadrons, and their properties as well as
their spin structures. d) Suggested answer to checking my progress for 9.3
b) Teaching resources 1. (a) Anti-kaon ( κ )

π)
•• Internet
(b) pi minus (
•• Text books
c) Learning Activities (c) sigma zero ( Σ 0 )

Activity 9.4: Investigating the spin structure of elementary particles (d) sigma plus ( Σ + )

This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap on 2. (a) For β = bu , we have
quarks, baryon numbers and spin structure of hadrons.
Charge:− 1 − 3 =−1 Spin: 1/2-1/2=0 Spin:
3 3
•• Decide the method of teaching to use in this lesson. 1 1 1 1
Baryon number: − =0 Strangeness: − =0
3 3 2 2
•• Where possible, take your students (in a period of 15 to 20 min) in a computer
lab and instruct them to search about the concept spin structure of hadrons. Charm: 0+0=0 Bottomness: -1+0=-1
You can instruct them to write in the search engine “Spin structure of hadrons”.
Remember to tell them to note the source of information they are getting from Topness: : 0+0=0
internet. +
(b) Because B is the antiparticle of B − , B + = bu . The B 0 still must have a bottom
0 0
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention. quark, but must be neutral. Therefore B 0 = b d . Because B is the antiparticle to B
0
•• When every group is done; invite groups (s) (like 2 groups) to discuss and present , we must have B = bd
their findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent
their finding. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be 3. (a) The neutron has a baryon number of 1, so there must be three quarks. The
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment. charge must be 0, as must be the strangeness, the charm, the bottomness and the
topness. Thus n = uud
•• In an open discuss, inquire from other students or groups whether their findings
correspond to the ones discussed in their groups. (b) The antineutron is the anti particle of the neutron, so n = u u d
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the 0
board. Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking (c) The Λ has a strangeness of , so it must contain an “s” quark. It is a baryon, so it
to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain must conatin three quarks. And it must have charge, charm, bottomness, and topness
intensively the need to know about baryon number and spin structure of hadrons. equal to 0. Thus Λ0 = uds
0
(d) The Σ has a strangeness of so it must contain an s quark. It is a baryon, so it
Suggested answer to activity 9.4 must contain three quarks. And it must have charge, charm, bottomness, and topness
0
Although no isolated quarks have been found, more than two hundred of their bound equat to 0. Thus Σ = u d s
states have been discovered, all with integer electric charges. The reason for this is
closely associated with a new degree of freedom that exists for quarks, but not for
leptons, called color. There exist in simple quark model only three types of quark

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 Lesson 4: Color in forming of bound states of quarks (2 periodes). Suggested answer to activity 9.5

a) Introduction The hydrogen atom configuration shows that the proton which is located at centre
while electron moves around it at a speed of about 1% the speed of light on the outer
•• Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe different types of
shells. The proton is heavy while the electron is light .This is the simplest example of
elementary particles.
what physicists call a “bound state”. The word “state” basically just meaning a thing
•• You then guide them to find explanations about color forming of bound state in that hangs around for a while, and the word “bound” meaning that it has components
theories of elementary particles as well as their properties. You can make a recap that are bound to each other, as spouses are bound in marriage.
using lesson 2 and lesson 3
•• You can ask learners questions about color charge property in particle theories d) Suggested answer to checking my progress for 9.4
and quarks as well during the activity 9.5.

b) Teaching resources
•• Internet
•• Text books

c) Learning Activities

Activity 9.5: Investigating about what bound state is. Hydrogen atom
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap on The proton and electron exchange information via a gauge boson, in this case, a
properties of elementary particles as well as defining the color in forming bound state. virtual photon. This is how the electromagnetic interactions are mediated.
•• Chose the appropriate method to use in this lesson. 2. (a) Color is a property assigned to quarks, keeping them in different quantum states
•• Instruct learners to discuss about the prerequisite unit 2 of chemistry S4 about to avoid violation of Pauli Exclusion Principle.
electronic configuration and then tell them to describe the electronic structure
of a hydrogen atom. (b) Gluons are hypothetical chargeless massless particles believed to carry the strong
nuclear force.
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention
on activity. (c) Quantum chromodynamics (QCD) is a theory that describes the strong interaction
•• When every group is done; invite groups (s) to discuss and present their findings in terms of gluon exchanges on the part of quarks and antiquarks.
to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent their finding.
Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be represented Lesson 5: Colour as component of quarks and gluons (2 periods)
by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment.
a) Introduction
•• Inquire from other students or groups whether their answers correspond to the
ones discussed in their groups. •• Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe colour as component of
quarks and gluons.
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the
board. Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking •• You then guide them to find explanations about color and color as component of
to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain quarks as well as to introduce their properties. You can make a recap using lesson
intensively the need to know about properties of elementary particles especially 4 about color in forming of bound state.
color charge property. •• You can ask learners questions about color properties of elementary particles
•• Notice: At the end of this lesson you should note in your conclusion; the inclusive and color as component of quarks and gluons.
education as mentioned above in section 9.3.

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 b) Teaching resources 3. Color charge is a property of quarks and gluons that is related to the particles’ strong
•• Internet interactions n the theory of quantum chromodynamics. The color charge of quarks
and gluons is completely unrelated to everyday meaning of color. The term color
•• Text books and labels red, green and blue became popular simply because of loose analogy to
primary colors.
c) Learning Activities
Particles have corresponding antiparticles. A particle with red, green or blue charge
Activity 9.6: Investigating the origin of color
has corresponding antiparticle on which the color charge must be anticolor or
•• This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the recap red, green and blue respectively, for the color charge to be conserved in particle –
on color in forming of bound state of matter energy interaction, thus, the color antiparticle creation and annihilation.
as component of quarks and gluons.
•• Chose the appropriate method to use in this lesson. Suggested answers for Checking my progress (Section 9.6 of LB)
•• Using a scenario of heating a metal, and instruct learners to discuss about the
1. (A) Red, green and blue
prerequisite knowledge and skills about color properties of hadrons; then let
them answer to questions in activity 9.6 in the learners book. 2. (a) Gluons are composed by a color and anticolor (eg. Red-antiblue)
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention.
(b)The quark–antiquark pairs of mesons have canceling color and anticolor (for
•• When every group is done; invite groups (s) (like 2 groups) to discuss and present
example, blue and antiblue), so mesons also have no net color]
their findings to the whole class. Here, a group should choose one to represent
their finding. Where possible, when two groups are to represent, one should be (c) A baryon always contains one red, one green, and one blue quark, so the baryon
represented by a girl another by a boy or a learner with impairment if any. itself has no net color]
•• With other groups, assist them to contrast the presented answers correspond to
the ones discussed in their groups.
9.6 Unit summary
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the
board. Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. Then linking •• An antiparticle has the same mass as a particle but opposite charge. Certain other
to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain properties may also be opposite: for example, the antiproton has baryon number
intensively the need to know about color as component of quarks and gluons.. (nucleon number) opposite to that of the proton.
•• In all nuclear and particle reactions, the following conservation laws hold:
Suggested answer to activity 9.6 momentum, angular momentum, mass-energy, electric charge, baryon number
and lepton numbers.
1. When a metal is heated, the energy of electrons increases. As the energy increases, the
photons that are emitted fall in the wavelength of the visible spectrum. Initially, the •• Certain particles have a property called strangeness, which is conserved by the
strong force but nit by the weak force. The properties charm, bottomness and
metal is emitting infra red radiation invisible the naked eye, when the emitted photons
topness also are conserved by strong force but not by the weak.
get more energy; they reach the red region of visible light spectrum. Persistent
heating will take you to more colors in the spectrum i.e RedOrangeYellow •• Just as the electromagnetic force can be said to be due to an exchange of
White. photons, the strong nuclear force was first thought to be carried by mesons that
have rest mass, but recent theory says the force is carried by massless gluons.
2. Atoms continuously emit and absorb photons. The fact that you can see means that •• The W and Z particles carry the weak force. These fundamental force carriers
something made of matter - the Sun or light bulb - emitted photons which bounced (photon, W and Z, gluons) are called gauge bosons
of the matter you are looking at and interacted with the matter of your eye to
•• Other particles can be classified as either leptons or hadrons. Leptons participate
create another energy signal which travelled down the matter of your optic nerve to
in the weak and electrically charged electromagnetic interactions. Hadrons,
produce a cascade of matter/energy interactions in your brain. Just about everything
which today are considered to be made up of quarks, participate in the strong
that happens is an interaction between matter and energy. interactions as well. The hadrons can be classified as mesons, with baryon
number zero, and baryons, with nonzero baryon number.

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 •• Quarks and leptons are the fundamental building blocks of matter 9.7 Additional information
•• Standard model of elementary particles considers quarks as the basic building
blocks of the hadrons. The six quark “flavors” are called up, down, stranger, 9.7.1 Quark flavor and color
charmed, bottom, and top.
Quarks are -1/2 spin particles (fermions) which come in various species, referred to
•• It is expected that there are the same number of quarks as leptons (six each), as flavors. Different quark flavors have been given somewhat whimsical names, as
and that quarks and leptons are the truly elementary particles with the gauge shown in Figure bellow Fig.9.1. In addition to the curious names, two other things in
bosons ( γ ,W , Z , gluons .)
Fig.9.1 should strike you as odd: the enormous disparity of masses of different quarks,
•• Quarks are said to have color, and according to quantum chromodynamics (QCD), spanning five orders of magnitude, and the fact that quarks have fractional charge (in
the strong color force acts between their color charges and is transmitted by units of e . The quark masses listed in this table must be interpreted with some care,
gluons. as isolated quarks are never observed experimentally. The mass, or rest energy, of
•• Electroweak theory views the weak and electromagnetic forces as two aspects observed particles which are bound states of quarks (like the proton) largely reflects
of a single underlying interaction. QCD plus the electroweak theory are referred the binding energy of the quarks, and is not just the sum of the intrinsic quark masses.
to as the standard model Nevertheless, it is remarkable that quark masses vary over such a wide range, from a
Grand unified theory of forces suggests that at very short distances (10-32m) and very few MeV to hundreds of GeV. The three lightest quark flavors, denoted u, d and s, have
high energy, the weak, electromagnetic, and strong forces appear as a single force, and masses which are small relative to the proton mass; the three heavy flavors, c, b and t,
the fundamental difference between quarks and leptons disappears. have masses which are comparable or large relative to the proton mass.

Along with quarks, there are also antiquarks, denoted u , d , s etc., with the same
masses but opposite electric charge as their partner. (So, for example, the antiquark
has charge -1/2 and then has charge +1/2.)

Fig.9. 1 Standard model of quarks

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Quarks have an additional attribute, analogous to but different from electric charge, Category Particle Anti- Spin Baryo Strang Charm Bottomness Principle decay mode
which is termed color charge. The color charge of a quark can have three possible particl n eness
e numb c b
values which may be denoted as red, green, or blue. These names are simply labels er S
for different quantum states of the quark. Antiquarks carry opposite electric and color
charge as the corresponding quarks; color states of antiquarks can be called anti-red, B
Mesons D+ D- 0 0 0 +1 0 K + others, e + others
anti-green or anti-blue. Since quarks (and antiquarks) have spin 1/2, so they can also be 0 0 0 0 +1 0 K + others, µ or e
labeled by their spin projection, or , along any chosen spin quantization axis. Hence, D 0
D
+others
for each quark flavor, there are really six different types of quark, distinguished by the Ds+ Ds- 0 0 +1 +1 0 K + others
color (red, blue, green) and spin projection (up, down). J /f self 1 0 0 0 0 Hadrons, e + e - , µ + µ -
𝑌𝑌 self 1 0 0 0 0 Hadrons,
9.7.2 Baryon number µ + µ - , e + e - ,t +t -
B -
B + 0 0 0 0 -1 D 0 + others
Baryon number, denoted B, is defined as the total number of baryons minus the 0 0 0 0 -1
B0 B
0
D 0 +others
number of antibaryons, similar to the definition of lepton number L. Since baryons are 1
Baryons L+c L - +1 0 +1 0 Hadrons (e.g. L
bound states of three quarks, and antibaryons are bound states of three antiquarks, c
2 + others)
baryon number is the same as the number of quarks minus antiquarks, up to a factor S c+ + S c- - 1 +1 0 +1 0 L+cp +
of three, 2
1 S c+ S c- 1 +1 0 +1 0 L+cp o
B= (# baryons ) − (# antibaryons ) = (# quarks ) − (# antiquarks ) 2
3 1 +1 0 +1 0
S 0c Sc
0
L+cp -
2
All known interactions conserve baryon number.High energy scattering processes L0c 0 1 +1 0 0 −1 J / fL0 , L+cp +p -p -
Lc
can change the number of baryons, and the number of antibaryons, but not 2
the net baryon number. For example, in proton-proton scattering, the reaction
p + p → p + p + n + n can occur, but not p + p → p + p + n + n Fig.9. 1Some constituents of hadrons

9.7.3 Hadrons After the quark theory was proposed, physicists began looking for these fractionally
All hadrons are considered to be made up of combination of quarks, and their charged particles, but direct detention has not been successful. Current models
properties are described at their quark content. Mesons consist of a quark-antiquark suggest that quarks may be so tightly bound together that they may not ever exist
pair. Baryons, on the other hand, consist of three quarks. For example, a neutron singly in the Free State. But observations of very high energy electrons scattered off
n = ddu , whereas an antiprotons is p = u u d (See Table 9.7 from LB). protons suggest that protons are indeed made up of constituents.

Strange particle all contains an s or quark, whereas charmed particles contain a c or

quark. A few of these hadrons are list in the Table 9.1 below.
9.8 End unit assessment solution (2 periods)
1. (C) A proton is made up of two up quarks and a down quarkstrange quark and
an anti-strange quark

2. (B) Particles that are unaffected by strong nuclear force are leptons

3. (A) Particle which explains about mass of matter is called Higgs boson

4. (E) A conservation law that is not universal but applies only to certain kinds of
interactions is conservation of : strangeness

5. (E) In quantum electrodynamics (QED), electromagnetic forces are mediated by:

the exchange of virtual photons.

220 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 221

 6. (A) Conservation laws that describe events involving the elementary particles
v. The π with charge + 1e could be u d
+
include the conservation of (all of these are correct).

7. (D) The conservation law violated by the reaction p → π + e is the conservation

0 + vi. The π + with charge –1e could be d u
of lepton number and baryon number.
The neutral π could be either or both of uu and dd . In fact it is an equal mixture of
0

8. (B) Particles that participate in the strong nuclear interaction are called hadrons the two.

9. (C) Current thought is that all matter is composed of six quarks and six leptons. 12. (a) To conserve charge, the missing particle must be neutral. To conserve baryon
number, the missing particle must be a meson. To conserve strangeness, charm,
Tau, boson, lepton, electron, quark, meson, lambda, alpha, beta, gamma, x ray, topness, and bottomness, the missing particle must be made of up and down
gaugebosonneutrino, baryon, color, proton, neutron, kaon, tau, muon, spin. quarks and antiquarks only. With all this information, the missing particle is
π 0 = uu + d d .
(A)
2 2 2 (b) This is a weak interaction since one product is a lepton. To conserve charge,
i. Has charge + 3 e + 3 e + 3 e = +2e the missing particle must be neutral. To conserve the muon lepton number, the
missing particle must be an antiparticle in the muon family. With this information,
ii. Has charge + 2 e + 2 e − 1 e = +1e the missing particle isν µ .
3 3 3
2 1 1
iii. Has charge + e − e − e = 0 Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 + 0 Baryon number is conserved.
3 3 3
1 1 1
iv. Has charge − e − e − e = −1e Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 1 − 1 Lepton number is
3 3 3
conserved.
(B)
Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 Strangeness is
i. Proton has charge +1e so could be conserved.
ii. Neutron has charge 0 so could be The reaction is possible, via the weak interaction.
iii. ∆ has charge − 1 e so could be
−
13. (a) Baryon number is violated 1 → 0 + 0
iv. ∆ has charge + 2 e so could be
++
(b) The reaction can occur
v. A down quark, charge –1/3 e changes to an up quark, charge +2/3 e, so the charge (c) Baryon number is violated 1 + 1 → 1 + 0
carried away must be if charge is to be conserved.
(d) This reaction can occur
(C)
2 2 (e) This reaction can occur
i. u u has charge + e− e =0
3 3
1 1 (f) Violates baryon number: 0 → 0 + 1 and violate muon-lepton number
ii. d d has charge 3 3 e = 0
− e +
0 → −1 + 0
2 1
iii. u d has charge + 3 e + 3 e = 1e
1 2
iv. d u has charge − e − e = −1e
3 3

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9.9 Additional activities 2. (c) Pions are not fundamental particles and are made up of quark and antiquark
pairs. Leptons andbosons (including photons) are fundamental particles, but are not
9.9.1 Remedial activities and answers a constituent of protons andneutrons. Protons and neutrons are composed of up and
down quarks.
1. The strong nuclear force between a neutron and a proton is due to
3. (d) Quarks, gluons, neutrons, and the Higgs boson interact through the strong
a) the exchange of mesons between the neutron and the proton. force. Electrons andmuons are charged particles and interact through the
electromagnetic force. Neutrinos onlyinteract through the weak force.
b) the conservation of baryon number.
4. (a) No. Leptons are fundamental particles with no known internal structure.
c) the beta decay of the neutron into the proton.
Baryons are made up ofthree quarks.
d) the exchange of gluons between the quarks within the neutron and the proton.
(b) Yes. All baryons are hadrons.
e) Both (A) and (D) at different scales.
(c) No. A meson is a quark–antiquark pair.
2. Electrons are still considered fundamental particles (in the group called leptons). But
(d) No. Hadrons are made up of quarks, and leptons are fundamental particles.
protons and neutrons are no longer considered fundamental; they have substructure
and are made up of
9.9.2 Consolidation activities
A. pions. C. quarks E. photons
6. A student claims to have observed a decay of an electron into two neutrinos,
B.leptons. D. bosons. travelling in opposite directions. What conservation laws would be violated by this
decay?
3. Which of the following will interact via the weak nuclear force only?
Solution to consolidation activity
A. Quarks. C. Neutrons E. Electrons G. Higgs boson.
6. Several conservation laws are violated.
B. Gluons. D. Neutrinos. F. Muons.
•• Conservation of electric charge is violated because the negative charge of the
4. Is it possible for a particle to be both electron has disappeared.

A. a lepton and a baryon? C. a meson and a quark? •• Conservation of electron-lepton number is also violated because there is one
lepton before the decay and two afterward. If both neutrinos were electro-
B. a baryon and a hadron? D. a hadron and a lepton? neutrino, electron-lepton number conservation would be violated in the final
state. However, if one of the product neutrinos were other than an electron-
Explain. neutrino, then another lepton conservation law would be violated, because no
other leptons were in the initial state.

Solutions to remedial activities Other conservation laws are obeyed by this decay.

1. (e) A common misconception is that the strong force is a result of just the exchange •• Energy can be conserved-the rest energy of the electron appears as the kinetic
of π mesonsbetween the protons and neutrons. This is correct on the scale of the energy (and possibly some small rest energy) of the neutrinos.
nucleons. However, whenthe quark composition of the protons, neutrons, and π •• The opposite directions of the velocities of the two neutrinos allows for
mesons is considered at the elementary particle scale, it is seen that the transfer is conservation of momentum.
due to the exchange of gluons. Therefore, bothanswers can be considered correct at
different scales. Students who answer (d) should be givencredit for their answer as
well.

224 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 225

 •• Conservation of baryon number and conservation of other lepton number are (c) For the reaction , the conservation laws are as follows:
also upheld in this decay.
Charge: 1 + 0 =1 + 0 + 0 Charge is conserved
9.9.3 Extended activities 1 1
Spin: 0 + =− + 0 + 1 Spin is conserved
2 2
7. Which of the following reactions are possible, and by what interaction could they
occur? For those forbidden, explain why. Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 + 0 Baryon number is conserved

a. π − + p → K 0 + p + π 0 Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 Lepton number is conserved

b. K − + p → Λ 0 + π 0 Strangeness: 1 + 0 ≠ 0 + 0 + 0 Strangeness is not conserved

c. K + + n → Σ + + π 0 + γ The reaction is not possible via the strong interaction because strangeness is not
conserved. It is possible via the weak interaction
d. K + → π 0 + π 0 + π +
d) For the reaction K + → π 0 + π 0 + π + , the conservation laws are as follows:
e. π → e +ν e
+ +

Charge: 1 = 0 + 0 + 1 Charge is conserved.

8. Which of the following reactions are possible, and by what interaction could they
occur? For those forbidden, explain why Spin: 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 Spin is conserved.

a. π − + p → K + + Σ − Baryon number: 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 Baryon number is conserved.

b. π + + p → K + + Σ + Lepton number: 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 Lepton number is conserved
c. π − + p → Λ 0 + K o + π o Strangeness: 1 ≠ 0 + 0 + 0 Strangeness is not conserved
d. π − + p → K + + Σ − This reaction is possible, via the weak interaction. .
e. π + p → p + e + ν e
− −
e) For π → e + ν e the reaction , the conservation laws are as follows:
+ +

Charge: 1= 1 + 0 Charge is conserved.

Solution to extended activities 9.9.3
1 1
7. (a) For the reaction π − + p → K 0 + p + π 0 , the conservation laws are as follows: Spin: 0 =− + Spin is conserved
2 2
Charge: −1 + 1 ≠ 0 + 1 + 0 charge is not conserved. Also we note that the reactants Baryon number: 0= 0 + 0 Baryon number is conserved.
would havr to have significant kinetic energy to be able to create the K0
Lepton number: 0 =−1 + 1 Lepton number is conserved.
(b) For the K − + p → Λ 0 + π 0 , the conservation laws are as follow:
Strangeness: 0= 0 + 0 Strangeness is conserved.
Charge: −1 + 1 = 0 + 0 Charge is conserved
1 1 The reaction is possible, via the weak interaction.
Spin: 0 + = + 0 Spin conserved
2 2
8. (a) For the reaction π − + p → K + + Σ − , the conservation laws are as follows:
Baryon number 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 Baryon number is conserved
Charge: −1 + 1 = 1 − 1 Charge is conserved
Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 Lepton number is conserved
1 1
Spin: 0 + =0 + Spin is conserved
Strangeness: −1 + 0 =−1 + 0 Strangeness is conserved 2 2
Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 0 + 1 Baryon number is conserved
The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction.

226 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 227

 Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 Lepton number is conserved Lepton number: 0+0 = 0+0+0 Lepton number is conserved
Strangeness: 0 + 0 =1 − 1 Strangeness is consereved Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 1 − 1 + 0 Strangeness is consereved
The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction. The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction.
(b) For the reaction π + + p → K + + Σ + , the conservation laws are as follows: (e) For the reaction π + p → p + e + ν e , the conservation laws are as follows:
− −

Charge: 1+1 = 1+1 Charge is conserved Charge: −1 + 1 = 1 − 1 + 0 Charge is conserved

1 1 1 1 1 1
Spin: 0 + =0 + Spin is conserved Spin: 0 + = + − Spin is conserved
2 2 2 2 2 2
Baryon number: 0 +1 = 0 +1 baryon number is conserved
Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 + 0 Baryon number is conserved
Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 Lepton number is conserved
Lepton number: 0 + 0 = 0 + 1 − 1 Lepton number is conserved
Strangeness: 0 + 0 =1 − 1 Strangeness is consereved
Strangeness: 0 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 0 Strangeness is conserved
The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction.
The reaction is possible, via the strong interaction.

Note that we did not check mass conservation, because in a collision, there is always
(c) For the reaction π + p → Λ + K + π
− 0 0 0
, the conservation laws are as follows: some kinetic energy brought into the reaction. Thus the products can be heavier than
the reactants.
Charge: −1 + 1 = 0 + 0 + 0 Charge is conserved
1 1
Spin: 0+ = + 0 + 0 Spin is conserved
2 2
Baryon number: 0 + 1 = 1 + 0 + 0 Baryon number is conserved

228 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 229

 UNIT 10:
10
EFFECT OF X-RAYS

10.1 Key Unit Competence

By the end of the unit the learner should be able to analyze and evaluate the effects of
x-rays.

10.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills

The success of this unit relies partly on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired
in Physics (Unit 1, unit 5 of S6 and Unit 9 of S5), and other related subjects in previous
grades.

10.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed

•• Inclusive education (promote education for all while teaching):
Regardless of physical appearance and abilities learners should be treated equally.
This makes the learners to find out that they are all of great importance. In spite
of their physical ability, learners with impairment as normal learners should be
aware of the uses and dangers of x rays. This should be addressed at the end of
lesson 1
•• Gender education (equal opportunity of boys and girls in the lesson participation).
Care should be taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities. Girls and
boys should be aware of x-rays about their uses and dangers. This should be at
the end of lesson 2.
•• Environment sustainability: During delivering different lessons within this unit, let
learners be familiar with the application and importance of skills and knowledge
x rays, their production, uses and danger and then the dangers they make cause
to the environment when used in a wrong manner.
•• Peace and value Education (respect others view and thoughts during class
discussions). Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be
correct or Not but what is important is to build on that Idea. It is in this case that
radiologist or other x rays users, may use them for their odd purposes to kill or

230 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 231

 cause cancer to someone. Therefore, remind the learners that the uses of x rays Possible answers of the introductory activity.
are for good not for our immoral needs.
During this introductory activity, let learners present their upbringings about the
•• Standardization culture (Be aware of machines that do not harm our
radiations, and then find out the hub of their curiosity about x rays radiation production,
environment). The x rays are in the ranges of hard and soft x rays. Hence, the
uses and dangers. The summary of the introductory question is provided in the Learn
measure of quantity that should be applied is good culture to know in order to
avoid the dangers in time of use. Book.

10.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 10.5 List of lessons

This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept of x S/ Lesson Title Learning Objectives Periods
rays, their production, uses and dangers No
•• Divide your students into groups (Where possible, mix equally the number of 1 Production •• Explain the production of x rays 2
girls to number of boys. If there are students with impairment, let them take the of x-rays
•• Describe and explain the production of x rays
lead of groups during doing activity)
•• Tell the learners open the Learn Book to the introductory activity of the unit 10 •• Recognize how the intensity and the quality
and then instruct them to re-write the questions and answer them following the of x rays can be controlled
instructions from learner’s book.
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention
on working activity. 2 Properties of •• State the properties of x rays 2
•• When every group is done, invite some group(s) to present and discuss their x-rays
•• Analyze the effects of x rays
findings to the whole class. You may choose two or three groups to present their
findings while others follow. •• Appreciate the uses and the dangers of x rays
•• Ask other groups’ members whether their answers correspond to the discussed 3 The origins •• Draw and describe an x ray spectrum 4
points and if there is any points that are different from what have been raised; and char-
tell them to mention it. You can talk about those points (in a discussion together •• Explain the origin and characteristic features
acteristic
with students). of an x rays spectrum.
features of
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. an x-ray spec- •• Analyze the origin and characteristic feature
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. And then linking to the trum of x rays spectrum
summary and what have discussed in class, emphasize on the x raysproduction,
uses and dangers. You can take some minutes and explain them. •• Recognize the continuous and characteristic
feature wavelength limit
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations like when
someone goes to hospital for radiology or for a scan. 4 Application •• Outline the application of x rays in medicine, 4
of x-rays industry and scientific research

•• Analyze application of x rays in medicine,

industries, research and forensic science.

•• Appreciate the uses of x rays in medicine,

industry and scientific research.

232 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 233

 Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks.
S/ Lesson Title Learning Objectives Periods
No •• Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and
explain intensively about the x ray production.
5 Problems •• Solve problems involving accelerating 4
involving potential and minimum wave length of x •• Link this lesson to real life like the photography of radiology at hospital, uses of
accelerating rays. CRT TV.
potential and •• Acquire ability pursue thinking related to
d) Suggested answer to activity 10.1
minimum dangers of x rays.
wavelength. 1. X-rays are short wavelength electromagnetic radiaations produced when fast
•• Appreciate the application based on x rays moving electrons strike matter. X-rays are a form of electromagnetic radiation, as are
radio waves, infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet radiation and microwaves.

6 Evaluation - End unit assessment 4 2. X-rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons that have been accelerated
through a potential difference of the order of 103 to106 V strike a metal target.
- Summative assessment Electrons are ‘boiled off’ from the heated cathode by thermionic emission and are
accelerated toward the Anode (the target) by a large potential difference Vh.
Lesson 1: Production of x-rays •• X-ray radiation has become an indispensable imaging tool in medical science.
a) Introduction •• X rays are also much used in scientific research, in security, checking cargo and
luggage at airport.
Through guided discovery, assist learners to describe the process of x ray production
experiment. You can make a recap using the cathode rays production (Physics S5: unit) •• In the study of crystal structures (crystallography)
e) Suggested answer to checking my progress 10.1.4
You can ask them questions like, what are the uses of cathode rays produced.
1. X-rays are when fast-moving electrons strike matter.
b) Teaching resources
Textbooks, Cathode ray television (CRT) set 2. Hard and soft X-rays. Hard x-rays are produced by high accelerating potential. They
have high penetrating power and short wavelength while soft x-rays are produced
c) Learning Activities by lower accelerating potential, have relatively low penetrating power and relatively
long wavelength
Activity 10.1
3. The answer is that a German physicist, Wilhelm Roentgen, discovered a new form
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept of x
of radiation in 1895. He called it X-radiation because he didn’t know what it was (x
ray production and its properties.
to mean unknown).
•• Decide the method of teaching and tell them to open on the activity 10.1 in the
learner’s book. 4. X-rays take a given position in the electrogagnetic spectrum and have uses which
are different from other electromagnetic radiations.
•• Instruct learners to read the scenario in the activity 10.1 in the learner’s book and
explain by writing in their notebooks about their observations. 5.
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work.
•• They have a very short wavelength (about the same size as the diameter of an
•• When every group is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to discuss their atom.
findings to the whole class.
•• They cause ionization (adding or removing electrons in atoms and molecules)
•• Inquire from other groups’ members whether their answers correspond to the
•• They affect photographic film in the same way as visible light (turning it black)
ones discussed from presenting groups.
•• They are absorbed (stopped) by metal and bone.
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board.

234 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 235

 Suggested answer to activity 10.2 to present their findings. Let them discuss by themselves.

1 •• Ask other groups members of the class to contrast their finding to those
presented by the groups on show whether they have different findings from
•• They have a very short wavelength (about the same size as the diameter of an what others have presented. Then tell them to mention the other missing points
atom. and discuss with other students.
•• They cause ionization (adding or removing electrons in atoms and molecules) •• Connecting to what learners have presented, guide learners to describe briefly
the characteristic spectrum of x rays.
•• They affect photographic film in the same way as visible light (turning it black)
•• Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and
•• They are absorbed (stopped) by metal and bone.
explain intensively about the characteristic spectrum of x rays while students are
2. X-rays are produced when rapidly moving electrons that have been accelerated taking notes.
through a potential difference of the order of 103 to106 V strike a metal target. Electrons Example problem
are ‘boiled off’ from the heated cathode by thermionic emission and are accelerated
toward the Anode (the target) by a large potential difference Vh; while Calculate the minimum wavelength of X-rays emitted when electrons accelerated
through 30 kV strike a target.
The photoelectric effect relates to the following phenomena: if a metal surface is
illuminated by visible or ultraviolet light radiation, electrons are released provided that 1.602 ×10−19 × 30000
=f = 7.25 ×1018 Hz
the frequency of the radiation exceeds a critical threshold. 6.626 ×10−34

Lesson 2: The origins and characteristic features of an x-ray spectrum c

Therefore, the wavelength λmin =
f
4.14 ×10−11 m =
= 0.0414 nm

a) Introduction
Through guided discovery, assist learners to discover the effect of x rays and then the Lesson 3: Application of x-rays
characteristic feature of x ray spectrum. You can make a recap using knowledge, skills
and values obtained in unit 9 of S5. a) Introduction

You can ask them questions like: what is electromagnetic radiation? Or ask them to Through guided discovery, assist learners to discover different applications of x rays.
draw the electromagnetic spectrum diagram according to their wavelength. (This can You can make a recap using; knowledge, skills and values found in unit 5 of S6.
take like 2 minutes)
Guidance on lesson 3
b) Teaching resources
•• Divide learners into groups and time when you are teaching this lesson
Internet and textbooks
•• Take learners in computer lab and instruct them search for the activity 10.4
c) Learning activity provided.

This lesson focuses on making students understand apply the concept of x ray spectrum •• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity while you are
moving around to mark their attention.
and its characteristics.
•• Learners brainstorm on their results and write the work in their notebook.
•• Decide on the method to use in this lesson
•• Check students’ work and let one or two groups present the work to the whole
•• Instruct them to follow instructions as stated in the activity from Learner book class.
depends on the type of your class.
•• Let other learners contrast their findings to the result presented, hence, assist
•• During the learners are doing the activity, move around and mark the learners’ them to draw a suitable conclusion.
attention but make sure to let the learners to perform the activity.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks and the presentation,
•• Invite 2 or 3 (or any number of groups depending on how many you had formed) and give them the expected feedback summarizing their work.

236 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 237

 b) Teaching resources •• Lead screens, sheets of lead-impregnated rubber, and leaded glass are used to
shield patients and technicians from undesired radiation.
Internet and textbooks
•• The effect of X radiation is cumulative. That is, a number of minor doses over a
c) Learning activity number of years is equivalent to a large dose at one time. Etc.

This lesson focuses on taking student at a level of analyzing and evaluating the uses of x d. Suggested answers to checking my progress 10.3
rays in real life, i.e the application of x rays. This would be summarized in the following
1. For medical applications, x-rays are usually generated in vacuum tubes by
activity 10.4 guided as follow:
bombarding a metal target with high-speed electrons and images produced by
passing the resulting radiation through the patient’s body on to a photographic
Activity 10.4: plate or digital recorder to produce a radiograph, or by rotating both source and
•• Divide your class into groups due to the type of your class. detector
•• Instruct learners to search on internet due to activity 10.4 provided in the LB. 2. The uses of X rays should be quantified to given dose for the safety of others
•• Let the learner(s) perform the activity using their prior knowledge about because X rays can cause damage to living tissues when one uses and extreme
production and properties of X rays and write the ideas in the note book. dose. As x-ray photons are absorbed in tissues, their energy breaks molecular
bonds and creates highly reactive free radicals (such as neutral H and OH), which in
•• Tell one or two sample groups to present their findings to the whole class.
turn can disturb the molecular structure of proteins and especially genetic material.
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue Young and rapidly growing cells are particularly susceptible, which is why x-rays
the discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work are useful for selective destruction of cancer cells. When improperly used they can
and book. cause severe burns, cancer, leukemia, and cataracts. They can speed aging, reduce
•• Let other non presenting groups bring additional to what have been presented immunity to disease, and bring about disastrous changes in the reproductive cells.
and then assist them contrast the new upbringings to the presented ones.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
summary of expected feedback based on their findings.
Lesson4: Problems involving accelerating potential and minimum
wavelength
•• Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and
explain intensively about different application of x rays while student are taking a) Introduction
notes. Through guided discovery, assist learners to develop their skills and attitudes in solving
•• Link this lesson to real life like the use of X rays at hospitals, at airport, in checking problems related to the accelerating potential and minimum wave length of produced
cargo, in industry, etc. x rays from x ray tube. You can make a recap using; knowledge, skills and values found
in unit 5 and unit 1of S6; unit 9 of physics in S5.
Suggested answers to activity 10.4
Guidance on lesson 4
1. As provided in LB, the uses of x rays are various. They are applied in medicine
(imaging), in industry, in security like checking luggage at airport, checking cargo •• Divide learners into groups
in transport, etc •• Instruct learners to use prior knowledge from unit 1and unit 5 of Physics S6, and
then tell them to solve the activity provided in the LB on activity 10.5.
2.
•• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity while you are
•• Because X rays can kill living cells, they must be used with extreme care. When moving around to mark their attention.
improperly used they can cause severe burns, cancer, leukemia, and cataracts. •• Learners brainstorm on their results and write their findings in their notebook.
They can speed aging, reduce immunity to disease, and bring about disastrous
changes in the reproductive cells. •• Check students’ work and let one or two groups present the work to the whole
class.

238 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 239

 •• Let other learners contrast their findings to the result presented, hence, assist d) Suggested answers to checking my progress about section 10.4
them to draw a suitable conclusion.
2
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks and the presentation, 1. Energy E is expressed by Einstein’s relation of E = mc where m is mass and c is the
and give them the expected feedback summarizing their work. speed of light. If this relationship is utilized, considering SI unit that expresses mass in
kg,
b) Teaching resources
(1×10−3 )(2.998 ×108 ) 2 =
E= 8.988 ×1013 J
Internet and textbooks
The atomic weight per mole (molar mass) for carbon is12.011 g. Thus, the number of
c) Learning activity atoms included in 1 g
This activity focuses on taking student at a level of analyzing and evaluating the skills 6.022 ×1023
Carbon is calculated as = 5.01×1022 because the numbers of atoms are
acquired in solving problems related to accelerating potential and minimum wavelength 12.011 23
of x rays. This would be summarized in the following activity 10.5 guided as follow: included in one mole of carbon is the Avogadro’s number 6.022 × 10 . Therefore, the
energy release per carbon atom can be estimated as:
Activity 10.5:
8.99 ×1013
•• Decide on the method to use depending on the type of your class. =22
1.79 ×10−9 J
5.01×10
•• Instruct learners in their groups to work on activity 10.5 provided in the LB.
•• Let the learner(s) perform the activity using their prior knowledge about 2. The work W, if electric charge Q (coulomb, C) moves under voltage V is expressed by
production and properties of X rays and write the ideas in the note book. W=QV. When an electron is accelerated under 1V of difference in potential, the energy
obtained by the electron is called 1 eV. Since the elementary charge e is
•• Tell one or two sample groups to present their findings to the whole class.
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ plans and ideas to continue 1 eV= 1.602 ×10−19 C ×1 V= 1.602 ×10−19 J
the discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work V
and book. Electric field E can be expressed with E = d , where the distance, d, between electrodes
•• Let other non presenting groups bring additional to what have been presented and the applied voltage being V. The force F on the electron with elementary charge e
and then assist them to contrast the new upbringings to the presented ones. is given by; F = eE
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
summary of expected feedback based on their findings. Here, the unit of F is Newton. Acceleration ˛ of electrons is given by the following
equation in which m is the mass of the electron
•• Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and
explain intensively about solving problems related to x rays while student are 10 kV
1.
= E = 106 V / m
taking notes. −2
10 m
•• Link this lesson to real life like the use of setting a project about construction of 2. F = 1.602 ×10−19 C ×106 V = 1.602 ×10−13 N
x rays apparatus.
eE 1.602 ×10−19
3. =
a = = 1.76 ×1017 m / s 2
m 9.11×10−31
Suggested answers to activity 10.5
3. An X-ray probe has a greater energy than an electron probe for the same wavelength.
i. P=
VI =(30 ×103 )(2.0 ×10−3 ) =60 W Wavelength of light emitted from the probe,= λ 1= A0 10−10 m
2 ×10−3
The kinetic energy of the electron is given as: E= 1 mv 2 ⇔ m v=
I
ii. I = Ne ⇔ N = = =1.25 ×1016 where N is the number of electrons stricking the
e 1.602 ×10−19
e 2 Eme
target per second 2
Where v = Velocity of electron
mev, = Momentum( p ) of the electron
1 2 2(1.602 ×10−19 )(3 ×104 )
iii. 2
mv = eV ⇔ v =
9.11×10−31
= 1.03 ×108 m / s
According to the de Broglie principle, the de Broglie wavelength is given as:
hc (6.67 ×10−34 )((3 ×108 )
iv. λmin == 4.2 10−11 m =
=× 0.42 nm
eV (1.602 ×10−19 )(3 ×104 )

240 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 241

 h h h h2 (6.67 ×10−34 ) effect, and the greater the energy of the resulting Bremsstrahlung photon.
λ= = = ⇔E= = = 2.44 ×10−17 J = 152.42 eV
p me v 2 Eme 2λ 2 me 2(10−10 ) 2 (9.11×10−31 )
• CHARACTERISTIC RADIATION: Characteristic radiation occurs when an electron
Energy of a photon, from the filament displaces an electron from an inner-shell of the tungsten target
hc 6.67 ×10−34 × 3 ×108 atom, thereby ionizing the atom. When this happens, another electron in an outer-
E ′ = eV = −10 1.25 ×104 eV =
= 12.5 keV
λ 10 ×1.602 ×10−19 shell of the tungsten atom is quickly attracted into the void in the deficient inner-
Hence, a photon has a greater energy than an electron for the same wavelength. shell.

• THE DIFFRACTION OF X-RAYS of wavelength λ by reflection from a crystal is

10. 6 Unit Summary described by the Bragg equation. Strong reflections are observed at grazing
angles φ m (where φ is the angle between the face of the crystal and the
• X-RAYS NATURE: X-rays with energies ranging from about 100 eV to 10 MeV are
reflected beam) given by mλ = 2 d sin φ m
classified as electromagnetic waves, which are only different from the radio waves,
light, and gamma rays in wavelength and energy. X-rays show wave nature with Where d is the distance between reflecting planes in the crystal, and m = 1, 2, 3, ..
wavelength ranging from about 10 nm to 10-3nm. , is the order of reflection.

• According to the quantum theory, the electromagnetic wave can be treated as • OPTICAL PATH LENGTH: In the same time that it takes a beam of light to
particles called photons or light quanta. travel a distance d in a material of index of refraction n, the beam would
travel a distance nd in air or vacuum. For this reason, nd is defined as the
• The propagation velocity c of electromagnetic wave (velocity of photon) with
optical path length of the material.
frequency v and wavelength λ is given by the relation: c = λ v

• Each photon has an energy E, which is proportional to its frequency: 10.7 Additional information
hc
E hf=
= 10.7.1 X-Ray Spectrometry
λ
8 −34
Where, c = 299792458 m / s (c ≈ 2.998 ×10 m / s and h = 6.6260 ×10 J .s and X-Rays are short wavelength electromagnetic radiation produced by the deceleration
of high energy electrons or by electronic transitions of electrons in the inner orbital of
=h 6.6260 ×10−34 J .s is the Plank constant .The momentum p is given by mv , the
product of the mass m, and its velocity v. The de Broglie relation for material wave atoms. The wavelength range of X-rays is from about 10-5Å to 100 Å; conventional X-ray
relates wavelength to momentum: spectroscopy is largely confined to the region of about 0.1 Å to 25 Å.
h h X-ray spectroscopy is a form of optical spectroscopy that utilizes emission,
λ= =
p mv absorption,scattering, fluorescence, and diffraction of X-ray radiation
• FACTORS CONTROLLING THE X-RAY BEAM: The x-ray beam emitted from an x-ray
tube may be modified to suit the needs of the application by altering the beam The basics: X-rays are short-wavelength (hence, high frequency, and hence,
exposure length (timer), exposure rate (mA), beam energy (kVp and filtration), relatively high energy) electromagnetic radiation. Two ways to produce X-rays:
beam shape (collimation), and target-patient distance (long or short cone). •• Deceleration of high-energy electrons
• BREMSSTRAHLUNG RADIATION:Bremsstrahlung interactions, the primary source •• Electronic transitions involving inner-orbital electrons
of x-ray photons from an x-ray tube, are produced by the sudden stopping, breaking Approximate wavelength range: 10-4 nm - 10 nm and the wavelength range used in
or slowing of high-speed electrons at the target. Most high speed electrons have conventional applications: 0.01 nm to 2.5 nm
near or wide misses with the nuclei. In these interactions, a negatively charged high
speed electron is attracted toward the positively charged nucleus and loses some of X-rays are the shortest wavelength, i.e., highest energy, electromagnetic radiation
its velocity. This deceleration causes the electron to lose some kinetic energy, which associated with electronic transitions in atoms. Calculation of the energy states of an
is given off n the form of a photon. The closer the high speed electron approaches
the nuclei, the greater is the electrostatic attraction on the electron, the braking

242 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 243

 ● Deceleration of high-energy electrons
● Electronic transitions involving inner-orbital electrons

Approximate wavelength range: 10-4 nm - 10 nm and the wavelength range used in conventional
applications: 0.01 nm to 2.5 nm

atom is inX-rays
general, very
are the difficult,
shortest except
wavelength, i.e.,ofhighest
course in the
energy, particular case
electromagnetic of the
radiation hydrogen
associated with
electronic transitions in atoms. Calculation of the energy states of an atom is in general, very
atom, where the problem is readily soluble and the results, shown schematically below,
difficult, except of course in the particular case of the hydrogen atom, where the problem is readily
are very well known.
soluble and the results, shown schematically below, are very well known.

An important feature of the above diagram is that the differences in orbital energies
decrease as they themselves increase. This223means that the energy required for
excitation, or given out on relaxation of an electron from a higher orbital to a lower Fig.10. 1 Partial energy level diagram showing common transitions leading to X–radiation. The most intense lines are indi-
orbital is greater when “inner” orbitals are involved and least when “outer” orbitals cated by the widest arrows.
are involved.
The orbital shells for which the principal quantum number n = 1,2,3, etc. are labelled
Except for light elements (say, those preceding Na) the innermost orbitals are not the K, L, M, etc. and, hence, emissions due to a higher energy electron entering these
significantly influenced by bonding interactions involving the atom and, hence, their shells are said to form the K, L, M, etc. series of lines. Generally, only the K and L series
energies may be regarded as characteristic of that atom regardless of its state of of X-rays are of analytical utility and the wavelengths of these lines for a selection of
combination. Inner orbital transitions involve X-rays, and it is for this reason that X-ray elements spanning the Periodic Table are shown below.
spectrometry can be a form of atom detection and, hence, of non-destructive chemical Wavelengths/Å for Intense X–ray Emission Lines
analysis.

The energy level diagram for any atom is considerably more complex and depends Element K Series L Series
in detail upon the particular atom. However, for X-ray emissions of importance in
a1 b1 a1 b1
elemental analysis, a simplified treatment is sufficient and the diagram below is useful.
Na 11.909 11.617 – –

K 3.742 3.454 – –

Cr 2.290 2.085 21.714 21.323

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 Electron beam sources
Rb 0.926 0.829 7.318 7.075
In electron beam sources, X-rays are produced by heating a cathode to produce high-
Cs 0.401 0.355 2.892 1.282 energy electrons; these electrons are energetic enough to ionize off the cathode and
race towards a metal anode (the target) where, upon collision, X-rays are given off from
W 0.209 0.184 1.476 1.282
the target material in response to the colliding electrons. By varying the conditions, one
U 0.126 0.111 0.911 0.720 can obtain either a continuous spectrum or a discontinuous spectrum.

The reaction between the electron beam and the target material involves deceleration
(Note that all possible electronic transitions are not of equal probability, i.e., the nature of the electron and ejection of a target photon and emission of X-rays. The energy
of a spectrum depends on specific selection rules, so that the complexity of a spectrum lost by the electron as it smashes into the target material is equal to the energy of
is not as great as might be expected from first consideration of an energy level diagram.) the ejected photon. Since any given electron can be retarded differently by the same
target material, a range of photon energies are possible. The maximum photon energy
The fact that the wavelength of a line of given type decreases as the atomic number corresponds to total stopping of the electron and is given by:
of the element increases is rather important in that it means that an X-ray from a given
element must be able to cause inner shell ionization and, hence, emission of radiation hc
of lower energy from any lighter element. hv=
o = Ve
e
10.7.2 X RAY PRODUCTION, PROPERTIES AND SPECTRUM where, is the maximum frequency, V = accelerating voltage, e = electron charge.
This is the Duane-Hunt law.
Below is a schematic of an X-ray tube.

Electron beam source line spectra characteristic

1. Elements with Z > 23 exhibit two spectral series: a K line (corresponding toshorter
wavelengths) and an L line (corresponding to relatively longer wavelengths). Elements
with Z < 23 exhibit only the K series

2. As Z increases, so too does the minimum amount of energy required for excitation;
For all but the lightest elements, the X-ray line spectra are independent of either
physical or chemical states. This is because the electrons involved in the transition are
not participating in any chemical bonds.

Continuum Spectra from Electron Beam Sources

In an X-ray tube, electrons produced at a heated cathode are accelerated toward a metal
anode by a potential as great as 100kV; upon collision, part of the energy of the electron
beam is converted into X-Rays. Under some conditions only a continuum spectrum
X-ray sources can emit two forms of X-rays: is results. The continuum X-Ray spectrum is characterized by a well-defined, short
wavelength limit, which is dependent upon the accelerating voltage but independent
10) continuous (white radiation or Bremsstrahlung - “Bremsstrahlung” refers to
of the target material. The continuum radiation from an electron beam source results
radiation arising from the deceleration of particles)
from collisions between the electrons of the beam and the atoms of the target material.
2) discontinuous (line)

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 The fluorescent lamp’s spectrum is a mixture of line and continuous spectra. Because of
the exact correlation with the principal mercury vapor lines and the fluorescent lamp’s
lines, we can conclude that a major component of the fluorescent lamp is mercury
vapor. But what produced the continuous portion of the fluorescent spectrum?

Fig.10. 2 Schematic representation of an AGN continuum spectrum including a possible source for each emission compo- A phosphor is a substance that can accept energy in one form and emit the energy in
nent. the form of visible light. Fluorescent lights are produced by coating the inside surface of
the glass tube with phosphor particles, which accepts the energy of ultraviolet photons
and emits visible photons. In the case of my lamp, the phosphor coating emitted
relatively high intensities of light ranging from blue to yellow in color, demonstrated by
Line Spectra from Electron Beam Sources… the continuous peaks between about 480 nm and 600 nm. Because it is not an atomic
source, we should not expect line spectra from the phosphor particles, and so attribute
Bombardment of a molybdenum target produces intense emission lines. The emission
the continuous portion of the plot to the activity of the phosphor. The presence of the
behavior of molybdenum is typical of all elements having atomic numbers greater than
continuous spectra also tells us that the mercury vapor is emitting light in the ultraviolet
23, that is, the X-Ray line spectra are similar when compared with ultraviolet emission
range, which is beyond the scope of our spectrophotometer to detect directly.
and consist of two series of lines.

Line spectra are composed of distinct lines of color, or in the case of our graphs, sharp
peaks of large intensity at a particular wavelength. Line spectra are characteristic of
elements and compounds when excited (energized) under certain conditions. These
spectra helped develop the current atomic theories. Line spectra thus provide a
“fingerprint” unique to each element, and as with continuous spectra, the combination
of the prominent lines in the spectrum produce the observe light color.

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 A neon-helium laser produces a red laser beam, which is correlated on the spectral
graph with a single, sharp peak in the red portion of the spectrum. Because of this
single peak, we can refer to the laser as an extremely monochromatic light source.
Careful examination of the graph reveals a minor peak on the neon vapor spectra at
the same wavelength of the laser beam, which indicates the neon component of the
neon-helium laser.

Absorption

Absorption of X-ray radiation follows Beer’s law like the absorption of other forms of
electromagnetic radiation. For X-ray work, Beer’s law looks like:

P0
ln =x
P
Where
P0 incident beam power,

These three elemental vapor spectra clearly illustrate line spectra. Examining the P transmitted beam power,
prominent lines of neon, I would expect the light to be a deep red-orange color, which
is what we observed. The spectral lines of krypton indicate another red light, however, ln linear absorption coefficient (similar to molar absorbtivity),
we observed a cool blue color. Argon’s prominent lines also imply a red color, which
does not match the observed lavender-purple color. I hypothesize that the difference x path length in cm
is because our spectrophotometer doesn’t detect or plot the very short blue visible
We can rewrite this to take into account the density of the sample:
wavelengths (near ultra-violet), which would combine with the red lines in the spectrum
to produce the blue and lavender-blue light seen from krypton and argon vapor lamps. P0
ln = Mx
P
where M is the mass absorption coefficient.

Using the mass absorption coefficient, you don’t need to worry about the physical or
chemical state of the sample.

And, mass absorption coefficients have the additional convenience of being additive
functions of their weight fractions of sample components:

So
M tot = W A + WB + ... + Wn

Like many important scientific discoveries, Fraunhofer’s observation of spectral lines

was a complete accident. Fraunhofer wasn’t looking for anything of the sort; he was
simply testing some new state-of-the-art prisms he had made. When sunlight was sent

250 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 251

through a thin slit and then through one of the prisms, it formed a rainbow-colored So all those other frequencies would come through okay. Then the spectrum of light
spectrum, just as Fraunhofer had expected but, much to his surprise, the spectrum that had been through the gas would just have some gaps in it, at the frequencies that
contained a series of dark lines. were absorbed.

Dark lines? That’s the opposite of what we’ve been talking about. You’ve been telling That’s right. The spectrum with these missing frequencies is called an absorption
me that different elements create a series of bright lines at certain wavelengths. spectrum. (Note that the dark lines in an absorption spectrum appear at exactly the
same frequencies as the bright lines in the corresponding emission spectrum.)
That’s what happens when an element is heated. In terms of the Bohr model, heating
the atoms gives them some extra energy, so some of their electrons can jump up to
higher energy levels. Then, when one of these electrons drops back down to a lower 10.8 End unit assessment solutions
level, it emits a photon --at one of that element’s special frequencies, of course. And
1. Solution to question 1 is summarized in the table below:
those photons create the bright lines in the spectra you showed me.

i. ii iii iv v

C B A D A
2. X-ray production-characteristic radiation and bremstrahlung:

a) X-rays are produced by bombarding a target material with high energy electrons.
If the incident electron interacts or collides with an atom in the target then it will lose
Exactly that’s called an emission spectrum. But there is another way in which elements
some of its kinetic energy. This energy can be emitted as an x-ray. The broad range
can produce spectra. Suppose that instead of a heated sample of some element, you
of x-ray wavelengths is the bremstrahlung (“braking radiation”). It arises from the
have the element in the form of a relatively cool gas. Now let’s say that a source of
sudden decelerations of the electrons as they strike the target. Since there will be a
white light-- containing all visible wavelengths--is shining behind the gas. When photons
range of magnitudes of accelerations, there will be a range of x-ray energies. The sharp
from the light source make their way through this gas, some of them can interact with
spikes in the spectrum are the characteristic radiation. These x-ray wavelengths are
the atoms--provided that they have just the right frequency to bump an electron of that
characteristic of the particular atoms in the target. Some of the bombarding electrons
element up to a higher energy level. Photons at those particular frequencies are thus
cause electrons within the target atoms to be promoted to higher energy levels. When
absorbed by the gas. However, as you noted before, the atoms are “transparent” to
these electrons drop down again to lower levels, they release energy in the form of
photons of other frequencies.
photons. The photons have an energy which is the difference in energy between two
electron shells in the target atoms.

b) If the incident electron gives up all its kinetic energy in a single interaction a photon
with the highest possible energy will be produced. This maximum energy corresponds
to the minimum wavelength, λmin . It is impossible to get an x-ray with higher energy
(shorter wavelength) than that originally possessed by the incident electron. This is
an important clue to the photon nature of x-rays, more collisions will produce more
photons, but not higher energy photons, in the same way that increasing the intensity
of the incident light in the photoelectric effect will increase the photo-current, but not
the stopping voltage.

252 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 253

c) If the accelerating voltage was increased, the cut-off wavelength would decrease
7. nλ 2=
= dsinθ n 1
(dotted line in figure) as each incident electron would carry more energy allowing higher
energy x-rays to be produced. The characteristic peaks would not change as these
λ= 2dsinθ = 2 × 2.82 ×10−10 × sin100 =
9.79 ×10−11 m
correspond to x-rays emitted when electrons move from one energy level to another h h h 1 1 h2
in the target atom. These energy levels will not change, hence the characteristic peaks 8.As λ = = ⇔v= then
= K = me v 2 also eV = K
p me v me λ 2 2 me λ 2
will not change. The characteristics x-rays are characteristic of the target material.

9.

10. A tungsten target (Z = 74) is bombarded by electrons in an x-ray tube. The K, L, and
M atomic x-ray energy levels for tungsten are -69.5, -11.3 and -2.30 keV, respectively.

a) The energy levels are given as negative values because these are the values of
electrical potential energy when a free electron is taken as the reference at 0 eV. In
other words, they are the energies required to totally remove the electron from that
energy level. It is rather like the gravitational potential energy down the bottom of a
hole when the surface of the earth is taken as the reference of zero.

b) The minimum kinetic energy of the bombarding electrons is the energy required for
the transition:
kα line is from the transition from n = 2 to n = 1 energy level, E = (69.5 – 11.3) = 58.2 keV
kβ
Fig.10. 3 line is from the transition from n = 3 to n = 1 energy level, E = (69.5 – 2.3) = 67.2 keV

c) The minimum values of the accelerating potential are 58.2 keV and 67.2 keV,
respectively.
d) If the target was changed the cut-off wavelength would remain the same. The
characteristic peaks would change as these depend on the electron energy levels of hc 6.67 ×10−34 × 3 ×108
λ
= = = 2.1×10−11 m
the target material, see Fig.10.3 d) E 58.2 ×103 ×1.602 ×10−19

3. (i) E = eV = 1.602 ×10−19 ×104 = 104 EV hc 6.67 ×10−34 × 3 ×108

λ
= = = 1.8 ×10−11 m
h 6.67 ×10−34
E 67.2 ×103 ×1.602 ×10−19
(ii) de Broglie relation: λ
= =
2eVme
= 1.23 ×10−11 m
2(10 ) ×1.602 ×10−19 )(9.11−31 )
4
11.
hc 3 ×108 × 6.67 ×10−34
(iii) λmim
= = = 1.25 ×10−10 m
eV 1.602 ×10−19 ×104 A: High potential B: Applied voltage source
(iv) Emax hc 3 ×108 × 6.67 ×10−34
= = = 602 ×10−15 J C: Hot water out from cooling the target D: Cold water in to cool the target (Anode)
λmin −10
1.25 ×10
E: The anode (Target) F: The cathode. Hot filament, the source of electron
=
4. According to Bragg’s law nλ 2=
dsinθ andn 1
λ 1.2 ×10−10 G: Beam of electron towards the anode H: X rays produced
therefore,=
λ θd
2dsin= = = 2.89 ×10−10 m
2 sinθ 2 × sin12o

5. Check answer on activity 10.5

Eλ 4.8 ×10−15 × 4.1×10−11
6. h =E = min = =6.56 ×10−34 J ⋅ s
f max c 2.998 ×108

254 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 255

10.9 Additional activities v. A good x-ray source should produce x-rays of narrow beam and

A. parallel x-rays
10.9.1 Remedial activities and answers
B. perpendicular x-rays
1. Choose the correct answer for the following questions.
C. anti-parallel x-rays
ii. Scattered x-ray beams approach detector screen D. anti-perpendicular x-rays
A. perpendicularly Answer:
B. parallel
I Ii iii iv v
C. anti-parallel
D. at an angle D A C B A
ii. Type of x-rays used to detect break in bone is

A. hard The figure below shows the structure and circuit of a modern x rays tube
B. soft
C. both A and B
D. moderate
iii. Intensifier screens reduces patient’s exposure to x-rays by a factor of

A. 500-600
B. 1000-2000
C. 100-500
D. 10-100 b) Indicate on the diagram the path of the x-ray beam supplied by the tube.
iv. Contrast media consist of elements with c) Name the part marked C and state its function
A. lower atomic number d) Name the metals used in parts A, B and state why there are suitable for use in the
B. higher atomic number tube
C. metalloids e) Why are cooling fins necessary?
D. inert gases
f) Describe how the x rays are produced.

g) What is the speed of x rays?

h) What are hard and soft x rays?

i) Briefly describe two uses of x rays

j) In which way do x rays differ from gamma rays.

k) Explain why people are advised against exposing themselves to x rays unless it is
absolutely unavoidable.

256 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 257

Answer: i. X rays pass through matter of low density but are absorbed far more by matter
of high density. Hence they penetrate tissue of flesh but are absorbed by denser
matter such as bones. So they are used in radiography (x ray photography for
study of bones)

ii. X ray machines are used in industry for detecting flaws and defects in steel
plates. X rays pass more easily through the flows than through the rest of the
material.

iii. Recently developed x ray microscopes have made it possible to study the
arrangement of the molecules of crystalline substances e.g the structure of
wool to improve fibre.

iv. X rays have harmful killing effects on normal living cells and are dangerous to
b) C is a concave focusing cathode which helps electrons to focus on a spot on target health. Hence all x rays apparatus are always surrounded by lead shields which
B absorb stray radiation. Most x rays are absorbed by about 1 mm thick lead.
However, very hard x rays are used in hospitals to destroy cancered cells
c) A copper anode as it is a good conductor of heat; conducts heat away from the
i) X rays differ from gamma rays in that gamma rays originate from the nuclei of
target;
atoms while X rays are as a result of fast moving electrons being decelerated by a
d) B- Molybdenum or tungsten has a very high melting point and does not melt when metal which they hit.
heated.
j) X rays are dangerous to us because our bodies can absorb the energy from x ray ra-
e) The cooling fins remove much of the heat conducted along the thick copper rod A. diation. When our bodies absorb the x rays energy, ions are produced in the body.
These ions can change or destroy living cells. The damage to the body’s living cells
f) X rays are produced when high energy electrons of cathode rays strike the atoms can stop them from functioning and multiplying, which may lead to cancer, leukae-
of heavy metals and penetrate close to nucleus. The hot cathode, C emits electrons mia, and hereditary defects in children and / or death. People are therefore advised
when heated by a small transformer connected to a.c mains. It has very low voltage against exposing themselves to x rays unless it is absolutely unavoidable.
supply of 6 V. Copper anode A is maintained at very high positive potential relative
to cathode C, so that electrons reach the molybdenum target< B, with a high energy. 3. How much the radiographer increase the:
The whole tube is evacuated and x rays are produced when electrons collide with
i. Intensity?
molybdenum target. The potential difference across the electrodes accelerates the
electrons to the speed necessary to produce the x rays only. Only a small fraction ii. Energy of x rays produced by an x rays tube?
of the kinetic energy of the electrons becomes x ray radiation; the rest is absorbed
by the target which becomes hot. A cooling device, the fins are required to conduct Answer
away this heat.
i. The intensity of x rays can either be increased by:
8
f) Their speed is C = 3 ×10 m / s . X rays are electromagnetic waves and therefore have •• Increasing the current on the filament or
the speed of light in vacuum.
•• Increasing the tube voltage
g) X rays have wavelengths range between 10 nm to 0.001 nm. Soft x rays produced at ii. Increase the tube voltage
low voltage and they have low penetrating power, low energy and long wavelength.
Short wavelength x rays are referred to as hard x rays. They are produced at high
voltage and have high penetrating power.

h)

258 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 259

4. State the energy transformation that take place during x ray production in an x ray 6 (a) Calculate the electrons produced per minute by the cathode of an x ray tube which
tube. has a current of 40 mA flow drought it.

Answer: Determine the maximum frequency of the x rays so produced if the tub voltage is 80 kV
and the tube is 2%.
Electrical energy is converted to heat energy in the filament cathode. The heat energy
is then converted to kinetic energy of moving electrons. Upon reaching the anode, the
kinetic energy is converted to x rays and heat energy. Answer:

5. (a) Calculate the wavelength of x rays whose energy is 9.5 keV. 6. (a) Calculate the electrons produced per minute by the cathode of an x ray tube
which has a current of 40 mA flow drought it.
(b) Comment on the quality of the x rays in (a)
(a)Determine the maximum frequency of the x rays so produced if the tub voltage is 80
Answer: kV and the tube is 2%.
hc 6.67 ×10−34 × 3 ×108
(a) λ == 1.3 ×10−10 m =
= 0.13 nm Answer:
E (95 ×103 ×1.602 ×10−19
(a) Total charge Q = (40 ×103 )(60) =
It = 2.4 C

(b) The x rays are of high quality. Quality od x rays in the penetrating power of x rays. X Number of electrons
rays of short wavelength like that in (a) above are of high quality since their penetrating Q 2.4
N=
e = = 1.5 ×1019
−19
power is high e 1.602 ×10
2.4 × 80000
E
(b) Energy per electron= = 1.28 ×10−14 J
1.5 ×1019
10.9.2 Consolidation activities
2
Efficiency of the tube η = of E
6. What are the advantages do rotating anode x ray tubes have over fixed target x ray 100
tube? Hence= ηE 2 ×1.28 ×10−14
f = = 3.843 ×1017 Hz
h 100 × 6.67 ×10−34
Answer:
10.9.3 Extended activities.
Rotating anode x ray tube have an advantage of producing high intensity x rays since
1. How and what are some uses of x-rays in medicine?
heat loading on the target is reduced by the rotation of anode as compared to the fixed
anode tubes. Answer:

7. Determine the tube voltage of an x ray tube which is 1.5 % efficient if it produces x rays Depending on the images needed, the X-Ray technician will ask you to lie, sit, or stand in
whose minimum wavelength is 1.8 ×10−10 m . several positions during the process. You will be asked to hold your breath and remain
still while the images are being taken. This provides the clearest images possible-Rays
Answer: can be used to Diagnose: Conditions Affecting the Lungs, Enlarged Heart, Fractures,
hc 6.67 ×10−34 × 3 ×108 Infections, Blood Clots, Swallowed Items, Pneumonia, Foreign Bodies, Obstructions,
E == =1.1×10−14 J = 6.95 keV etc.
λ 1.8 ×10−19
100 E 100 ×1.1×10−14
Et
The total energy of electrons emitted= = = 7.33 ×10−14 J
1.5 1.5
Et 7.33 ×10−14
Et = eV ⇔ V = = = 7457.76 kV
e 1.602 ×10−19

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 Unit 11: EFFECTS OF LASERS 11
11.1 Key Unit Competence
By the end of the unit, learners should be able to analyse the applications of LASER

11.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills

The success of this unit rely on the mastery of knowledge, skills acquired in physics in
previous grades or units as indicated below.

•• Wave and particle nature of light (Unit 1 S.5)

•• Effects of X-rays (Unit 10 S.6)
•• Black body radiation (in unit1 S.5)

11.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed

•• Standardization culture (Be aware of equipment that do not emit electromagnetic
radiations)

11.4 Guidance on the introductory activity.

This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept

•• Tell students that they are to discuss (by themselves) under your guidance.
•• Split your class into groups (if it is a mixed school make sure that your groups
have boys and girls) in case it is mixed and tell them to start working on the
introductory activity.
•• Give students enough time to work by themselves brainstorming the questions.
In this period, you can move around overseeing what students are doing. Leave
them to work by themselves.
•• Invite some groups to present their findings to the whole class. You can explain
new terms used and clarify points where students had problems

262 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 263

 •• Ask students from different groups to judge whether, what have been discussed X-rays.
correspond to the questions.
i. Treating cancer
•• Together with students, make a summary of what have been discussed using
learners’ findings and deductions ii. Investigation structure of metals
•• Ask learners to identify the practical applications of electromagnetic waves iii. Detect broken bones, punctures in broken pipes etc
Specifically lasers
Possible answers of the introductory activity. iv. To study the structure of crystals and properties of Atoms.

a. Electromagnetic waves are waves that do not necessarily need a material medium For more information refer to S.6 unit 10
for transmission.

b. Do not require a material medium for transmission LASER LIGHT

i. Punching small holes on a surface of a material
• They move with high speed approximately to speed of light in vacuum
(Speed of light c = 3x108 m/s) ii. Laser surgery
• Because of high speed (high energy), some of them penetrate matter iii. Used as a level
• Like any other waves, electromagnetic waves suffer reflection, refraction, iv. For security purposes
interference,
v. They are used in scientific research
• Diffraction absorption, scattering and many others
• Electromagnetic waves can be used to transfer information
• They are transverse waves
• Gamma rays can be used to kill living organisms and sterilize medical
• Electromagnetic waves are produced by accelerating charge. equipment
• The frequency of all electromagnetic waves remains unchanged but the • Micro wave oven converts electromagnetic energy with low frequency into
wavelength can change electromagnetic energy with very high frequency that is easily absorbed by
• when it travels from one medium to another. food and converted into heat.

• The energy carried by electric and magnetic fields of electromagnetic fields vi. From LASER meaning Light Amplifier by Stimulated Emission of Radiation,
are equal. it implies that laser itself is an electromagnetic radiation under visible part of
radiation possessing all thecharacteristics of electromagnetic waves. Therefore,
• Their energy can be quantised. Lasers are part of electromagnetic waves.
c. Accelerating charges produce varying electric and magnetic fields. Changing
electric fields results into changing magnetic that leads to production of current.
This interplay between magnetic and electric fields leads to production of
electromagnetic waves

d. NO. Different types of electromagnetic waves have different energy depending

on where they originate and the medium they propagate through.

e. Electromagnetic waves can be regarded as stream of energy. Using different

examples of electromagnetic waves, we can discuss the positive uses of these
waves

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11.5 List of lessons Lesson 11.1: Concept of laser.

S/ Lesson Tittle Learning Objectives Suggested a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:

No (Adapted from Number Through guided discovery, assist learners to discover what a laser is and how it can be
syllabus) of Periods produced. You can make a recap using;

•• Propagation of mechanical waves (Unit 4 S.5) particularly on electromagnetic

By the end of the wave
Lesson(s) Learners
•• Wave and particle nature of light (Unit 1 S.5)
should be able to:
•• Production of X-rays (Unit 10 S.6)
1 Introductory Have a general over view 2
Questions like,
Activity of the unit and connect
electromagnetic waves to laser Put in full L.A.S.E.R. and defining all the terms in the word LASER should be posed to
light. students
2 Laser Concept Analyse the mechanism to 3 How is laser produced? (This can take like 2 minutes).
produce LASER beam
b) Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks, Laser pointers (if you have
3 Laser Structure Analyse the structure of a laser 3 any at your school)

4 Properties of Explain: monochromatic, 3 c) Learning Activities:

lasers coherent sources of light, This lesson focuses on making students understand and apply the concept laser
stimulated emission of light production
and spontaneous emission of
light. •• Tell students to turn to activity 11.1 in students’ book and interpret the picture
•• Divide your class into different groups (Choice is yours about methodology
5 Applications and Analyse applications and 4 depending on the type of your class)
dangers of Lasers dangers of LASER beam
•• Instruct them to re-write questions to their notebooks.
6 End unit To apply knowledge and 2 •• Leave the learners to perform the activity by themselves. Give them enough time
assessment. understanding acquired from to work out the questions.
the concepts learnt.
•• Invite 2 or 3 (or any number of groups depending on how many you had formed)
to present their findings. Let them discuss by themselves
•• Ask other members of the class to whether they have similar answers from what
others have presented.
•• Together with students, consolidate and come to a common understanding of
different questions in the Activity.
Expected results of the activity:

a. A laser is created OR produced when the electrons in atoms in special glasses,

crystals, or gases absorb energy from an electrical current or another laser and
become “excited.”

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 b. Yes. This is because the atoms need extra source of energy so that they can Lesson 11.2: Laser Structure
absorb that energy and jump to another energy levels (Excited state). Therefore,
energy sources like electricity is necessary to provide energy to the atoms so that a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
they can be excited.
Students need to be knowing what a laser is and how it is produced
c. Laser is formed when atoms are in excited states. It does not happen in ground
state since particles in this level have minimum or Zero energy, hence in ground In brief, ask learners in brief to describe the structure of a laser light basing on what
state atoms cannot radiate any radiation. they know.

b) Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks,

Answers to Activity 11.2 c) Learning Activities
i. Absorption is a process in which a photon from a pump source is destroyed
and the atom which was at the ground state is promoted to the excited
Activity 11.3
state This activity makes learners to think and analyse the structure of laser light.
ii. Stimulated emission is the process in which an atom is demoted to the •• Tell students to turn to activity 11.2 in the learner’s book
ground state, and the electric field is left with n +1 photons
•• Depending on the nature and size of your class, decide the methodology to use
iii. Spontaneous emission is a process in which an atom drop to a lower level (it may be group work, individual or class activity)
by emitting a photon of radiation •• Tell students to copy the questions into their notebooks and give them some
2. In excited states, electrons have a lot of energy than in ground state. time to attempt or discuss the questions. This may take up like 40 minutes.
Therefore an electron emits or radiates energy when it leaves the excited •• Call some students (may be a group or individual depending on the methodology
states. you used) to make a presentation about their answers/findings.

3. E = hf •• Ask other students whether they agree with what have been discussed by their
fellow students. You can harmonize if there is any problem
Where •• Link learner’s findings and notes to the structure of a laser
E is energy radiated •• Together with students make a summary about structure of laser. Compile the
outcomes and let learners write them in their Notebooks.
h is planks constant

and f frequency of emitted radiation Expected answers on this activity 11.3.

4. Population inversion is the process of increasing excited electrons in higher a. laser system consists of three important parts: Active medium or amplifying
energy levels. medium, the energy source referred to as the pump or pump source and the
optical resonator consisting of mirrors or system of mirrors.

For more explanations refer to students’ book.

b. Parts are different. This is because at different points, the beam has different
energy. Like in pumping mechanism, energy is supplied. This means that the parts
cannot resemble.

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Answers to checking my Progress 11.1.6 a. Monochromatic, Coherent, collimation (Directionality). For explanations refer to
learners’ book.
1.The laser is a device that uses the ability of some substances to absorb
electromagnetic energy and re-radiate it, as a highly focused beam of b. Different kinds of lasers are different since they are produced by different sources
monochromatic and synchronized wavelength radiation. with different energy. Example Gas laser may not be equally similar as solid lasers.
This means that the degree of Coherence, monochromaticity, and directionality
2.LASER stands for Light Amplifier by Stimulated Emission of Radiation. differs depending on the type of laser.
3.A laser is created OR produced when the electrons in atoms in special glasses, The output is determined by the spectral emission properties of the gain medium and
crystals, or gases absorb energy from an electrical current or another laser and the modes supported by the cavity.
become “excited.”
4.Refer to Activity 11.2 part (no 4) Answers to Checking my progress 11.2.4
5. E =hf =6.63 ×10 ×10
−34 10
1.b
. E 6.65 ×10−24 J
= 2.a
6.a) Active medium or amplifying medium, The pump and Optical resonator 3.Under monochromaticity, laser light is produced with similar or one
wavelength. This is a condition for coherence. Also, collimation is a property
b).Plane mirror resonator, Confocal resonator, Concentric resonator, Spherical-
that allows light to stay in one direction which can also be achieved when
plane resonator and Concave-convex resonator. Diagrams discussed in
light have one wavelength. Hence the three terms are connected.
learner’s book.
4.In holography, the temporal coherence (in laser) length determines the
Lesson 3: Properties of lasers maximum depth of the object in a reflection hologram, and the spatial
coherence length determines the lateral size. Holography, which is based
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction: on interference between light beams, long coherence length enables taking
holograms of large bodies, which require greater depth of field. Both the
Students need to be knowing the concept of laser. light reflected from the near part of the body, and the light reflected from
the far part of the body, will still be coherent with the reference beam.
Learners have ever seen different examples of light. Let them list the different examples
and their characteristics / properties. 5.Collimation or Directionality. This is because laser light is highly directional.
b) Teaching resources: Internet, textbooks laser pointer (if you have any)
Lesson 4: Applications and dangers of Lasers
Activity 11.4
a) Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
This activity aims at making learners discover the properties of laser light.
Students need to be knowing all the properties of laser light and laser production.
•• Tell learners to copy down the questions to their Notebooks and attempt them.
Learners now know what a laser is and what makes up laser light. Let them give real
•• Move around and mark students’ books. applications and dangers of misuse of laser light.
•• Take time after marking and let the learners raise their answers (you can pick any
number (for each question) of students depending on the time you have) b) Teaching resources: Internet, textbooks laser pointer (if you have any)

•• Together with learners make a summary of correct points on the board and tell c) Learning Activities
learners to correct themselves where they went wrong and write correct points This lesson emphasizes on the practical applications and dangers of misuse of laser
to their notebooks. light.

Expected answers of this activity •• Tell learners to open their books (Learners book) to activity 11.6

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 •• Decide on the methodology to use in this lesson. You can group your learners, •• Give students favourable to work on the activity given
they can do it as a class or individual.
•• While moving around mark students work.
•• Instruct them to read the activity first and then re-write the questions to their
•• After marking invite some members to discuss or present their answers to the
notebooks.
whole class
•• Allow them to attempt the questions.
•• Ask learners (rest of the class) whether their answers correspond to the discussed
•• Move around and mark their work. ones
•• Select some students to share their answers to the whole class and allow •• Invite some students to present about their answers. React on their findings by
questions from students if any. Create a favourable environment for learners to concretizing what may be missing or not discussed comprehensively.
discuss.
•• Consolidate your lesson by making a summary from learners’sugestions and tell
•• Together with student’s ideas, link their answers to the practical applications of students to note down important points in their notebooks.
laser light.
•• Make a summary (using student’s findings) and tell learners to write down Expected answers to the activity 11.6
important ideas in their books.
a. Yes.

Answers to the Activity 11.6 b. Because long exposure of these radiations cause skin burn, skin cancer, affects
eyes, Affect cells of a human being resulting into mutation.
a. In Cutting metals (welding)
c. Because of their high energy, this makes them to have high penetrating power.
•• As a level in construction Therefore, they can penetrate matter hence harmful.
•• Laser Surgery in hospitals
•• They are used in military and law enforcement devices for marking targets and Activity 11.7
measuring range and speed.
This activity makes learners discover precautions that one can take to avoid side effects
•• Laser lighting displays use laser light as an entertainment medium. of laser light
•• And many others discussed in learners‘ book. •• Tell learners to open activity 11.7 in the learner’s book.
b. Accept all learner‘s idea if a student answers the question. •• Divide learners into groups or chose any method that can suit your class and
helps the learner to attempt the activity
c. In hospitals, Industries construction, Security section, etc •• Tell learners to read the question and copy it to their notebooks.
•• Give students like 30 minutes to work on the activity given
Activity 11.6
•• While moving around mark students work.
This activity makes students to be aware of dangers of misuse of laser light.
•• After marking invite some members to discuss or present their answers to the
•• Tell learners to open activity 11.6 in the learner’s book. whole class
•• Divide learners into groups or chose any method that can suit your class and •• Ask learners (rest of the class) whether their answers correspond to the discussed
helps the learner to attempt the activity ones
•• Tell learners to read the questions and copy them to their notebooks. •• Consolidate your lesson by making a summary from learners’sugestions and tell
students to note down important points in their notebooks.

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Possible answers to activity 11.7 11.6 Summary of the Unit
a. The protective wear are intended to shield them from incoming radiations that The term LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
are harmful. (Accept any learner’s idea that is that is connected to the reasoning Radiation.
stated)
Laser emits electromagnetic radiation by the process of optical amplification based on
b. This question requires all the preventive measures against laser radiation. Some stimulated emission of photons.
of them are listed below.

i. For any one working in places where there are incidences of being exposed Components of a Laser
to laser light, one should wear protective clothes, glasses and shoes so that
there is no direct exposure of these radiations on to the body. A laser consists of

ii. One should minimize the time of working with lasers. •• An optical cavity,

iii. Areas that are exposed to these radiations should be warning signs and •• A pumping system (energy source) and
labels so that one can be aware of places/areas where laser light is used. •• An appropriate lasing medium.
iv. Safe measures like Use of remote control should be used to avoid direct
exposure of these radiations (LASER light). Characteristics of Lasers
v. People should be given trainings on how to handle lasers. •• Monochromatic–laser consist of mostly single wavelength rather than different
wavelengths.
vi. There should also access restrictions to laboratories that use laser
•• Coherent-wavelengths in a laser beam are in phase. The wave crests and troughs
All discussed in learners’ book are parallel to each other.
•• Collimated–very narrow, travel in the same direction. Because of these properties
intense power is produced at a small point of concentration.
Answers to checking my progress 11.3.4
1.Negative effects of lasers Types of Lasers
• Lasers can cause damage in biological tissues, both to the eye and to the Lasers can be classified by the type of lasing material in the optical cavity.
skin, by the following mechanisms.
•• Solid state lasers make use of a crystalline lasing material. e.g., ruby or neodymium-
• Thermal damage -burns occur when tissues are heated to the point where YAG (yttrium aluminum garnet) lasers.
denaturation of proteins occurs.
•• Gas lasers uses pure gas or mixture of gases. e.g., carbon dioxide and helium-
• Photochemical damage -where light triggers chemical reactions in tissue. neon.
•• Semiconductor/diode lasers employ n-type and p-type semiconducting element
2.Ways of preventing dangers caused by lasers. Discussed in Activity 11.5 materials.
3.Depends on the student’s idea. But the biggest percentage should be a YESS •• Liquid/dye lasers employ organic dye in a liquid solution or suspension as lasing
since the useful in most of the activities. As discussed in in the uses of lasers. media.

4.Consider student’s idea. But depending on the positive uses of these •• Excimer lasers (the name is derived from the terms excited and dimers) use
radiations, man should continue using laser light. But the answer should bear gases such as chlorine and fluorine mixed with inert gases such as argon, krypton
a scientific support. or xenon.

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Effects of Laser or met stable state should have a long-life time, i.e., the atoms should pause at the
met stable state for more time than at the lower level. Thus, for laser action, pumping
Biological Effects: Lasers can cause damage in biological tissues, both to the eye and to mechanism (exciting with external source) should be from a such, as to maintain a
the skin, by the following mechanisms. higher population of atoms in the upper energy level relative to that in the lower level.
•• Thermal damage -burns occur when tissues are heated to the point where
denaturation of proteins occurs. 11.7 Additional Information
•• Photochemical damage -where light triggers chemical reactions in tissue.
Preventive measures of the effects of Lasers The Einstein Coefficients
The Einstein Coefficients Laser activity may occur in the case of nonequilibrium, as we
Warning sign to be posted at the entrance. will see later. Before dealing with this situation, let us start by considering the case
of equilibrium between the radiation field and an ensemble of atoms in the walls of
•• Warning lights to be provided outside the laser room to warn visitors when the
a cavity. This will lead to the Einstein derivation of Planck’s radiation law. The atoms
laser is in operation.
will be described in the framework of Bohr’s model of the atom, allowing the electron
•• Materials that can cause specular reflection must not be kept in the laboratory. to occupy only discrete energy levels. For the derivation of the radiation law, the
•• Laser safety glasses must be used if the permissible exposure limits for the laser consideration of just two of those levels is sufficient. They shall be indexed by 1 and 2
are exceeded. and shall be populated such that for the total number of atoms
•• Secure optical components to the table to prevent stray reflections from N1 + N 2 =
N
holds.
misaligned optics.
•• Users must never view the beam at the level of the horizontal plane where they This N 2 means that of the atoms are in the excited state with energy E2 and N1 atoms
are passing. are in the ground state with energy E1. Transitions between the states shall be possible
by emission or absorption of photons of the appropriate energy.
•• Watches and jewelry must not be used in the laboratory.
•• Alignment of beams and optical components must be performed at a reduced Consider an assembly of atoms at an absolute temperature T in which the atoms may
beam power whenever possible be in different energy levels.
Amplification and Population Inversion When favourable conditions are created for If n0 is number of atoms per unit volume in the ground state (E=0), then the number
the stimulated emission, more and more atoms are forced to give up photons thereby of atoms per unit volume in excited state E is given by Boltzmann distribution law
initiating a chain reaction and releasing vast amount of energy, this results in rapid build- E
−
up of energy of emitting one particular wavelength (monochromatic light), traveling n n= x10−23 J / k , E energy of a photon
where K 1.38=
= 0e
kT

coherently in a precise, fixed direction. This process is called amplification by stimulated

emission. The number of atoms in any level at a given time is called the population of
that level. Normally, when the material is not excited externally, the population of the
11.8 End of Unit Assessment answers.
lower level or ground state is greater than that of the upper level. When the population 1. b 2. a 3. b 4. b 5. a 6.b
of the upper level exceeds that of the lower level, which is a reversal of the normal 7. a 8. a 9. b 10. b 11. c 12. d
occupancy, the process is called population inversion. This situation is essential for a 13. f 14. b 15. a 16. c 17. c
laser action. For any stimulated emission, it is necessary that the upper energy level
18.a) Laser radiation is a light characterized by an extremely high degree of (1)
monochromaticity,

(2) coherence, (3) directionality, and (4) brightness.

Or:The laser is a device that uses the ability of some substances to absorb

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 electromagnetic energy and re-radiate it, as a highly focused beam of monochromatic c) Though laser light is very important in different activities, it can also cause
and synchronized wavelength radiation. harm if mis-used In what ways is laser light harmful.
19. (a) Coherence. Wavelengths in a laser beam are in phase. The wave crests and This question requires side effects of lasers. Some of them are listed below.
troughs are parallel to each other.
• Cause skin cancer
Monochromaticity. Here laser consist of mostly single wavelength rather than
different wavelengths. • Cause skin burn

Collimation. This is where very narrow beam of light, travel in the same direction. • Affect eyes
Because of these properties intense power is produced at a small point of
concentration.
11.9 Additional activities
20.a) Spontaneous Absorption of light. This process involves the atom initially at
an excited state, in the presence of nphotons in some resonant mode. After the 11.9.1 Remedial activities:
stimulated emission event, the atom is demoted to the ground state, and the electric
field is left with n +1 photons 1.The following are properties of laser. Which one is a unique property of laser?

Spontaneous Emission. In general, when an electron is in an excited energy state, a. Directional

it must eventually decay to a lower level, giving off a photon of radiation. This event
is called “spontaneous emission,” and the photon is emitted in a random direction b. Speed
and a random phase. c. Coherence
Population inversion. Population inversion: This is the process of increasing excited d. Wavelength
electrons in higher energy levels. This is the redistribution of atomic energy levels
that takes place in a system so that laser action can occur. (For diagrams refer Answer: c
student’s book) Explanation: Coherence is an important characteristic of laser beam because in laser
b) This question needs applications or uses of laser light beams, the wave trains of same frequency are in phase/ Due to high coherence it
results in an extremely high power.
In laser Surgery
2.Among the following, which one of the following is an example of optical
• Used in welding pumping?
• Used as a level in construction a. Ruby laser

• In formation of 3D diagrams b. Helium -neon laser

• In scientific research c. Semiconductor laser

• Others discussed in Student’s book. d. Dye laser

Answer: a
Explanation: The atoms of Ruby are excited with the help of photons emitted with
the help of photons emitted by an external optical source. The atoms absorb energy
from photos and raises to excited state. Therefore, Ruby laser is an example of optical
pumping.

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3.When laser light is focused on an area for a long time, then that particular area N = 2.4961×1018/m3
alone will be heated. True or false?
Number of photons required = (1 Joule)/ (4.006×10-19 )
a. True
N = 2.4961×1018/m3
b. False
6.The following are types of lasers. Which one of the following can be used for
Answer: a generation of laser pulse?
a. Explanation: Laser beam has very high intensity, directional properties and a. Ruby laser
coherence. When it is focused on a particular area for a long time, then the
area alone will be heated and the other area will remain as such. This is called b. Carbon laser
thermal effect.
c. Heliumneon laser
4.Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted by an LED made up of a
d. Nd- YAG laser
semiconducting material with band gap energy 2.8eV.
a. 2.8Å Answer: d
Explanation: Since Nd YAG laser has a higher thermal conductivity than other solid
b. 4,3308 Å state lasers, it lends itself for generation of laser pulses at a higher pulse repetition
rate or a quasi-continuous wave operation.
c. 5548.4 Å
7.Which of the following is a condition to achieve population inversion?
d. 4430.8 Å
a. To excite most of the atoms
Answer: d
b. To bring most of the atoms to ground state
Explanation: E = hc / λ
c. To achieve stable condition
Therefore, λ = hc / E
d. To reduce the time of production of laser
λ = 4430.8 A0
Answer: a
5.Estimate the number of photons, from green light of mercury ( λ = 4961 Å )
Explanation: When population inversion is achieved, the majority of atoms are in the
,required to do one joule of work.
excited state. This causes amplification of the incident beam by stimulated emission.
a. 4524.2×1018/m3 Thus the laser beam is produced.

b. 2.4961×1018/m3 8.Laser can be termed as non-material knife. True or false?

c. 2.4961/m3 a. False

d. 2.4961/m3 Answer: b
Explanation:In laser surgery,without knife,bloodles operation, cutting tissues etc can
Answer: b be made, hence laser is called non material knife.
Explanation: E = hc / λ 9.DVD uses laser. True or false?
E = 4.006×10-19 Joules a. True

Number of photons required = (1 Joule)/ (4.006×10-19 ) b. False

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Answer: a 4: True or False: An important feature of an exterior rotary laser level is a high rotational
speed of the laser level beam.
Explanation: A DVD player contains a laser. By moving the lens longitudinally, different
depths can be reached in the disc. To make room for a lot of information on every disc, 5: Yes or No: Can you see a rotary laser level beam outside in daylight or in bright
the beam has to be focused on as small an area as possible. This cannot be done with ambient light?
any other light source.
6: What are three commonly required accessories for exterior lasers?
10.Which of the following is used in atomic clocks?
a. A detector/receiver that detects the laser level beam when the human eye
a. Laser cannot;

b. Quartz b. A bucket to stand on;

c. Maser c. A grade rod to measure changes in the elevation;

d. Helium d. A tripod to hold the laser level from;

Answer: c e. Joe the helper

Explanation: Before laser maser was used. It stood for microwave amplification by 7: True or False
stimulated emission of radiation. This was based of Albert Einstein’s principle of
stimulated emission. It was used in atomic clock. Using a rotating laser level outside requires two people to operate?

11.Which of the following can be used in vibrational analysis of structure? 8: Which of the following applications can be performed with an exterior laser?

a. Maser (a) Excavating; (b) Rough and Fine Grading;

b. Qwarts (c) Alignment of concrete forms; (d) Setting up drainage;

c. Electrical (e) All the above

d. Laser 9: True or False

Answer: d Interior laser levels can have red, blue, green or yellow laser level beams?

Explanation: Laser can be used in vibrational analysis of structure. This is because when 10: How much more visible to the human eye are green beam laser levels than red beam
a structure under test begins to vibrate a distinctive pattern begins to emerge. lasers?

(a) 2%; (b) It isn’t more visible;

11.9.2 Consolidation
1.Which of the following are the three most common laser level types? (c) 10%; (d) 400%

(a) Rotary Laser; (b) Line Laser; 11: True or False

(c) Power Laser; (d) Dot Laser; (e) Cordless Laser Interior laser levels typically have a variable speed control?

2: True or False: Rotary laser levels project a beam of light 360° allowing the user to 12: What is the advantage of the scan mode feature on an interior laser?
establish a horizontal or vertical plane? 13: What are the most common accessories used with interior lasers?
3: True or False: Rotary laser levels are recommended for outside use only? (a) Tripod; (b) Grade Rod; (c) Ceiling Mount; (d) Detector; (e) Target

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14: Which of the following applications can be performed with an interior laser? 25: True or False

(a) Acoustical ceilings; (b) Drywall installation; (c) Level floors; Establishing elevations using an optical instrument is a one-person operation?

(d) Level cabinets; (e) All the above 26: The following are operations that can be done using laser. Which one of the
following can be done using an optical instrument?
Q15: Can the same laser level be used inside and outside?
(a) Landscaping; (b) Controlling concrete pours;
16: What are the two primary advantages of a self-leveling laser level over a manually
leveled laser? (c) Leveling deck floors; (d) Contour farming;

17: True or False (e) All the above

Dot laser levels project dots either vertically, horizontally or at right angles allowing the 27: What are the two most commonly used accessories used with an optical instrument?
end user to establish plumb lines or right angles.
(a) Tripod; (b) Detector;
18: Can a dot laser level beam be seen outside in the daylight?
(c) Tape Measure; (d) Grade Rod
19: A dot laser level can be used for which of the following applications?
Answers
(a) Installing sprinkler systems; (b) Machinery installation;
1. A, B & D
(c) Installing electrical outlets and switches; (d) Squaring batter boards; 2. True
(e) All the above 3. False, rotary laser levels are recommended for outside and inside applications

20: True or False 4. True, exterior laser levels typically rotate very quickly to send as many signals to the
detector/receiver as possible.
A line laser level projects lines either vertical, horizontal or vertically and horizontally 5. No, you will not be able to see a rotary laser level beam outside. A detector/receiver
simultaneously. must use to detect the rotating laser level beam.
21: Can line laser level beams be seen outside in daylight or in bright ambient light? 6. A, C & D

22: What are the two most commonly used accessories with line lasers? 7. False, one of the primary benefits of using a rotating laser level is that it only takes
one person to operate.
(a) Grade Rod; (b) Detector/Receiver;
8. E - All the above
(c) Ceiling Mount; (e) Tripod 9. False, interior laser levels have green or red laser level beams only.

23: Which of the following applications can be done with a line laser? 10. D, Green beam laser levels are 400% brighter to the human eye then red beam lasers.
11. True, the slower the rotation speed the more visible the beam is. The faster the
(a) Sprinkler installation; (b) Track lighting; (c) Install windows;
rotation speed the more of a chalk line effect can be seen.
(d) Install chair railing; (e) All of the above 12. Using the scan mode feature on an interior laser level concentrates the 360° beam
to a specific 30° or 60° area. By narrowing the angle of the laser level beam, it make the
24: True or False
laser level beam even more visible to the human eye.
Optical instruments are used to establish grades and elevations as well as establish 13 C & E, A ceiling mount that is designed to hold the laser level on perimeter wall angle
straight lines? when installing an acoustical ceiling. A laser level target with reflective tape on the back
also helps the operator see the laser level beam.

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14 E - All the above

15. Yes, versatile laser levels with variable speed can be used outside at their fastest
rotation speed with a detector and at a slower speed inside so the operator can see the
beam.

16 a) Faster set up. Using a self-leveling laser level is much quicker to set up on a tripod,
level and begin working. A manually leveled laser level requires the operator to adjust
UNIT 12: MEDICAL IMAGING.
12
the leveling screws to level the laser.

b) An out of level indicator. If a self-leveling laser level is moved out of its self-leveling
range, an audible and visual alert signal will activate. There is no out of level indicator
on manually leveled lasers.
12.1 Key Unit Competence.
17: True, a two-dot laser level is designed to give the operator a plumb point between
By the end of the unit the learner should be able to analyze the processes in medical
floor and ceiling. A three-dot laser level is designed to give the operator plumb and
imaging.
level. A five-dot laser level provides the operator plumb, level and right angles.

18: Yes, because the laser level beam is concentrated into a dot, a dot laser level beam
12.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills
can be seen outside in the daylight.
The successes of this unit rely partly on the mastery of knowledge, skills acquired in
19: E - All the above
physics and other subjects in previous grades or unit or experience in real life related to
20: True - some laser levels are designed to project a vertical and horizontal line the medical imaging as indicated below:
simultaneously while other line laser levels are designed to project one, two, three or
•• Oscillation and wave(unit3, S5)
four lines individually.
•• Sound intensity (unit 1, S6)
21: No, a line laser level beam cannot be seen outside in the daylight. To use a line laser
level outside in the daylight, the line laser level must have a “pulse” feature and be used •• Radioactive decay (unit 5,S6)
with a line laser level detector/receiver. •• X-ray in medicine ( unit10, S6).

22: B & E, A line laser level detector/receiver when the line laser level is being used
outside. The line laser level must have a “pulse” feature. Light Duty Tripod - Light Duty
12.3. Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed
Tripod. The operator puts the laser level on the platform and sets the platform and •• Gender (both boys and girls are treated equally in the lesson participation). Care
laser level beam to any desired height. should be taken that both Sexes are given equal opportunities.
23: E - All the above •• Peace and value Education: (respect others view and thoughts during class
discussions). Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be correct
24: True or Not but what is important is to build on that Idea.
•• Standardization culture (Be aware of machines or others materials that do not
25: False, it takes two people to establish elevations using an optical instrument. One
harm our environment).
person to look through the instrument and take the elevation reading off the grade rod
and one person to hold the grade rod at the desired location

26: E - All the above

27: A & D, A tripod to hold the optical instrument. A grade rod to measure changes in
elevation.

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 •• Inclusive education (promote education for all while teaching): Regardless of 2.5 List of Lessons
physical appearance and abilities learners should be treated equally. This makes
the learners to find out that they are all of great importance. In spite of their
S/ Lesson Title Learning objective( Suggested number
physical ability, learners with impairment as normal learners should be aware of
the uses of medical imaging techniques. No adapted from syllabus) of periods
•• Environment sustainability: During delivering different lessons within this unit, By the end of the
let learners be familiar with the application and importance of skills medical
imaging, uses and benefits and risks of them.
Lesson(s) Learners should
be able to:
12.4 Guidance on the introductory activity 1 x- ray imaging ••Identify advantages and 4
disadvantages of x- ray
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards this concept of
imaging , radiography and
medical imaging, their function, uses and effects.
mammography
•• Divide your students into groups (Where possible, mix equally the number of
girls to number of boys. If there are students with impairment, let them take the ••Explain the basic functioning
lead of groups during doing activity) principles of x- ray
imaging , radiography and
•• Tell the learners open their books (L B) the introductory activity of the unit 12
mammography
and then instruct them to observe the photo and answer them following the
instructions from learner’s book. ••Acquire knowledge in
•• While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their attention analysing and modelling
on working activity. physical processes involved in
•• When every group is done, invite some group(s) to present and discuss their medical imaging
findings to the whole class. You may choose two or three groups to present their
findings while others follow. 2 Ultrasound scan ••Explain the medical imaging 4
using ultrasound scan
•• Ask other groups’ members whether their answers correspond to the discussed
points and if there is any points that are different from what have been raised; ••Identify advantages and
tell them to mention it. You can talk about those points (in a discussion together disadvantages of medical
with students). imaging using ultrasound
•• Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. scan. Explain the function of
Allow learners to write the main points in their notebooks. And then linking to MRI.
the summary and what have discussed in class, emphasize on theconcept of
medical imaging, their function, uses and effects. ••Enjoy the use of ultrasound
scan in medical imaging.
•• You can take some minutes and explain them.
•• Summarize your lesson by linking this concept to real life situations like when
someone goes to hospital for radiodraphy, echography or for a scan.
•• Possible answers of the introductory activity.
3. Endoscopy ••Explain the basic functioning 3
principles of endoscopy.
•• During this introductory activity, let learners present their upbringings about
the radiography, echography and nuclear magnetic resonance then find out the ••Identify the befits of
hub of their curiosity about x rays radiation production, uses and function. The endoscopy
summary of the introductory question is provided in the LB.

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 •• Together with students, consolidate and come to a common understanding of
4 Magnetic ••Explain the basic functioning 4 different questions in the Activity.
resonance principles of MRI
imaging(MRI) Note: There are more 2 activities under this part. (They are 12.1, 12.2,). Tell them to work
••Explain the hazard associated out these activities in their time. You can also tell students to do some of these activities
with medical resonance during their class time.
imaging
Suggested answer for all activities.
••Acquire knowledge in
analysing and modelling
physical processes involved Activity 12.1:
in MRI 2.A (x-ray sources), B (ray coming from sources), C (human’s body), D (Screen),
E (image given by X-rays).
3.the X-rays emerging from the source pass through the body and are detected
5 Assessment 2 on the photographic film or fluorescent screen, the rays travel in avery
nearly straight lines through the body with minimal deviatioon since at X-ray
wavelengths there is a little diffractionor refraction. there is absorption (and
Lesson 1: x- ray imaging scattering) however and the difference in absorption by different structures
in the body is what gives rises to the image produced by the transmissionand
a) Introduction darker the film.
Through guided discovery, learners should be able to explain the basic functioning 4.Radiology is defined as the branch of medicine that encompasses not only
principles of x- ray imaging, radiography and mammography then suggest the advantage imaging techniques, such as x-rays, but also treatments, such as radiation
and disadvantage of them. therapy while radiography focused of on the use of x-rays.
You can make a brief introduction using unit 10in Senior six .You can ask them questions
Activity 12.2:
that are related to x- rays, effects and its applications especially in medicine.
•• Problem: breast symptoms
b) Teaching resources
•• Causes: hormone use, whether you have a family or personal history of breast
Textbooks, Internet. cancer, and if there’s a possibility of being pregnant.
c) Learning Activities •• If possible, obtain copies of your prior mammograms and make them available to
your radiologist on the day of your exam.
•• These activities majorly focuses on X- rays in radiography and mammography. d) Advise: You may be asked to wear a gown. Don’t wear deodorant, talcum powder or
•• Tell students to turn to activity 12.1 in students’ book lotion under your arms or on your breasts as these may appear on the mammogram
•• Divide your class into different groups (Decide on the method to use in this lesson and interfere with correct diagnosis.
depending on the type of your class and time of the day)
Suggested answers for checking my progress
•• Instruct them to re-write questions to their notebooks.
•• Leave the learner perform the activity by themselves. Give them enough time to 1.The applications of Multidetector CT are:
work out the questions.
•• CT angiography: coronary, cerebral, carotid, pulmonary, renal, visceral, peripheral
•• Invite some members or groups to present their findings. Let them discuss by
themselves •• Cardiac CT, including CT coronary angiography and coronary artery calcium
scoring
•• Ask other members of the class to whether they have similar answers from what
others have presented. •• CT colography (virtual colonoscopy) , CT cholangiography , CT enterography

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 •• Brain perfusion scanning Lesson 2: Ultrasound scan
•• Planning of fracture repair in complex areas: acetabulum, foot and ankle, distal
radius and carpus. a) Introduction

•• Display of complex anatomy for planning of cranial and facial reconstruction Through guided discovery, learners should be able to explain the basic functioning
surgery principles of ultrasound scan and their benefits
2.The types of x-ray imaging used in mammography are: You can make a brief introduction using unit 1 in senior six. You can ask them questions
that are related to the sound and its application in medicine
Digital mammography also called full-field digital mammography (FFDM): is a
mammography system in which the x-ray film is replaced by electronics that convert b) Teaching resources
x-rays into mammographic pictures of the breast. These systems are similar to those
Textbooks, Internet.
found in digital cameras and their efficiency enables better pictures with a lower
radiation dose. c) Learning Activities
Computer-aided detection (CAD) systems search digitized mammographic images The activities are focused medical imaging used sound such as sonography and
for abnormal areas of density, mass, or calcification that may indicate the presence of echography
cancer. The CAD system highlights these areas on the images, alerting the radiologist
to carefully assess this area. Activity 12.3

Breast tomosynthesis, also called three-dimensional (3-D) mammography and digital This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the concept of
breast tomosynthesis (DBT): is an advanced form of breast imaging where uses three- echography
dimensional image set.
Divide your students into groups and tell them to open on the activity 12.3 in the
3.It is necessary to compress the breast in exam of mammography because the learner’s book.
following reasons:
Instruct them to re-write questions to their notebooks.
•• Visualize whether all of the tissue of the breast.
While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work.
•• Spread out the tissue so that small abnormalities are less likely to be hidden by
overlying breast tissue. When every group is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to discuss their findings
•• Allow the use of a lower x-ray dose since a thinner amount of breast tissue is to the whole class.
being imaged.
Inquire from other groups’ members whether their answers correspond to the ones
•• Hold the breast still in order to minimize blurring of the image caused by motion. discussed from presenting groups.
•• Reduce x-ray scatter to increase sharpness of picture.
Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. Allow
learners to write the main points in their notebooks.

Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain
reasons for scanning.

Link this lesson to real life

Note: Note: There are more 3 activities under this part. (They are 12.3, 12.4,12.5). Tell
them to work out these activities in their time. You can also tell students to do some of
these activities during their class time

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 Suggested answer for all Activities They can be used to scan for birth defects in unborn babies and defects in
manufactured equipment, while infrasounds are low-frequency below normal
Activity 12.3 hearing. Infrasound can be used to track animals and monitor sesmic activity.

a. yes 2.The combination of conventional two-dimensional US imaging with Doppler

US is known as Duplex US.
b. It is recommended for the diagnostic treated by a doctor
c. Yes, as far is known. It should be used only when there is a good clinical reason 3.Ultrasound should be used in a prudent manner, only to provide medical
and applicable for a normal pregnancy means that when this period provide benefit to the patient. The use of ultrasound to only view the fetus, obtain
the information. a picture of the fetus, or determine the fetal gender without a medical
indication is inappropriate and contrary to responsible medical practice
d. a normal pregnancy means that when this period provide the information,
the patient should have careful clinical examination either positive pregnancy 4.Many physicians believe that the possible risks and cost of scanning every
test and moral pregnancy I a period where a patient know that is getting clinically normal pregnancy are not justified by the benefits for patient. This
pregnancy in mindset and grows as normal but the patient did not getting decision to scan or not to scan a normal pregnancy must be made by the
any positive pregnancy test. physician and each patient. There are no universally accepted guidelines at
e. Reasons for scanning during a normal pregnancy are: present
To see age of foetus, position of foetus, development of foetus etc 5.The ultrasound is a non invasive procedure that, when used properly, has
not demonstrate fatal harm. The long term effects of repeated ultrasound
Answer for activity 12.4 exposures on the fetus are not fully known. It is recommended that ultrasound
only be used if medically indicated.
a. Radionuclide refers to a way of imaging bones, organs and other parts of the
body by using a small dose of a radioactive chemical 6.No it does not mean there is a problem. The heartbeat may not be detected
for reasons that include: tipped uterus, larger abdomen, or inaccurate dating
b. A radionuclide is used which collects in areas where there is a lot of bone with last menstrual period. Heartbeats are best detected with transvaginal
activity (where bone cells are breaking down or repairing parts of the bone). ultrasounds early in pregnancy. Concern typically develops if there is no fetal
So a bone scan is used to detect areas of bone where there is cancer, infection, heart activity in an embryo with a crown-rump length greater than 5mm.If
or damage you receive an ultrasound exam after week 6, your healthcare provider will
c. Comparison of accuracy of scintimammography and x-ray mammography in begin to be concerned if there is no gestational sac.
the diagnosis of primary breast cancer in patients selected for surgical biopsy
means that The scintimammography may have a role in the diagnosis of
primary breast cancer when X-ray mammography is unhelpful

Answer for activity 12.5

a. It varies (take some hour or minutes) depending on the part being scanned.
b. It help physician to scan and obtain the image.
c. The quantities to consume or not consume the chemical should be indicated
by the doctor.
d. As patient or as patient assistant, you should report immediately to the
doctor.

Suggested answers for checking my progress

1.Ultrasound Ultrasounds are high-frequency sound waves above the human
ear’s audible range: that is with frequency sound waves greater than 20 KHz.

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 Lesson 3: Endoscopy b. Few potential complications, which may include:
•• Perforation (tear in the gut wall)
a. Introduction
•• Reaction to sedation.
Through guided discovery, learners should be able to explain the basic functioning •• Infection
principles of endoscopy and their benefits
•• Bleeding,etc
b. Teaching resources c. Your internist or family doctor may perform sigmoidoscopy in their office.
However, all of the other endoscopy procedures are usually performed by
Textbooks, Internet. gastroenterology specialists (gastroenterologists). Other specialists such as
gastrointestinal surgeons also can perform many of these procedures.
c. Learning Activities
d. Gut Preparation. Examining the upper digestive tract (upper endoscopy or
The activities are focused medical imaging called endoscopy ERCP) requires nothing more than fasting for 6-8 hours prior to the procedure.
To examine the colon, it must be cleared of stool. Therefore, a laxative or
Activity 12.6 group of laxatives is given on the day before the procedure.
Sedation. For most examinations with an endoscope, a sedative is provided. This
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the concept of
increases the comfort of the individual undergoing the examination. The sedative,
endoscopy
which is administered via an injection into the vein, produces relaxation and light sleep.
Divide your students into groups and tell them to open on the activity 12.6 in the There are usually few if any recollections of the procedure. Patients wake up within an
learner’s book. hour, but the effects of the medicines are more prolonged, so it is not safe to drive until
the next day.
Instruct them to re-write questions to their notebooks.
•• The stomach should be completely empty. You should have nothing to eat or
While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work. drink for approximately 8 hours before the examination.
•• It is best to inform your surgeon of ALL your current medications as well as
When every group is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to discuss their findings
allergies to medications a few days prior to the examination.
to the whole class.
•• if you have any major diseases, such as heart or lung disease that may require
Inquire from other groups’ members whether their answers correspond to the ones special attention during the procedure, discuss this with your surgeon.
discussed from presenting groups.

Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. Allow
learners to write the main points in their notebooks.

Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain
reasons why using endoscopy.

Link this lesson to real life

Note: Tell them to work out this activity in their time. You can also tell students to do it
during their class time

Suggested answer activity

a. Overall, endoscopy is very safe.

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 Lesson 4: MRI Suggested answer activity

a) Introduction iv. MRI is a medical imaging technique uses magnetic properties.

Through guided discovery, learners should be able to explain the basic functioning v. It is used to help diagnose or monitor treatment for a variety of conditions within
principles of MRI and their benefits the chest, abdomen and pelvis, brain and spinal cord, bones and joints ,breasts
,heart and blood vessels , internal organs, such as the liver, womb or prostate
b) Teaching resources gland, etc.
Textbooks, Internet. vi. MRI is so powerful, it is for any treatment as other used for and has the biggest
benefit of MRI compared with other imaging techniques (such as CT scans) is,
c) Learning Activities
there’s no risk of ionizing radiation.
The activities are focused principle of MRI.
vii. Yes, because no risk that pregnancy woman can experienced due to the absence
of ionization that MRI have
Activity 12.7
This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards the concept of
Suggested answer for checking my progress.
MRI
1.What is mean by relaxation in the context of MRI?
Divide your students into groups and tell them to open on the activity 12.7 in the
learner’s book. Answer: Interactions happening at near-collisions between nuclei give rise to the
magnetization constantly approaching the equilibrium size.
Instruct them to re-write questions to their notebooks.
2.Name two reasons why the hydrogen nucleus is the most popular one imaged
While students are doing this activity, you move around and mark their work. in MRI
When every group is done, invite some member(s) or group(s) to discuss their findings Answer: Two reasons that the hydrogen nucleus is the most popular one imaged in MRI
to the whole class. are:

Inquire from other groups’ members whether their answers correspond to the ones •• Hydrogen is abundance in the body.
discussed from presenting groups.
•• It gives the strongest MRI signals.
Together with students harmonize the points and make a summary on the board. Allow 3.What does NMR stand for? Explain carefully the role of the three terms
learners to write the main points in their notebooks. involved

Linking to the summary and what have been discussed in class, take a step and explain ANSWERS:
the principle of MRI.
NMR stand for ‘‘Nuclear Magnetic Resonance’’.
Link this lesson to real life
Nuclear: The nuclei of many body atoms behave like tiny bars magnets.
Note: Tell them to work out this activity in their time. You can also tell students to do it
during their class time Magnetic: when in a strong magnetic field, these tiny bars magnets align with the
field, although not perfectly. They rotate or process around the field direction with a
particular frequency that falls in the radio frequency range.

Resonance: if the body receives a short pulse of radio frequency magnetic field
oscillations, those nuclei with a frequency exactly matching the incoming frequency
resonate and absorb energy. When the pulse ends, the body nuclei re-emit this energy,

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inducing a radio frequency signal in receiver coils outside the body. 12.6 SUMMARY
4. Basic steps in the formation of MRI image are: Radiology is defined as the branch of medicine that uses radioactive compounds and
electromagnetic radiation or sound waves in the diagnosis and treatment of diseases.

The technicians or technologists who operate the equipment are called radiographers

Mammography is specialized medical imaging that uses low-dose x-rays to see inside
the breasts.

A mammogram is an exam of mammography.

Computer Tomography is an imaging technique whereby cross-sectional images are

obtained with the use of X-rays.

Duplex ultrasound is a combination of conventional two-dimensional US imaging with

Doppler US.

The term computed tomography is often used to refer to X-ray CT.

Gastroscopy is a procedure that enables your surgeon to examine the lining of the
esophagus.

The most sensitive imaging test available for the diagnosis of acute cerebral infarction
isDiffusion-weighted imaging.

Endoscopy using light

MRI used magnetic properties, in MRI they use Nuclear, Magnetic and Resonance

Nuclear: The nuclei of many body atoms behave like tiny bars magnets.

Magnetic: when in a strong magnetic field, these tiny bars magnets align with the
field, although not perfectly. They rotate or process around the field direction with a
particular frequency that falls in the radio frequency range.

Resonance: if the body receives a short pulse of radio frequency magnetic field
oscillations, those nuclei with a frequency exactly matching the incoming frequency
resonate and absorb energy. When the pulse ends, the body nuclei re-emit this energy,
inducing a radio frequency signal in receiver coils outside the body.

Scintigraphy refers to the use of gamma radiation to form images following the injection
of various radiopharmaceuticals.

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12.7 Additional information fire in locked phase with acoustic signals up to about 5 kHz. At frequencies below 5 kHz,
groups of nerve fibres firing in lock phase with an acoustic signal convey information
about frequency to the brain. Above about 5 kHz frequency information conveyed to
Observed sound intensity and ear response
the brain is based upon the place of stimulation on the basilar membrane.
Description of the ear As an aside, music translated up into the frequency range above 5 kHz does not sound
musical. (Hallowell,Davis; Richard,S., 1970)
The human ear is a remarkably sensitive detector of sound. Mechanical detectors of
sound can barely match the ear in detecting low intensity sounds. The ear has a function This delicate system of levers, coupled with the relatively large area of the eardrum
of transforming the vibrational energy of waves into electrical signals that are carried to compared to the area of the oval window, results in pressure being amplified by a factor
the brain by ways of nerves as does a microphone. of about 40. The inner ear consists of the semicircular canals, which are important for
controlling balance, and the liquid filled cochlea where the vibrational energy of sound
waves is transformed into electrical energy and sent to the brain.

Logarithmic response of the ear versus intensity

The ear is not equally sensitive to all frequencies. To hear the same loudness for sounds
of different frequencies requires different intensities. Studies done over large numbers
of people have produced the curves shown on Fig.12.3.

On this graph, each curve represents sounds that seemed to be equally loud. The
number labelling each curve represents the loudness level which is numerically equal to
the sound level in dB at 1000 Hz. The units are called phons.

Fig.12. 1 Flow of acoustic energy: Outer ear, Middle ear, Inner ear

The ear consists of three main parts: the outer ear, the middle ear and the inner ear.

In the outer ear, sounds waves from the outside travel down the ear canal to the
eardrum which vibrates in response to the colliding waves.

The inner ear consists of three small bones known as the hammer, anvil and stirrup
which transfer the vibrations of the eardrum to the inner ear at the oval window.

The function of the inner ear is to transduce vibration into nervous impulses. While
doing so, it also produces a frequency (or pitch) and intensity (or loudness) analysis of
the sound. Nerve fibres can fire at a rate of just under 200 times per second. Sound
level information is conveyed to the brain by the rate of nerve firing, for example, by a
group of nerves each firing at a rate at less than 200 pulses per second. They can also

Fig.12. 2Loudness in phons

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Example: The curve labelled 40 represents sounds that are heard by an average person Example 12.1
to have the same loudness as 1000 Hz sound with a sound level of 40 dB. From this 40
I 1.0 ×10−10 W / m 2 what will be the sound
1. The sound level of sound whose intensity is =
phon curve, we see that a 100 Hz tone must be at a level of about 62 dB to be perceived
as loud as a 1000 Hz tone of only 40 dB. level?

Two aspects of any sound are immediately evident to human listener: loudness and Answer
the pitch. Each refers to a sensation in the consciousness of the listener. But to each of I 1.0 ×10−10
these subjective sensations there corresponds a physically measurable quantity. L= β= 10 log = = 10 log100= 20 dB
I 0 1.0 ×10−12

Loudness refers to the intensity in the sound wave. Intensity is related to the energy Notes – The sound level at the threshold of hearing is 0 dB.
transported by a wave per unit time across a unit area perpendicular to the energy flow.
Intensity is proportional to the square of the wave amplitude. An increase in intensity by a factor of 10 corresponds to a sound level of increase of
10 dB; an increase in intensity by a factor of 100 corresponds to a sound level of 20 dB.
Sound Intensity Level
The human ear responds logarithmically to sound intensity: Loudness = Sound Intensity
Level, Specific acoustic impedance:A medium tends to oppose the passage of sound
L= β= 10 log
I waves trough it, rather like an electrical circuit resists to flow of current through it. Just
I0 (12.01) as the term electrical impedance is used to describe the opposition of a medium to the
flow of sound waves. It is a measure of the way the molecules of the mediummove in
Because of this relationship between the subjective sensation of loudness and the
response to acoustic pressure.
physically measurable quantity intensity, sound intensity levels are usually specified on
a logarithmic scale. The unit of this scale is a bel, after the inventor Alexander Graham The specific acoustic impedance Z of a medium is given by
Bell.
Z = ρv
Where
Where ρ the density of the medium and v is he velocity of sound in medium
•• I=
0 1.0 ×10−12 W / m 2 is the intensity of a chosen reference level (minimum intensity
audible to a good ear which is threshold of hearing) Substances ρ (kg / m3 ) v (m / s) Z (kg / m 2 ⋅ s )
•• the logarithm is to the base 10.
Air 1.29 3.31x102 430
Water 1.00x103 14.8x102 1.48x106
Fat 0.92x103 14.5x102 1.33x106
Musce 1.04x103 15.8x102 1.64x106

Table 12. 1 Values ρ , v and Z for Various Substances

The intensity of sound is correlated to energy E ( J ) per time and area  m 2 

E (12.01)
I=
t× A
The mechanical energy of a sound wave with frequency and speed necessary to move
from single molecule by maximum distance A0 is:
1
=E =m v 2 and E 2π 2 mA02 f 2
2
Fig.12. 3 The range of human hearing: Sound Intensity, Sound Level versus Frequency As the speed v 2 = (2π f ) 2 A02 and m= ρ × v

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 The total intensity of sound can be expressed in terms of density ρ 1. Intensity levels of can cause damage of the ear drum diaphragm. What is the
1 displacement and pressure of the diaphragm at such an intensity adopting an
I= ρ v A2 (2π f ) 2 (12.03)
2 average frequency of FF? With
Answer
The product of density and speed of sound is a material constant and is called I
the acoustic impedance Z . 10 log = 160 dB
I0
1 P2 (12.04) I
I= log = 16 ⇔ I = 10−12 ×1016 = 104 W / m 2
2 Z I0

Audible sound intensities at ≈ 1000Hz range from 10−12 w / m 2 (quiet) to 1 w / m 2 A

=
1 2× I
=
1 2 ×104
= 1.76 ×10−5 m
(loud) 2π f Z 2π ×1000 1.64 ×106

Example 12.2 The pressure is

1.What is the displacement range for air molecules correspond to the audible P= I ⋅2⋅Z = 104 × 2 × 1.64 ×106 = 1.8 ×105 Pa
intensity range at an average frequency
Thermography
Answer: Functional testing, able to detect physiological changes, cannot pinpoint the exact
1 2 × I 12 1 2 ×1 location of suspicious area. In thermography there are no radiation, non-invasive, no
ALoud =( ) = = 10 µ m
1.1×10−5 m =
2π f Z 6280 430 risk, can be used as often as necessary to observe the effectiveness of treatment over
time. It uses infrared detectors to detect heat and increased vascularity that may be
This displacement corresponds to size of a cell. related to angiogenesis. Thermography can detect physiological changes many years
1 2 × I 12 1 2 ×10−12 prior to any other method of screening, very sensitive to fast growing aggressive
Aquiet =( ) = 1.1×10−11 m =
= 10 pm tumors, hormonal activity in the breast will affect thermographic imaging but not to
2π f Z 6280 430
the point of abnormality.
This displacement corresponds to size of an atom.
The intensity of sound is directly related to the pressure change: I α P 2 Types of Brain Imaging Techniques
I P P
=α 10 = log( ) 10= log( ) 2 20 log( ) Brain imaging techniques allow doctors and researchers to view activity or problems
I0 P0 Po
within the human brain, without invasive neurosurgery. There are a number of accepted,
Audible intensities are referenced to lowest audible intensity I 0 = 10−12 W / m 2
safe imaging techniques in use today in research facilities and hospitals throughout the
P0 = I 0 ⋅ 2 ⋅ Z = 3 ⋅10−5 Pa world.
The most intense sound which can be heard without inflicting pain or damage
2
is I = 1 W / m this corresponds to intensity in decibels: 1. FMRI
1012 Functional magnetic resonance imaging, or fMRI, is a technique for measuring brain
10 log = 120 dB
1 activity. It works by detecting the changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occur in
response to neural activity – when a brain area is more active it consumes more oxygen
P P and to meet this increased demand blood flow increases to the active area. fMRI can
120 =
dB 20 log ⇔ = 106 Pa ⇔ =
P 30 Pa
PO PO be used to produce activation maps showing which parts of the brain are involved in a
particular mental process.
Example 12.3

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2. CT 900nm) through the skull and detecting how much the remerging light is attenuated.
How much the light is attenuated depends on blood oxygenation and thus NIRS can
Computed tomography (CT) scanning builds up a picture of the brain based on the provide an indirect measure of brain activity.
differential absorption of X-rays. During a CT scan the subject lies on a table that slides
in and out of a hollow, cylindrical apparatus. An x-ray source rides on a ring around the
inside of the tube, with its beam aimed at the subjects head. After passing through 12. 8 End unit assessment
the head, the beam is sampled by one of the many detectors that line the machine’s
circumference. Images made using x-rays depend on the absorption of the beam by the
tissue it passes through. Bone and hard tissue absorb x-rays well, air and water absorb Part II:
very little and soft tissue is somewhere in between. Thus, CT scans reveal the gross
1.a 2. d  3. C 4. D 5. b
features of the brain but do not resolve its structure well.
6.Write the missing word or words on the space before each number.
3. PET A. The term computed tomography is often used to refer to X-ray CT.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET) uses trace amounts of short-lived radioactive B. Gastroscopy is a procedure that enables your surgeon to examine the lining of the
material to map functional processes in the brain. When the material undergoes esophagus.
radioactive decay a positron is emitted, which can be picked up be the detector. Areas
of high radioactivity are associated with brain activity. C. The most sensitive imaging test available for the diagnosis of acute cerebral
infarction is Diffusion-weighted imaging.

4. EEG D. Array of photomultiplier tubes to transform the flashes into amplified electrical
pulses inside the body.
Electroencephalography (EEG) is the measurement of the electrical activity of the brain
by recording from electrodes placed on the scalp. The resulting traces are known as an E. Transducers used are different depending on the age of a patient, one has 5 MHz
electroencephalogram (EEG) and represent an electrical signal from a large number of and other 3.5 MHz.
neurons. F. Hydrogen nuclei (also called protons) behave as small compass needles that align
themselves parallel to the field.
EEGs are frequently used in experimentation because the process is non-invasive to the
research subject. The EEG is capable of detecting changes in electrical activity in the G. In nuclear magnetic resonance there are appearance three words: nuclear,
brain on a millisecond-level. It is one of the few techniques available that has such high magnetic and resonance.
temporal resolution.
H.Examination can be claustrophobic, noisy and long is one of the disadvantages of
MRI.
5. MEG
7. a. True b. False c. False d. True e. False
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is an imaging technique used to measure the magnetic
fields produced by electrical activity in the brain via extremely sensitive devices known
as SQUIDs. These measurements are commonly used in both research and clinical
settings. There are many uses for the MEG, including assisting surgeons in localizing
a pathology, assisting researchers in determining the function of various parts of the
brain, neurofeedback, and others.

6. NIRS.
Near infrared spectroscopy is an optical technique for measuring blood oxygenation
in the brain. It works by shining light in the near infrared part of the spectrum (700-

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8. similarities: all are medical imaging uses to detect the diagnostic of a patient. detect a birth defect.

13. The major advantages of MDCT over conventional CT scanning are:

Endoscopy Radionuclide
Increased speed of examination.
Use light Use ultrasound
Rapid examination at optimal levels of intravenous contrast concentration
see in the stomach see inside the body
(lining of esophagus)
14. It is necessary to compress the breast in exam of mammography because
the following reasons:
•• visualize whether all of the tissue of the breast.
9. The advantages of MRI in clinical practice are: •• Spread out the tissue so that small abnormalities are less likely to be hidden by
overlying breast tissue.
•• Excellent soft tissue contrast and characterization
•• Allow the use of a lower x-ray dose since a thinner amount of breast tissue is
•• Lack of artefact from adjacent bones, e.g. pituitary fossa being imaged.
•• Multiplanar capabilities •• Hold the breast still in order to minimize blurring of the image caused by motion.
•• Lack of ionizing radiation
Essay question:
10.There are no known harmful effects associated with the diagnostic use of ultrasound.
Widespread clinical use of diagnostic ultrasound for many years has not revealed any The discussion will be focused on the following MRI applications:
harmful effects. Although the possibility exists that such biological effects may be
identified in the future, current data indicate that the benefits to patients of the •• Abnormal body water presence (swelling, infection, bleeding, cysts).
prudent use of diagnostic ultrasound outweigh the risks if any, that may be present.
•• Head and spine (tumours, rupture discs.)
However, a prudent and conservative approach is recommended in which diagnostic
ultrasound is to be used only for medical benefit and with minimal exposure. •• Joints (ruptured tendons, worn cartilage).

11.Ultrasound is a safe and non-invasive diagnostic tool that can be used to examine •• Abdomen (tumours and diseased tissue in the liver, pancreas, bladder and
many parts of the body, most commonly soft tissue. It is used extensively in the kidney).
female pelvis (both obstetrical and gynecological), the abdomen (kidneys, liver and •• Fluid flow (Blocked blood vessels, heart studies.
gallbladder), and for cardiac diagnosis.

Another type of ultrasound, Doppler, is used in vascular diagnosis to assess blood 12.9 Additional activities
flow. Other areas, such as the brain, eyes, thyroid, breast, prostate, and testicles,
can be imaged by ultrasound as well. (It’s also frequently used during your prenatal 12.9.1 Remedial activities
appointments to hear your baby’s heartbeat.)
Multiple choices: choose the correct answer.
12. Ultrasound is widely known for its use in first-, second-, and third-trimester
pregnancy. The most common reason for having an ultrasound examination during 1. One of the medical imaging using X-ray is:
pregnancy is to help the doctor determine when your baby is due, or to make sure the
baby is growing as it should. A doctor may also request an ultrasound examination a. CT Scan
to determine the baby’s position, to see if you are carrying twins or triplets, or to
b. endoscopy

c. thermography

d. both of them

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2.Mammography is used to detect:
a. Brain diseases

b. Baby desease

c. Breast deseases

d. None of them

3.A radionuclide scan may be done for one reason:

a. A radionuclide is used to collect the areas where the infrared are synchonised.

b. A radionuclide is used to collect in areas where there is a lot of bone activity.

c. A radionuclide is use to collect the areas where gamma camera are produced
image

d. A radionuclide is used to collect information from the exam of lining of

esophagus.
Fig.12. 4The anatomy of the ear

4.The medical imaging techniques used sounds are:

a. The figure above is among the parts of human body. What is the name of it?
a. Radionuclide
b. Divide that figure into three main parts and investigate the role of each part.
b. Radiography
c. Explain the propagation of sound wave in these three parts.
c. Mammography
d. Do you think that a normal person can hear sound waves of different frequencies?
d. Endoscopy Justify your answer.

5.Magnetic Resonance Imaging uses: 2.Outline the application of ultrasound scan?

a. x-rays 3.Why an ultrasound is performed?

b. Light 4.How endoscopy is different from mammography?

c. Magnetization 5.If you are getting a mammogram for the first time, what are the specific
questions you are expected to be asked by a doctor.
d. both of them
6.Is the mammography specific for women only? Explain.
6.Describe tomography as medical imaging techniques.
7.What does a biopsy mean?
12.9.2 Consolidation activities 8.Explain reasons why people do not attend breast screening (screening
mammography)
1.Observe the figure below and answer the following questions:

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Suggested answer for additional activities • Solid organs including liver, kidneys, spleen and pancreas

Answer for Remedial activities: • Urinary tract

1.a 2. c 3. B 4. A 5. c • Obstetrics and gynaecology

2.Thermography refers to functional testing, able to detect physiological changes, • Small organs including thyroid and testes
cannot pinpoint the exact location of suspicious area. In thermography there are
no radiation, non-invasive, no risk, can be used as often as necessary to observe the • Breast
effectiveness of treatment over time. It uses infrared detectors to detect heat and
• Musculoskeletal system.
increased vascularity that may be related to angiogenesis while tomography
3.Most people associate ultrasound scans with pregnancy. These scans can provide
Suggested answer for consolidation activities. an expectant mother with the first view of her unborn child. However, the test has
1.a. Ear many other uses.

b. Outer Ear, Middle Ear and Inner Ear. Your doctor may order an ultrasound if you’re having pain, swelling, or other
symptoms that require an internal view of your organs. An ultrasound can provide
i. The outer ear transmits sound waves to the tympanic membrane via a view of the: Bladder, brain (in infants), eyes, gallbladder, kidneys, liver, ovaries,
external auditory canal. The outer portion is lined with hairy skin containing pancreas, spleen, thyroid, testicles, uterus, Blood vessels, etc.
sweat glands and oily sebaceous glands which together form ear wax.
An ultrasound is also a helpful way to guide surgeons’ movements during certain
ii. The middle ear is an air filled space connected to the back of the nose by medical procedures, such as biopsies.
a long, thin tube called the Eustachian tube. The middle ear space houses
three little bones, the hammer, anvil and stirrup (malleus, incus and stapes) 4.Endoscopy An ultrasound scan, sometimes called a sonogram, is a procedure that
which conduct sound from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear. uses high-frequency sound waves to create an image of part of the inside of the
body. it does not usex-rays.while mammography is used X-rays to create images of
iii. The inner ear consists of the cochlea which transduces vibration to a the breast. These images are called mammograms
nervous impulse and the vestibular labyrinth which houses the organ of
balance. 5.If you are getting a mammogram for the first time, you are expected to be asked by
a doctor some specific questions for example are: do you have breast implants? Are
d. The outer and middle ears serve to amplify the sound signal on its passage from pregnant? Or breastfeeding? or have a physical disability?
the exterior to the inner ear by about 30 dB. The function of the inner ear is
to transduce vibration into nervous impulses. While doing so, it also produces 6.No, the mammography is not specific for women only because the mammogram is
a frequency (or pitch) and intensity (or loudness) analysis of the sound. Sound an x-ray picture of the breast. Breast cancer or breasts that have sign or symptoms
level information is conveyed to the brain by the rate of nerve firing, for example, of disease for any person. Not only women even the men can have those sign or
by a group of nerves each firing at a rate at less than 200 pulses per second. They symptom and be exposed in front of mammogram.
can also fire in locked phase with acoustic signals up to about 5 kHz.

e. No, all kinds of sounds can not be heard by a human being. The frequency range
of human hearing is generally considered as 20 Hz to 20 000 Hz. The upper range
varies greatly among individuals and decreases with age and noise exposure.
The amplitude of our sensation ranges from the threshold of hearing (~0 dB) to
thresholds of discomfort and pain (above 140 dB).

2.US scanning is applicable to:

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7.A biopsy is the only test that can determine if a suspected tissue area is
cancerous.
8.Reasons why people do not attend breast screening (screening mammography)
UNIT 13:
13
are: RADIATION AND MEDICINE
•• They are too busy.
•• They feel fit and health and do not think they are at risk of cancer of developing
breast cancer.
•• They are afraid of receiving a breast cancer diagnosis if they do opt for scanning.
•• They are deterred because they have had a false positive result in the past.
•• Prior experiences proved painful. 13.1 Key Unit Competence
•• They did not get a reminder. By the end of the unit the learner should be able to analyze the use of radiation in
•• They believe mistakes can be made with the results medicine.

13.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills

The learner will use the knowledge acquired in unit five in senior six to interpret and
analyze clearly concepts related to radiation in medicine.

NB: The unit must be carefully discussed with clear emphasis on the basics of radiation
therapy for cancer treatment in medicine. Explain clearly all the concepts about radiation
in medicine and its effects based on the learning objectives of the unit.

13.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed

•• Standardization culture: Through health improvement by absorbing standard
doses of radiation and using radiation dosimeter.
•• Environment and sustainability: Discussing the need of sustainable future in
Rwanda, ensuring that the interactivity of radiation and application of physics in
medicine is clearly integrated in medical treatment.
•• Financial education: Through taking dosage in the recommended time to avoid
the risks of disease multiplying that would lead to spending more money in the
treatment.
•• Peace and value: Assigning work to groups to enhance co-operation and team
working spirit among learners.
•• Inclusive education: All activities given should be recognizing the capabilities of
the learners.
•• Gender: Recognize male and female in structuring activities and performing
tasks.

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13.4 List of lessons Lesson 13.1: Radiation in medicine
S/No Lesson Learning Suggested Number a)Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
Title Objectives(Adapted of Periods
Through guided discovery, assist learners to interpret and discuss discovered concepts
from syllabus)
about the sources of radiation and its application in medicine.
By the end of the b)Teaching resources: Textbooks and internet.
Lesson(s) Learners
should be able to: c)Learning Activities:
1 Radiation ••Explaining clearly the 5 This lesson focuses in making students understand the classification of radiation and
dose sources of radiation. select the kind of radiation mostly used in medical treatment.
••Classifying the types of
radiation. Guidance in activity 13.1
•• This activity introduces students to know the types of radiation and its application
••Explaining the effects in medical treatment.
of radiation exposure
on human body and •• Divide your class into groups, and let students interpret the activity to obtain the
results.
radiation dosage.
•• Let the learner(s) perform the activity using their prior knowledge about radiation
••Solving problems and its application in medical treatment and write the ideas in the note book.
involving measurement •• Have sample group present the work to the class.
of ionizing radiation.
•• Check students’ responses to review the students’ ideas to continue the
2 Biological ••Explain clearly concepts 4 discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and
effect on deterministic effects textbook.
and stochastic effects •• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give the
involved in radiation summary of expected feedback based on their findings.
dosimetry.
3 Concept of ••Explain clearly and 4 Expected feedback
balanced evaluate the balance
f. Ionizing radiation-is one consisting of particles, X-rays or gamma rays with
risk. risks of ionizing radiation
sufficient energy to cause ionization in the medium through with it passes.
in medical treatment. whereas non-ionizing radiation-refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation
4 Physical ••Explain clearly terms 2 that does not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules.
half-life, used in half-life and
g. The kind of radiation used in medical treatment is ionizing radiation. Because
biological performing calculations they have a high penetrating power.
half-life and related to half-lives.
effective h. It is ionizing radiation. This is because the main source of exposure to ionizing
half-life. radiation is the radiation used during medical exams such as X-ray or computed
tomography scans. However, the amounts of radiation used are so small that the
6 End unit ••Evaluate the concepts 2 risk of any damaging effects is minimal.
assessment covered in the unit.
Even when radiotherapy is used to treat cancer, the amount of ionizing radiation used
Structure of a lesson is so carefully controlled that the risk of problems associated with exposure is tiny.

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 Guidance in activity 13.2 •• Learners brainstorm and discuss on the steps taken to minimize the effects of
radiation exposure.
•• This activity support students to learn more types of ionizing radiation and select
the one with high penetrating power based on the interpretation of the figure. •• Comment on learners’ responses written in their notebooks and the presentation,
and give them the expected feedback summarizing their work.
•• Let the learners brainstorm about the questions in their respective groups and
write the answers in their notebooks. Expected feedback:
•• Check students ‘ideas and summarize their thoughts in giving the feedback. a. Nausea (feeling sick) and vomiting, Spontaneous bleeding, Bloody diarrhoea,
Sloughing of skin, Hair loss, Severe fatigue, Mouth ulcers.
Expected answers of activity 2.
b. In most cases, a large acute exposure to radiation causes both immediate (see
a. A-represent alpha, B-represent beta, C-represent gamma and x-rays. radiation sickness) and delayed effects (cancer or death), can cause sickness or even
death within hours or days. Such acute exposures are extremely rare.
b. C is the one with high penetrating power because it goes through the hand and
it is absorbed by concrete. c. These are common side effects when a person undergoes radiation treatment for
cancer:Hair loss, Stomach upset, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, Low white blood cells
c. Man-made forms of radiation are used in X-rays, cancer treatment, nuclear (leucopenia), Red and itchy skin at the site of the radiation, Sore mouth or mouth
facilities and nuclear weapons. ulcers (oral mucositis)

d. High doses of radiation therapy are used to destroy cancer cells. Side effects d. There is always a risk of damage to cells or tissue from being exposed to any amount
occur because radiation therapy can also damage healthy cells and tissues near of ionizing radiation. Over time, exposure to radiation may cause cancer and other
the treatment area. health problems. But in most cases, the risk of getting cancer from being exposed to
small amounts of radiation is small.

Guidance in activity 13.3 e. The exposed individual is removed from the source of radiation. Antiemetic may
be used to treat nausea and vomiting, Antibiotics may be administered to prevent
•• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity reviewing the secondary infections caused by immune system deficiency, In the event of damaged
concepts about radiation dosimetry and why it is very important to wear a bone marrow tissue due to radiation exposure, blood transfusions and a bone
dosimeter. marrow transplant may also be required, If only part of the body has been exposed to
•• Learners brainstorm on their results and write the work in their notebook. radiation rather than the whole body, treatment may be easier because humans can
withstand radiation exposure in large amounts to non-vital body parts, Potassium
•• Check learners’ responses and let one group present the work. iodide is administered to prevent thyroid cancer in cases of exposure to radioactive
•• Comment on learners’ responses written in their notebooks and the presentation, iodine, The bisphosphonates (used to treat osteoporosis) have also shown promise
and give them the expected feedback summarizing their work. as treatments for reducing the harmful effects of radiation exposure.

Guidance in activity 13.5

Expected feedback:
•• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) brainstorm and perform the activity
i. Dosimeter is a device that is used to measure exposures from x-ray, gamma reviewing the concepts about the safe level of radiation exposure and its annual
ray and high energy beta particles. limit.
j. Dosimeters are issued by people following a review of badge application •• Comment on learners’ responses written in their notebooks and the presentation,
forms. The Radiation Safety Office will determine if badges are required and give them the expected feedback summarizing their work.
following an assessment of the applicant’s work scenario relative to radiation
source use.

Guidance in activity 13.4

•• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity reviewing the
concepts about symptoms of radiation exposure and its effects when exposed
to the human body.

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Expected feedback: Lesson 13.2: Problems involving radiation dosimetry.
•• The average exposure in the United States, from natural sources of radiation
(mostly cosmic radiation and radon), is 300 millirems per year at sea level.
1 Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
Radiation exposure is slightly higher at higher elevations-thus the exposure in
averages 400 millirems per year. This lesson requires knowledge and skills obtained in unit thirteen in senior six.
a) Persons under the age of 18 years are also limited to 0.5rem/year. The Let the learners take a review by discussing concepts about the application of radiation
dose limit to non-radiation workers and members of the public are two to get more description about radiation dosimetry.
percent of the annual occupational dose limit. Therefore, a non-radiation
worker can receive a whole body dose of no more that 0.1 rem/year from 2. Teaching resources: Internet and textbooks.
industrial ionizing radiation.
3. Learning Activities:
Guidance in activity 13.6
•• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity reviewing the Guidance in activity 13.7
concepts about absorbed dose, measure of the risk of biological harm and how
•• The teacher introduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity
ionizing radiation is exposed to natural sources of radiation.
reviewing the concepts about risks involved in using ionizing radiation in
•• Learners brainstorm and summarize their discussions in their notebooks. medicine, nature of radiation induced biological effects and the classification of
•• Comment on learners’ responses written in their notebooks after the presentation effects of radiation.
of sample groups, and give the expected feedback summarizing their work. •• Learners brainstorm and summarize their discussions about questions using
textbook in their notebooks.
Expected feedback: •• Comment on learners’ responses written in their notebooks after the presentation
of sample groups, and give the expected feedback summarizing their work.
a. Absorbed dose is a measure of the energy deposited in a medium by ionizing
radiation. In the SI system of units, the unit of measure is joules per kilogram,
and its special name is gray (Gy).
Expected feedback:
b. A measure of the risk of biological harm is the dose of radiation received by
tissue. 1. Yes.
c.
•• Benefit to patients from medical uses of radiation has been established beyond
• because the body can more easily repair damage from radiation that is doubt.
spread over a large area than that which is concentrated in a small area.
•• Modern diagnostic radiology assures faster, more precise diagnosis and enables
• We receive internal exposure from radioactive elements which we take monitoring of a large proportion of diseases.
into our bodies through food and water, and through the air we breathe. In •• It has been estimated that in about one half of cases, radiological procedures
addition, we have radioactive elements (Potassium 40, Carbon 14, Radium (plain film radiography, fluoroscopy, computed tomography) have a substantial
226) in our blood or bones. impact on the speed of diagnosis.
•• we are exposed to varying amounts of radiation from sources such as dental and •• Nuclear medicine uses radioactive substances, called radiopharmaceuticals, in
other medical X-rays, industrial uses of nuclear techniques and other consumer the diagnosis and treatment of a range of diseases.
products such as aluminized watches, ionization smoke detectors, etc.

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 •• Radiation therapy uses ionizing radiation for treatment. Deterministic effects: These effects are observed after large absorbed doses of
•• The magnitude of risk from radiation is dose-related with higher amounts of radiation and are mainly a consequence of radiation induced cellular death. They occur
radiation being associated with higher risks. only if a large proportion of cells in an irradiated tissue have been killed by radiation,
and the loss cannot be compensated by increased cellular proliferation.
•• The undisputed health benefits of diagnostic X-ray and nuclear medicine
diagnostics may be accompanied by a generally small risk (probability) of Stochastic effects: As mentioned above, irradiated and surviving cells may become
deleterious effects. modified by induced mutations (somatic, hereditary). These modifications may lead
•• This fact has to be taken into account while using ionizing radiation sources in to two clinically significant effects: malignant neoplasms (cancer) and hereditary
diagnosis. mutations.
•• Large amounts of radiation are required in radiation therapy; the risk of radiation-
related adverse effects is measurably higher. Guidance in activity 13.8
•• Too low an amount of radiation in diagnosis will result in either an image that •• The teacher introduce the activity and let the learner(s) perform the activity
does not have enough information to make a diagnosis and in radiation therapy, reviewing the concepts about magnitude of the risks for cancer ,hereditary
not delivering enough radiation will result in increased mortality because the effects, typical doses from medical diagnostic procedures and the situations
cancer being treated will not be cured. when diagnostic radiological investigations to be avoided.
•• The frequency or intensity of biological effects is dependent upon the total •• Learners brainstorm the concepts stated above and summarize their discussions
energy of radiation absorbed (in joules) per unit mass (in kg) of a sensitive tissues trying to answering the questions in their notebooks.
or organs. This quantity is called absorbed dose and is expressed in gray (Gy).
•• Comment on learners’ responses written in their notebooks after the presentation
4. of sample groups, and give the expected feedback summarizing their work.
•• Cells can be killed by radiation during cellular division chromosomal aberrations
due to radiation may result in loss of part of the chromosomal DNA which results Expected feedback:
in cell death. 1.The lifetime value for the average person is roughly a 5% increase in fatal cancer after
•• Surviving cells may carry changes in the DNA at a molecular level (mutations). a whole body dose of 1 Sv .
•• DNA damage also can result from the direct interaction of ionizing particles with A statistically significant increase in cancer has not been detected in populations
the DNA double helix (rarely). exposed to doses of less than 0.05 Sv.
5.There are two basic categories of the biological effects that may be observed in
irradiated persons. Hereditary effects as a consequence of radiation exposure have not been observed
in humans. No hereditary effects have been found in studies of the offspring and
These are 1) due largely to cell killing (deterministic) and 2 mutations which may grandchildren of the atomic bomb survivors. However, as based on animal models
result in cancer and hereditary effects (stochastic or probabilistic). and knowledge of human genetics, the risk of hereditary deleterious effects have
been estimated to not be greater than 10% of the radiation induced carcinogenic risk.
Effects due to cell killing have a practical threshold dose below which the effect is
not evident but in general when the effect is present its severity increases with the 2.No. All living organisms on this planet, including humans, are exposed to radiation
radiation dose. from natural sources. An average yearly effective dose from this so-called natural
background, amounts to about 2.5 mSv. This exposure varies substantially
The threshold doses is not an absolute number and vary somewhat by individual. geographically (from 1.5 to several tens of mSv in limited geographical areas).
Effects due to mutations (such as cancer) have a probability of occurrence that
increases with dose, it is currently judged that there is not a threshold below which 3.Various diagnostic radiology and nuclear medicine procedures cover a wide dose
the effect will not occur and finally the severity of the effects is independent of the range based upon the procedure.
dose.
Doses can be expressed either as absorbed dose to a single tissue or as effective
Thus a cancer caused by a small amount of radiation can be just as malignant as one dose to the entire body which facilitates comparison of doses to other radiation
caused by a high dose. sources. The doses are a function of a number of factors such as tissue composition,
density and thickness of the body.

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4.Yes. Expected feedback:    
•• The quality assurance and quality control in diagnostic radiology and nuclear 1.
medicine play also a fundamental role in the provision of appropriate, sound
radiological protection of the patient. •• While all medical uses of radiation should be justified, it stands to reason that the
higher the dose and risk of a procedure, the more the medical practitioner should
•• There are several ways that will minimize the risk without sacrificing the valuable consider whether there is a greater benefit to be obtained. There are radiological
information that can be obtained for patients’ benefit. Among the possible procedures that deliver doses at the upper end of the scale.
measures it is necessary to justify the examination before referring a patient to
the radiologist or nuclear medicine physician. 2.Yes.
•• Repetition should be avoided of investigations made recently at another clinic or •• Both the fetus and children are thought to be more radiosensitive than adults.
hospital. Diagnostic radiology and diagnostic nuclear medicine procedures (even in
combination) are extremely unlikely to result in doses that cause malformations
•• Failure to provide adequate clinical information at referral may result in a wrong or a decrease in intellectual function. The main issue following in-utero or
procedure or technique being chosen by radiologist or nuclear medicine specialist. childhood exposure at typical diagnostic levels (<50 mGy) is cancer induction.
5.   Yes. •• Before a diagnostic procedure is performed it should be determined whether a
patient is, or may be, pregnant, whether the fetus is in the primary radiation area
•• There are well-established views -not always respected - which indicate that in
and whether the procedure is relatively high dose (e.g. barium enema or pelvic
some circumstances radiography or fluoroscopy does not contribute anything to
CT scan).
patients’ management. This applies to situations when a disease could not have
progressed or resolved since the previous investigation, or the data obtained •• For children, dose reduction in achieved by using technical factors specific for
could not influence patients’ treatment. children and not using routine adult factors. In diagnostic radiology care should
be taken to minimize the radiation beam to only the area of interest.
•• Most common examples of unjustified examinations include: routine chest
radiography at admission to a hospital or before surgery in absence of symptoms •• Because children are small, in nuclear medicine the use of administered activity
indicating cardiac or pulmonary involvement (or insufficiency). lower than that used for an adult will still result in acceptable images and reduced
dose to the child.
Guidance in activity 13.9 3.
•• This activity introduces students to know the special diagnostic procedures to be
•• The most powerful tool for minimizing the risk is appropriate performance of
considered and ways of reducing radiation risks during performance of diagnostic
the test and optimization of radiological protection of the patient. These are
procedure.
the responsibility of the radiologist or nuclear medicine physician and medical
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about the concepts physicist
stated above and try to answer questions in their note books.
•• The basic principle of patients’ protection in radiological X-ray investigations
•• Have sample group present their work to the class. and nuclear medicine diagnostics is that necessary diagnostic information of
•• Check student’s responses to review students’ ideas to continue the discussion clinically satisfactory quality should be obtained at the expense of a dose as low
with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and book. as reasonably achievable, taking into account social and financial factors.

•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and summarize •• Among the procedures that should be avoided are: 1) fluoroscopy and
their work in the expected feedback. photofluorography for screening for tuberculosis in children and adolescents
(only normal radiographs should be made instead at this age). 2) Fluoroscopy
without electronic image intensification.
•• It should be emphasized, that radiological interventional procedures lead to
higher doses to patients than normal diagnostic investigations.

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Guidance in quick check1 rays, and ‘non-ionizing’ components such as visible light and radio waves.

•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about radiation and try c. X-rays, gamma rays and some other high energy particles are called ‘ionizing
to respond by writing the answer in the notebook. radiation’ because they can deposit enough energy into a body tissue to change
•• Check students’ answers and comment on students’ responses written in the its molecules or proteins by ejecting an electron from an atom.
notebooks, and give them the expected feedback. The sources of ionizing radiation in our environment are cosmic rays from the
universe, naturally occurring radioactive substances in the food and water we eat
Expected feedback: and drink, the air we breathe, in the ground, in building materials, and so on.

Each one is a source of radiation to some degree. We are all weakly radioactive due to the presence of radioactive elements in
our bodies (such as potassium 40 and carbon 14), and this contributes to our
background radiation exposure.
Expected feedback:
Background radiation is most commonly given in units of millisievert (mSv),
a. A Doctor (radiation oncologist) is the one involved in my radiation treatment. which both measures and combines the radiation dose and the consequent risk
b. Before you begin receiving radiation therapy, your radiation oncology team will delivered by an exposure.
carefully design your plan to make sure that you receive safe and accurate treatment.
The amount of background radiation varies widely in different parts of the world
•• Special computers are also used to monitor and double-check the treatment due to the radioactivity of the soil, latitude, height above sea level and lifestyle.
machines to make sure that the proper treatment is given.
•• The medical physicist will work with the team to develop an extensive safety and 2.These risks are difficult to accurately measure, but it has been shown that the risk
quality assurance plan to ensure that every patient receives the correct treatment of developing cancer is slightly increased if you have been exposed to additional
in the safest possible way, each and every time. ionizing radiation above background levels.

c. Treatment will be carefully planned to focus on the cancer while avoiding healthy The risks are not the same for all people; females are slightly more sensitive to the
organs in the area. Throughout your treatment, members of your team check and effects of ionizing radiation compared with males.
recheck your plan through repeat imaging and radiation patient chart review.
Children are also more sensitive, as the cells that make up their growing tissues and
d. The team will meet with you at least weekly to assess your progress and monitor any organs are dividing more rapidly. Children also live longer, so the effects of radiation
unexpected side effects that are occurring. have more time to become visible.
e. Medical Error-These are mistakes done in the medical treatment whereas side effect-
These are the negative consequence that occurs due to medical error and normal Some people have genetic differences that predispose them to the effects of ionizing
treatment. radiation. There are other risks from high exposures to ionizing radiation, but these
are not expected at the dose levels used in diagnostic imaging.
f. Shortening the time of exposure, increasing distance from a radiation source and
shielding. 3.Your decision should be made in close consultation with your referring doctor. Ask
your doctor about the procedure and how it will help to provide information about
your symptoms or the presence of disease or injury.
Answer for 3.2.4 checking my progress
Ask your doctor about the risks of the procedure and what the risks would be of
1. not having the procedure; that is, if your doctor needs the information in order to
identify and plan the most appropriate treatment.
a. Background radiation refers to the ionizing radiation from high energy particles
or rays that we are unavoidably exposed to in our daily lives, which gives each of Although there is a small risk of harm from ionizing radiation, there could be a
us a small but continuous dose of ionizing radiation. greater risk of not having the information.
b. Part of background radiation is due to the electromagnetic radiation spectrum,
and this includes ‘ionizing’ components such as X-radiation (X-rays) and gamma

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 It might also be as beneficial to you to confirm the absence of disease or injury as it 13.6 Unit Summary
is to confirm its presence.
•• Basic types of radiation are ionizing and non-ionizing radiations.
4.X-rays, CT scans, nuclear medicine studies, MRI and ultrasound each have a greater •• Ionizing radiation: Thisis a radiation that carries enough energy to liberate
or lesser ability to scan and provide an image of specific parts of the body and/or to electrons from atoms or molecules, thereby ionizing them.
identify the presence or absence of certain conditions or disease.
•• The main source of exposure to ionizing radiation is the radiation used during
MRI and ultrasound studies are usually used in preference to other imaging tests medical exams such as X-ray radiography or computed tomography scans. The
when it is possible to do so. Your referring doctor will consider which imaging amounts of radiation used are so small that the risk of any damaging effects is
procedure is most appropriate depending on the type of information required and minimal.
your medical history.
•• Radiotherapy is used to treat cancer, the amount of ionizing radiation used is so
carefully controlled that the risk of problems associated with exposure is tiny.
Lesson 13.3: Safety precautions in handling radiations Natural sources of radiation include cosmic radiation, radon radiation in the body,
solar radiation and external terrestrial radiation. Man-made forms of radiation
3.1 Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
are used in X-rays, cancer treatment, nuclear facilities and nuclear weapons.
The lesson uses the concepts in radioactivity radiations from unit 5 in senior six. •• Non-ionizingradiation: It refers to any type of electromagnetic radiation that
does not carry enough energy to ionize atoms or molecules. High levels of UV-
Building on the previous lesson, let the learners brainstorm on the safety precautions radiation can cause sunburn and increase the risk of skin cancer developing.
in handling radiations.
•• An important characteristic of the various ionizing radiations is how deeply they
3.2 Teaching resources: Textbooks and Internet can penetrate the body tissues.
•• Due to their charge and mass, alpha particles interact strongly with matter, and
3.3 Learning Activities: can only travel a few centimeters in air.
•• Due to their smaller mass, they are able to travel further in air, up to a few meters,
Guidance in activity 13.10 and can be stopped by a thick piece of plastic, or even a stack of paper.
•• The activity introduces learners to know the procedures that must be in place for •• The depth to which beta particles can penetrate the body depends on the energy.
safe treatment. •• When you take beta emitters into the body, they will irradiate internal tissues and
•• Let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge about the safety then become a much more serious hazard.
procedures in handling radiations and try to answer questions in their note books. •• Having no mass or charge, gamma radiation can travel much farther through air
•• Have sample group present their work to the class. than alpha or beta, losing (on average) half its energy.
•• Check student’s responses to review students’ ideas to continue the discussion •• X-rays are similar to gamma radiation, with the primary difference being that they
with a brief brainstorming of the concepts using student’s work and book. originate from the electron cloud.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and summarize •• X-Rays are longer-wavelength and lower energy than gamma radiation.
their work in the expected feedback. •• Neutron radiation occurs when neutrons are ejected from the nucleus by nuclear
fission and other processes.
Guidance in activity 13.11
•• The amounts of radiation received are referred to as doses, and the measurement
•• Introduce the activity and let the learner(s) brainstorm with their prior knowledge of such doses is known as dosimetry.
about soil texture and write their ideas in the note book.
•• Dosimeters are used to monitor your occupational dose from radioactive
•• Check student’s responses to review the students’ ideas and continue the material or radiation-producing equipments. Most individuals working with X-ray
discussion with a brief brainstorming of the concepts in student’s work. producing equipment in the hospital will be issued a dosimeter.
•• Comment on students’ responses written in their notebooks, and give them the
expected feedback.

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 •• Dosimeters are not suitable for measuring exposures to low energy beta particles •• The frequency or intensity of biological effects is dependent upon the total
or alpha particles. energy of radiation absorbed (in joules) per unit mass (in kg) of a sensitive tissues
or organs
•• Long-term exposure to small amounts of radiation can lead to gene mutations
and increase the risk of cancer, while exposure to a large amount over a brief •• A cancer caused by a small amount of radiation can be just as malignant as one
period can lead to radiation sickness. caused by a high dose.
•• Exposure is a measure of the ionization produced in air by x-rays or γ rays, and it •• Animal models and knowledge of human genetics, the risk of hereditary
is defined in the following manner. deleterious effects have been estimated to not be greater than 10% of the
radiation induced carcinogenic risk.
•• Expose is defined the total charge per unit mass of air.
•• Exposure to an amount of radiation all at once or from multiple exposures in a
•• The SI unit for exposure is coulomb per unit mass (C/ kg) .
short period of time.
•• The unit of absorbed dose is specified in terms of the amount of energy deposited
•• In most cases, a large acute exposure to radiation causes both immediate (
by radiation in 1 kg of material. This unit is the Gray, abbreviated Gy.
radiation sickness) and delayed effects (cancer or death), can cause sickness or
•• An absorbed radiation dose of 1 Gray corresponds to the deposition of 1 joule of even death within hours or days. Such acute exposures are extremely rare.
energy in 1 kg of material.
•• Radiation risks refer to all excess cancers caused by radiation exposure (incidence
•• More biological damage is caused for the same physical dose. risk) or only excess fatal cancers (mortality risk).
•• Quality factors are used to compare the biological effects from different types of •• Acute health effects occur when large parts of the body are exposed to a large
radiation. The quality is expressed in terms of the Quality Factor (Q). amount of radiation.
•• The quality factor of a radiation type : It is defined as the ratio of the biological •• The large exposure can occur all at once or from multiple exposures in a short
damage produced by the absorption of 1 Gy of that radiation to the biological period of time.
damage produced by 1 Gy of X or gamma radiation.
•• Shortening the time of exposure, increasing distance from a radiation source
•• The unit of Equivalent dose H is the sievert (Sv). and shielding are the basic countermeasures (or protective measures) to reduce
•• An equivalent dose of one sievert represents that quantity of radiation dose that doses from external exposure.
is equivalent, in terms of specified biological damage, to one gray of X or gamma •• The less time that people are exposed to a radiation source, the less the absorbed
rays. dose Distance: The farther away that people are from a radiation source, the less
•• Most of the radiation instruments we use to measure doses or dose rates reads the absorbed dose.
in mSv or µSv. •• Balancing risks are often summarized in the following :
•• The effects of radiation at high doses and dose rates are reasonably well •• The demand for imaging, especially computed tomography, that has increased
documented. vastly over the past 20 years
•• A very large dose delivered to the whole body over a short time will result in the •• An estimated 30% of computed tomography tests that may be unnecessary
death of the exposed person within days.
•• Ionizing radiation that may be associated with cancer.
•• At lower doses and dose rates, there is a degree of recovery in cells and in tissues.
•• The risks of radiation exposure that is often overlooked and patients are seldom
•• The optimization of patients’ protection is based on a principle that the dose made aware of these risks
to the irradiated target (tumor) must be as high as it is necessary for effective
•• The requesting doctor who must balance the risks and benefits of any high
treatment while protecting the healthy tissues to the maximum extent possible.
radiation dose imaging test, adhering to guideline recommendations if possible
•• The threshold doses are not an absolute number and vary somewhat by individual.
•• Difficult cases that should be discussed with a radiologist, ideally at a clinic
•• A cancer caused by a small amount of radiation can be just as malignant as one radiological or multidisciplinary team meeting.
caused by a high dose.
•• Physical half-life: It is the period of time required to reduce the radioactivity level
•• Large absorbed doses of radiation and are mainly a consequence of radiation of a source to exactly one half its original value due solely to radioactive decay.
induced cellular death.

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 •• Biological Half-life: It is the period of time required to reduce the amount of a Relationship between activity and dose
drug in an organ or the body to exactly one half its original value due solely to
biological elimination. Radiation dose is a measure energy transfer from the source to the target material.
One gray is equivalent to 1 joule of radiation energy per kg of irradiated matter. Since,
•• Effective half-life: Itis the period of time required to reduce the radioactivity level
simplistically, a source emits radiation of certain energies in MeV (one MeV = 1.6 x 10
of an internal organ or of the whole body to exactly one half its original value due
to both elimination and decay. -13 J), then if the activity of the source is known, the energy output can be calculated.

13.7 Additional Information: 2. BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF RADIATION

When ionising radiation passes through biological tissue, most of the energy deposited
1. RADIATION DOSE (>99%) goes into the production of heat. The rise in temperature is very small, that is to
say 5 Sv of radiation energy applied to soft tissue would raise the temperature.
i. Absorbed dose- external radiation: There are a number of different quantities
that can be used to express the general concept of “dose”. The basic quantity is Important effects arise from the remaining 1% of the energy, which causes ionization of
“absorbed dose” which is the energy deposited by ionising radiation in a medium
the atoms in the tissue. This ionization causes chemical changes through the breakage
per unit mass of the irradiated material. The SI unit for absorbed dose is the gray
of chemical bonds and these changes lead to a range of damaging effects. The following
(Gy). The previous special unit was the rad (1 Gy = 100 rad).
sections explain how different radiation doses effect cells and describe how this cellular
ii. Dose equivalent: To take account of the different biological effectiveness of damage manifests itself in injury to the body.
different types of radiation, the quantity “dose equivalent” has been defined.
This is obtained by multiplying the absorbed dose (Gy) by a quality factor (or
relative biological effectiveness) for the type of radiation concerned. Effects on Cells

It is unusual for the whole body to be uniformly irradiated so that the dose Living systems are made up of cells. Cells can be thought of as “chemical factories”
equivalent in all organs and tissues is the same. However, for most types of work in which molecules carry out the tasks that keep cells working. These are vital to the
it is adequate to make the simplifying assumption that a personal dosimeter continued working and replication of cells. Damage to these kinds of molecules can have
worn on the trunk measures a representative “dose” for the whole body. This serious consequences. Recovery may be possible by the manufacture of replacement
applies where an individual is only exposed to external radiation. It may also be molecules or the simple reversal of the damaging chemical changes by some biological
necessary to wear extremity dosimeters. repair system.

iii. (iii) Committed dose - internal radiation: If a radioactive substance is taken into Pregnant women and children are especially sensitive to radiation exposure. The cells in
the body (injection, inhalation, inoculation), it begins to irradiate the tissues children and fetuses divide rapidly, providing more opportunity for radiation to disrupt
around it until it has been eliminated by metabolism or radioactive decay. The the process and cause cell damage
“committed dose equivalent” from a single intake of a radioactive substance is
the total dose equivalent that an organ or tissue is “committed” to receive in this Note: There are basically three levels of damage that can occur to an individual cell
way in the following 50 years. This takes into account the radiological half-life of described below:
the material and its biological properties.
Massive damage: The cell may be killed immediately, or at least be made incapable of
iv. (iv) Annual limits on intake: Annual limits on committed dose equivalent, or carrying out its normal function.
committed effective dose equivalent, are used to define limits on the amount of
radioactive substance which may be taken in during the year - i.e. the quantity of
an isotope which if taken into the body would result in an exposure equivalent Intermediate damage:
to the dose limit.
The cell cannot divide, but is otherwise unaltered and can still perform all of its other
functions. The kind of damage is very important in tissues with rapidly dividing stem
cells, as these cells provide a supply of replacement cells for special purposes.

Minor damage

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The result of small to intermediate doses. There are no obvious visible short-term a) Exposure from cosmic radiation
effects on tissues, although some damage can be seen in individual cells.
The earth’s outer atmosphere is continually bombarded by cosmic radiation. Usually,
cosmic radiation consists of fast moving particles that exist in space and originate from
3. RADIATION INJURIES
a variety of sources, including the sun and other celestial events in the universe.
The cellular damage described in the previously is manifested in a range of detrimental
effects. These effects are conventionally divided into deterministic and stochastic Cosmic rays are mostly protons but can be other particles or wave energy. Some ionizing
effects. radiation will penetrate the earth’s atmosphere and become absorbed by humans,
which results in natural radiation exposure.
i. Deterministic effects
These are effects that are expected to occur above a certain threshold dose and are the The doses due to natural sources of radiation vary depending on location and habits.
result of extensive cell damage. Above this threshold, the severity of the effect is then Regions at higher altitudes receive more cosmic radiation. The following map shows
directly dependent on the dose received by the part of the body exposed. how levels of cosmic radiation vary with elevations above sea level and longitude and
latitude.
ii. Stochastic effects
b) Exposure from terrestrial radiation
Stochastic effects are those effects where the probability of occurrence is proportional
to the level of the radiation dose received. It is assumed that there is no threshold The composition of the earth’s crust is a major source of natural radiation. The main
below which these effects cannot occur. An increase in dose will raise the probability contributors are natural deposits of uranium, potassium and thorium which, in the
that the effect will occur in the part of the body that has been irradiated. process of natural decay, will release small amounts of ionizing radiation. Uranium and
thorium are “ubiquitous”, meaning they are found essentially everywhere. Traces of
4. RISKS DUE TO THE EXPOSURE OF RADIOACTIVE ELEMENT these minerals are also found in building materials so exposure to natural radiation can
occur from indoors as well as outdoors.
The risk from exposure to a particular radioactive element depends on:
The energy of the radiation it emits. c) Exposure through inhalation

Its activity (how often it emits radiation). Most of the variation in exposure to natural radiation results from inhalation of
radioactive gases that are produced by radioactive minerals found in soil and bedrock.
The rate at which the body metabolizes and eliminates the radionuclide following Radon is an odourless and colourless radioactive gas that is produced by the decay of
ingestion or inhalation. The risk that exposure to a radioactive element will cause a uranium.
particular health effect also depends on whether exposure is internal or external.
Once released into the air, these gases will normally dilute to harmless levels in the
Internal exposure is when radioactive material gets inside the body by eating, drinking, atmosphere but sometimes they become trapped and accumulate inside buildings and
breathing or injection (from certain medical procedures). Alpha and beta particles pose are inhaled by occupants. Radon gas poses a health risk not only to uranium miners, but
a serious health threat if significant quantities are inhaled or ingested. Outside the also to homeowners if it is left to collect in the home. On average, it is the largest source
body, alpha particles are too large to pass through the skin or a thin layer of clothes. of natural radiation exposure.

External exposure (also known as direct exposure) is when the radioactive source is
outside of your body. X-rays and gamma rays can pass through your body, depositing Exposure through ingestion
energy as they go. Trace amounts of radioactive minerals are naturally found in the contents of food and
drinking water. For instance, vegetables are typically cultivated in soil and ground water
Major sources of public exposure to natural radiation which contains radioactive minerals. Once ingested, these minerals result in internal
exposure to natural radiation.
The United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation identifies
four major sources of public exposure to natural radiation: cosmic radiation, terrestrial
radiation, inhalation and ingestion.

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These radioactive and non-radioactive elements are used in building and maintaining We also receive exposure from man-made radiation, such as X-rays, radiation used to
our bodies. Natural radioisotopes continually expose us to radiation. The human body diagnose diseases and for cancer therapy. Fallout from nuclear explosives testing, and
also contains several radioactive isotopes. The table below contains a list of some of small quantities of radioactive materials released to the environment from coal and
the isotopes naturally found in the body. nuclear power plants, are also sources of radiation exposure to man.

Artificial sources of radiation 13.8 End unit assessment answers

i. Atmospheric testing: The atmospheric testing of atomic weapons from the end
of the Second World War until as late as 1980 released radioactive material, called 13.5.1 Multiple choice
fallout, into the air. As the fallout settled to the ground, it was incorporated into 1.Which of the following would reduce the cell damage due to radiation for a
the environment. Much of the fallout had short half-lives and no longer exists, lab technician who works with radioactive isotopes in a hospital or lab?
but some continues to decay to this day. People and the environment receive
smaller and smaller doses from the fallout every year. a. Increase the worker’s distance from the radiation source.
ii. Medical sources: Radiation has many uses in medicine. The most well known use b. Decrease the time the worker is exposed to the radiation.
is X-ray machines, which use radiation to find broken bones and diagnose disease.
X-ray machines are regulated by Health Canada and provincial authorities. Another c. Use shielding to reduce the amount of radiation that strikes the worker.
example is nuclear medicine, which uses radioactive isotopes to diagnose and
treat diseases such as cancer. d. Have the worker wear a radiation badge when working with the radioactive
isotopes.
iii. Industrial sources: Radiation has a variety of industrial uses that range from
nuclear gauges used to build roads to density gauges that measure the flow of e. All of the above.
material through pipes in factories. It is also used for smoke detectors, some
2.If the same dose of each type of radiation was provided over the same amount
glow-in-the dark exit signs, and to estimate reserves in oil fields. Radiation is also
of time, which type would be most harmful?
used for sterilization which is done by using large, heavily shielded irradiators.
a. X-rays. c. γ rays.
iv. Nuclear Fuel Cycle: Nuclear power plants use uranium to drive a chain reaction
that produces steam, which in turn drives turbines to produce electricity. b. α rays. d. β particles.
Similarly, uranium mines, fuel fabrication plants and radioactive waste facilities
release some radioactivity that contributes to the dose of the public. 3.Which of the following is true?
Top of Form a. Any amount of radiation is harmful to living tissue.

Radiation in Everyday Life b. Radiation is a natural part of the environment.

Radioactivity is a part of our earth - it has existed all along. Naturally occurring radioactive c. All forms of radiation will penetrate deep into living tissue.
materials are present in its crust, the floors and walls of our homes, schools, or offices
d. None of the above is true.
and in the food we eat and drink. There are radioactive gases in the air we breathe.
Our own bodies - muscles, bones, and tissue - contain naturally occurring radioactive 4.Which radiation induces the most biological damage for a given amount of
elements. energy deposited in tissue?
Man has always been exposed to natural radiation arising from the earth as well as from a. Alpha particles. c. Beta radiation.
outside the earth. The radiation we receive from outer space is called cosmic radiation
b. Gamma radiation. d. All do the same damage for the same
or cosmic rays.
deposited energy.

5.Which would produce the most energy in a single reaction?

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 a. The fission reaction associated with uranium-235. central nervous system?
b. The fusion reaction of the Sun (two hydrogen nuclei fused to one helium nucleus). 16.Radiation protection of ionizing radiation from radiation sources is particularly
difficult. Give a reason for this difficulty.
c. Both (A) and (B) are about the same.

d. Need more information. 16.5.3 Essay questions

6.The fuel necessary for fusion-produced energy could be derived from 17.I always lock my radioactive material-use rooms. However, renovators came in
during the weekend, worked, and left the door open while they were on their
a. water. d. superconductors. lunch break. Am I responsible and how can I prevent this from happening?
Debate on the situation above to support your answer.
b. uranium. e. helium.
18.How can I ensure that personnel who work in my lab, but do not use
c. sunlight. radioactive material, do not violate the security requirements? Debate to
support your idea.
13.5.2 Structured questions 19.A Housekeeping staff member opens my radioactive material-use room after
7.If the equipment isn’t working and my treatment is delayed or postponed, working hours and does not lock it when they leave. What should I do? Explain
who checks that it is safe to use again? And will this delay affect my cancer? clearly to support your idea.

8.Do you have weekly chart rounds where you review patient-related 20.Make a research and predict what steps that can or might be taken to
information in peer review? reduce the exposure to radiation (e.g., if living near a radioactive area like an
abandoned uranium mine, if finding a radioactive source, or in the event of a
9.Will you take imaging scans regularly during my treatment to verify position nuclear explosion or accident).
of my treatment? Who reviews those scans?
10.People who work around metals that emit alpha particles are trained that Part III: Essay Questions
there is little danger from proximity or touching the material, but they must 23. The outcome depends on students’ trial and research and the guidance of the
take extreme precautions against ingesting it. Why? (Eating and drinking respective teacher giving the students good approach of making and reporting scientific
while working are forbidden.)
research.
11.What is the difference between absorbed dose and effective dose? What are
the SI units for each? 13.5.7 Additional activities (Remedial activities, Consolidation activities, extended
activities) and expected answer
12.Radiation is sometimes used to sterilize medical supplies and even food.
Explain how it works. 1.What forms of radioactive material must be secured?
13.How might radioactive tracers be used to find a leak in a pipe? Solution:
14.Explain that there are situations in which we may or may not have control The following radioactive material must be secured at all times. There are no exempt
over our exposure to ionizing radiation. quantities:
a. When do we not have control over our exposure to radiation? •• Stock vials and other containers of radioactive material
b. When do we have control over our exposure to radiation? •• Calibration sources in liquid scintillation vials
•• Radioactive material contained in waste
c. Why might we want to limit our exposure to radiation when possible?
•• Sealed sources
15.Does exposure to heavy ions at the level that would occur during deep-space
missions of long duration pose a risk to the integrity and function of the

340 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 341

2.If a room is posted “Caution Radioactive Material,” do I have to lock the door even 8.Does equipment that contains radioactive material (e.g. freezers and LSC) stored in
if there is no radioactive material is present in the room? hallways need to be locked?

Solution: Solution:Yes.

A qualified No. However, during a past inspection, an inspector pointed out that this 9.My radioactive material cold room cannot be locked. Can I leave radioactive material
practice could complicate the lab security issue. If use of material is infrequent, and in this area unsecured?
communications are poor, not all individuals working in the lab may be cognizant of all
Solution:No. The acceptable alternatives are:
use by other lab members. It is always best to establish a habit of locking a room that is
posted for radioactive material use. •• Find a cold room that can be locked. Amend your authorization as required
3.Can an area be locked instead of individual rooms? •• Place the radioactive material in a locked cabinet within the cold room
•• Have a lock installed on the cold room door
Solution:
•• Prior to installing any lock on any door (cold room, lab door or hallway door) you
A qualified Yes. If you have a small suite of rooms with limited access and you are able to must contact FP&C to ensure that the lock is an approved type and design. If you
secure areas such as hallways, suites, and building sections, the rooms within this area install a lock that has not been approved, you will bear the expense of replacing
may be left unlocked or open. However, the entrances to the secured perimeter must it with a proper type.
be locked at all times. 10.All my radioactive material is secured properly and I have empty waste containers
4.Can a radioactive material workroom across the hall from where I am working be in the lab. Do I have to lock the room?
left open if I am moving back and forth between the rooms?
Solution:No.
Solution: 11.I have a liquid scintillation counter that has a radioactive sealed source as an integral
No. Unless you can control and maintain constant surveillance over the lab that contains part of it. Do I have to secure it?
radioactive material, this is not permitted. The test is whether you can ensure that Solution:No. However, the calibration vials and the sample vials must be secured. If
no unauthorized individual can enter and remove radioactive material without being you have samples in the LSC, you must either lock the room, lock the unit, or otherwise
challenged. maintain immediate control while the material is in the counter.
5.If I am in an office or other room inside my lab, can I leave the main lab unlocked? 12.Are there activity limits below which security rules do not apply?
Solution: Solution:No.
No. Unless you can control and maintain constant surveillance over the lab that contains 13.How can I make changes to my security plan?
radioactive material, this is not permitted. The test is whether you can ensure that
no unauthorized individual can enter and remove radioactive material without being Solution:The Security Plan you have filed with EHS must be adhered to at all times. You
challenged. must submit your change in writing, prior to proceeding with any changes to security
practices in your areas.
6.Can I leave the door to the lab unlocked or open if all radioactive material (including
waste) is locked in a cabinet or refrigerator? 14.What should I do if I notice an unlocked, unoccupied radioactive room or area that
is not under my control?
Solution:Yes.
Solution:Notify EHS. We also suggest that you immediately notify the responsible PI
7.May I leave the door to my lab open and not under my surveillance if I install an about the room that was found unsecured.
entry alarm system?
15.How can I ensure that personnel who work in my lab, but do not use radioactive
Solution:Yes. This is permitted if you can hear the alarm when someone enters the material, do not violate the security requirements?
room, and you respond to the alarm by investigating each entry.
Solution: The security requirements apply to the material, not the people. Therefore,

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all personnel in your lab must be trained and cognizant of the security requirements for •• If lab personnel will not be present during renovation work, instructions should
the material in the lab they are working in. be given to renovators or maintenance personnel to lock the door whenever
workers leave the area.
16.How can I prevent people who do not work in my lab from violating the
security rule? In any case, if you discover that renovators or maintenance personnel have
not followed instructions, call EHS so we can contact FP&C and take corrective
Solution: action.
•• Although these individuals should have received some level of radiation safety 20. What are the consequences if I fail to secure a radioactive material room, area or
training, you should remind them not to leave your room(s) unsecured. piece of equipment?
••
Solution:This depends on the circumstances and the past security compliance history
•• Non-UVA personnel: These individuals most likely have not received training. for the lab. A report must be filed with EHS and further actions will be determined
You must supervise their activities while they are in your lab or instruct them by the Radiation Safety Committee. Willful violation of the UVA radioactive material
on security requirements. You are responsible for the actions taken by non-UVA security program may lead to suspension or revocation of the authorization to use
personnel while they are in your lab.
radioactive material.
17.A Housekeeping staff member opens my radioactive material-use room
after working hours and does not lock it when they leave. What should I do? 21.Does receiving external-beam radiation make a person radioactive or able to
expose others to radiation?
Solution:
Solution: External-beam therapy does not make a person radioactive in any way. The
•• Contact EHS when this happens. All Environmental Services and Facilities therapy only affects your cells for the very short time that you are receiving treatment.
Management housekeeping personnel should have received a short course in A person who has received external-beam radiation is unable to contaminate or transfer
radiation safety. In addition, you should communicate with the housekeeping that radiation to any other person.
staff about safety in your labs.
22.How can I be sure that the external-beam radiation machine isn’t damaging normal,
18.My lab was broken into during the night. What should I do?
healthy tissue in my body?
Solution: Immediately call both the UVA Police and EHS to report the break-in.
Solution: We have carefully developed methods for calibrating radiation beams and
19.I always lock my radioactive material-use rooms. However, renovators ensuring that they reach the areas they are intended to target. Even when normal
came in during the weekend, worked, and left the door open while they tissues near the area undergoing radiation receive small amounts of radiation, it is rare
were on their lunch break. Am I responsible and how can I prevent this from for long-term damage to occur. Our doctors also know how much radiation healthy
happening? tissue can receive without causing irreversible damage. We often use special masks,
molds, or casts of body parts to keep you absolutely still during treatment, so that we
Solution:
can aim the radiation beams precisely to the area we want to treat.
•• Supervision of UVA Facilities Management personnel and outside contractors
23.Is there any risk that internal radiation implants (brachytherapy) will leak or break
is the responsibility of UVA Facilities Planning and Construction (FP&C). Their
free from where they are placed and move around my body?
managers have received training regarding the requirements for calling the
appropriate EHS group for assistance and approvals prior to working in radioactive Solution: With brachytherapy, we use a needle or a catheter to insert radioactive
material-use rooms. However, do not assume that EHS has been notified about material contained within an impenetrable sealed source such as a seed, pellet, wire, or
work in your radioactive material-use rooms. If you have advance knowledge
capsule. As the radioactive isotopes inside the implant decay naturally over time, they
of renovations or maintenance work, please call EHS and give us the scheduled
emit radiation and damage nearby cancer cells. This radioactivity travels only a certain
times and dates.
distance beyond the implant, and eventually deteriorates to the point that the implant
We will assist FP&C in developing a plan that includes security of your radioactive no longer gives off any radiation.
material-use rooms.

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The implants are specially tested and sealed to ensure that radioactive material doesn’t
leak, and we place them in such a way that it’s highly unlikely they will move. Also, in the
case of brachytherapy for genitourinary cancers, while there is no risk that the implants
UNIT 14: COSMOLOGY, GALAXIES AND EXPENSION OF
14
will come out with semen, we do give patients a strainer to use for 24 to 48 hours after
the procedure when urinating, in the rare case that a seed becomes dislodged. UNIVERSE
24.Should I limit contact with anyone while brachytherapy implants are inside my
body?
Solution: Most of our safety concerns are related to being in physical contact with
children for extended periods of time, since their bodies are undergoing such rapid
change and growth and are therefore more vulnerable to abnormal cell changes.
Because we vary the radiation dose in each implant as well as the number of implants
4.1 Key Unit Competence
we insert based on your particular cancer, we provide you with specific advice about
precautions to take when you’re in close contact with children. By the end of the unit the learners should be able to analyse the effects of cosmology,
galaxies and expansion of universe.
25.Do prostate seed implants put my sexual partner or the person I sleep next
to at risk in any way?
Solution: Prostate seeds are sealed sources. You cannot contaminate another person 14.2 Prerequisite knowledge and skills
by being in his or her physical vicinity, during sexual intercourse, or through any other The success of this unit relies partly on the mastery of knowledge and skills acquired in
form of intimate contact. Your doctor or a member of the radiation safety staff will Physics (Unit 12 of S4 and Unit 14 of S5), and other related subjects in previous grades.
discuss any special precautions you should take with sleep arrangements before you
leave the hospital. For example, based on such factors as your age and the age of your
partner, for a period of time we may ask that you avoid embracing your partner from 14.3 Cross-Cutting Issues to be addressed
the back in the “spooning“ position through the night.
•• Inclusive education (promote education for all while teaching). Regardless of
26.Do I pose a danger to others after receiving radioactive iodine therapy for physical appearance and abilities learners should all be treated equally. This
thyroid cancer? makes the learners to find out that they are all of great importance.
•• Peace and value Education (respect others view and thoughts during class
Solution:For several days following this therapy, radioactive substances can be emitted
discussions). Remember that someone’s idea is very important. It may be correct
through body fluids such as saliva, urine, and sweat. We send patients home with
or Not but what is important is to build on that Idea.
detailed instructions on how to care for themselves for the first few days — from
limiting contact with young children and pets to using separate utensils and towels.
14.4 Guidance on the introductory activity
27.I am having an imaging test using radioactive materials. Will I be radioactive
after the test? This activity aims at capturing students’ attention and minds towards cosmology,
galaxies and expansion of universe
Solution:Radioactive material will stay in your body for several hours or days depending
on the type used and the metabolism of the compound to which it was attached. •• Tell students to open learner’s book directly to unit 14 and then switch on to the
Eventually, the material decays and your body naturally flushes it out through urine, introductory Activity.
sweat, and other forms of biological elimination. We make sure the specifics are clear •• Inform students that they are to do the activity by themselves under your
to you before the test, and we may also issue an information card explaining your guidance.
treatment in the event that you are questioned by someone in airport security, for
•• Split your class into groups (if it is a mixed school make sure that your groups
example. have boys and girls) and tell them to start working on the introductory activity.
Or decide any appropriate method to use depending on the nature of your class.
•• Give students enough time to work by themselves brainstorming the questions.

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 In this period, you can move around overseeing what students are doing. Leave Main Sequence
them to work by themselves.
The main sequence is where a star will spend 90% of its life fusing hydrogen into helium
•• Invite some groups to present their findings to the whole class. You can explain
in its core. These type of stars account for around 90% of all stars in the universe, and
new terms used and clarify points where students had problems
range in mass from 1/10th to 200 times that of the Sun, with their life spans mostly
•• Ask students from different groups to judge whether, what have been discussed depending upon their mass and chemical compositions; the least massive stars last for
correspond to the questions. tens of billions of years, while for the heaviest stars their estimated lifetimes may only
•• Together with students, make a summary of what have been discussed using be a few million years.
learners’ findings and deductions. Let them write key points in their notebooks

Answers to the introductory activity 14.5 List of lessons

28. (a) Stars are divided into spectral classes, which in turn help to identify their color, S/ Lesson Title Learning Objectives Periods
size, and luminosity. The seven main types of stars are assigned one of the letter O, No
B, A, F, G, K, and M, remembered by the classic mnemonic “Oh Be A Fine Girl (Guy),
Kiss Me,” with their individual colors, effective temperatures, and size and masses 1 Galaxies ••Outline types of galaxies and 8
compared to the Sun. Going from coolest to hottest, the different types of Main and Cluster cluster of galaxies.
Sequence stars include Red Dwarfs (K to M), Orange Dwarfs (K), Yellow Dwarfs (G),
white stars (F to A ), and blue stars (B to O). ••Explain the structure of Milky way
galaxy and earth’s position
(b) The process of star formation begins by hot clumps of molecules forming
inside a gas cloud to create a protostar, with the object remaining in this ••Classify types of galaxies and give
contraction stage as long as material continues to fall inward. For our Sun, examples
this protostar phase would have lasted around 100,000 years, after which it
would have entered the T Tauri phase for 100 million years, in which it shines ••Apply planetary motion knowledge
using only energy produced by its ongoing gravitational collapse. Eventually, to explain phenomena of planet
it would have acquired enough size and mass, as well as temperatures motion.
and pressures at its core to sustain nuclear reactions (hydrogen fused into
helium), after which the outward force of its emitted radiation is balanced by ••Develop the ability to observe the
its own inward gravity resulting in a hydrostatic equilibrium state referred to universe and identify planets and
as the main sequence. stars.
Those balls of gas whose mass is less than 8% that of the Sun, however, are
2 Cosmology ••Explain Doppler shift due to cosmic 8
unable to ignite nuclear fusion, and end up as Brown Dwarfs, or a failed star.
These dim and cool objects fall into the M, L and T spectral class, and have expansion.
between 13 and 90 times the mass of Jupiter. They also emit so little light and
••State Hubble’s law.
energy that they are difficult to detect.
••Explain the big bang theory and
29.The Doppler-shift-is used to measure the velocity of various galaxies receding
from the Earth which is approximately proportional to their distance from relate to the expansion of universe.
the Earth for galaxies up to a few hundred megaparsecs away.
3 Evaluation ••End unit assessment 2
30.Hubble’s law is considered the first observational basis for the expansion of
the universe and today serves as one of the pieces of evidence most often ••Summative assessment
cited in support of the Big Bang model. The motion of astronomical objects
due solely to this expansion is known as the Hubble flow

348 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 349

 Lesson 1: Galaxies and Cluster d. Suggested answers for checking my progress 14.1.4

1. There are three main types of galaxies: Elliptical, Spiral, and Irregular. Two of these
Activity 14.1 Our place in the Universe
three types are further divided and classified into a system that is now known the
a. Introduction tuningfork diagram. When Hubble first created this diagram, he believed that this
was an evolutionary sequence as well as a classification. He believed that all galaxies
Through guided discovery, learners should be able to analyse interaction of planets started out as E0 ellipticals and evolved into spirals, as the galaxy flattened out and
with the sun. developed arms. Astronomers have found today that instead, possibly that spiral
galaxies sometimes merge to form elliptical galaxies.
You can make a brief introduction using unit 14 in S.4.You can ask them questions that
are related to the movement of planets around the sun. 2. Milky Way galaxy

b. Teaching resources Lesson 2: Cosmology

Textbooks, Internet. 1. Prerequisites/Revision/Introduction:
c. Learning Activities Under your guidance, let learners discover theories that explain the origin of universe.
Then emphasize on Cosmology as one of the theory that explains the origin of universe.
This lesson majorly focuses on the interaction of earth and the sun. Specifically, the
earth orbits the sun but the sun remains in a fixed position Remember students have some ideas because they might have met some of these
concepts in other subjects like in geography or any other unit in physics like unit 14 in S.4
•• Tell students to turn to activity 14.1 in students’ book
•• Divide your class into different groups (Decide on the method to use in this lesson 2. Teaching resources
depending on the type of your class and time of the day)
Textbooks, internet.
•• Instruct them to re-write questions to their notebooks.
•• Leave the learners to perform the activity by themselves. Give them enough time 3. Learning Activities
to work out the questions.
This lesson aims at Cosmology a theory that describes the origin of the universe. It is
•• Invite some members or groups to present their findings. Let them discuss by
linked to how stars were formed and the speeds of distant galaxies.
themselves
•• Ask other members of the class to whether they have similar answers from what •• Tell students to turn to activity 14.2 in students’ book
others have presented. •• Suggest on the methodology to use in this lesson. Choice may depend on the
•• Together with students, consolidate and come to a common understanding of nature of your
different questions in the Activity. •• Instruct them to discuss questions in this activity.
Note: This is an interesting topic and students may ask very many questions. Give them •• Leave the learners to perform the activity by themselves. Give them enough time
a favourable platform for them to discover through questioning. to work out the questions.
•• Call some members or groups to present their findings. Let them discuss by
Activity 14.1 Our place in the Universe themselves
1. The Sun and solar system orbit the galactic center approximately once every 250 •• Let the learners connect the discussed answers to what they have.
million years, so its speed is roughly 200 km / s relative to the center of the Galaxy. •• Together with students, consolidate and come to a common understanding of
different questions in the Activity.
2. The sun interact with other objects in the Universe according to Newton’s laws,
keepts at its orbit by gravitational force and according to Kepler’s laws Note: There are more 4 activities under this part. (They are 14.3, 14.4, 14.5, and 14.6). Tell
them to work out these activities in their time. You can also tell students to do some of

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these activities during their class time. underpinning and is established to have high internal accuracy, amenable to empirical
tests for systematic errors.
When they are done, they can bring their answers to you (the teacher) for marking and
corrections
Activity 14.5: Stellar expansion
4. Suggested answers for all the activities. 1. All distant objects in the universe are moving away from each other, as indicated
by the galactic redshift, indicating that the universe is expanding. If the universe has
Activity14.2: How stars are formed always expanded, it must have started as a point. The 25% abundance of He supports the
standard Big Bang model. The Big Bang theory predicted the presence of background
1. Hubble showed that galaxies are receding away from us with a velocity that is
radiation, which has since been observed.
proportional to their distance from us: more distant galaxies recede faster than
nearby galaxies. Hubble’s classic graph of the observed velocity vs. distance for nearby 2. The curvature of the universe determines whether the universe will continue
galaxies is presented in Fig; this graph has become a scientific landmark that is regularly expanding forever (open) or eventually collapse back in on itself (closed).
reproduced in astronomy textbooks. The graph reveals a linear relation between galaxy
velocity (v) and its distance (d) 3. Dark energy increases the total energy of the universe, increasing the probability that
it is an open universe
2. The primary factor determining how a star evolves is its mass as it reaches the main
sequence. 4. Redshift is also used to measure the expansion of space, but that this is not truly
a Doppler effect Rather, redshifting due to the expansion of space is known as
Activity14.3: cosmological redshift, which can be derived purely from the Robertson-Walker metric
under the formalism of General Relativity. Having said this, it also happens that there
1. A stationary transmitter shoots waves at a moving object. The waves hit the object are detectable Doppler effects on cosmological scales, which, if incorrectly interpreted
and bounce back. The transmitter (now a receiver) detects the frequency of the as cosmological in origin, lead to the observation of redshift-space distortions.
returned waves. Based on the amount of the Doppler shift, the speed of the object can
be determined. Let’s look at a few specific examples.
Suggested answers for check quick
2. The Doppler Effect for electromagnetic waves such as light is of great use in
astronomy and results in either a so-called redshift or blue shift. It has been used to ∆λ vs −120 ×103
14.1. (a) = = = −0.4 ×10−3
measure the speed at which stars and galaxies are approaching or receding from us; λ c 3 ×108
that is, their radial velocities. This may be used to detect if an apparently single star is, The minus sign is important! Andromeda is blue-shifted!
in reality, a close binary, to measure the rotational speed of stars and galaxies, or to
∆λ λr − λ ∆λ λr 590 ×10−9
detect exoplanets. This redshift and blueshift happens on a very small scale, if an object = ⇔ = − 1 ⇔ −0.004 = − 1 ⇔ λ = 590.23 nm
is moving toward earth, there would not be a noticeable difference in visible light. (b) λ λ λ λ λ
14.2. Because the wavelength increases, the emission is red-shifted, so the cloud must
Activity 14.4: be moving away from us. To find its radial velocity, use the Doppler equation
The requirements for measuring an accurate value of Ho are simple to list in principle, ∆λ c (21.007 − 21)(3 ×108 )
= v = = 100 km / s
but are extremely difficult to meet in practice. The measurement of radial velocities λ0 21
from the displacement of spectral lines is straightforward; the challenge is to measure The cloud is moving away from us at 100 km/s.
accurate distances. Distance measurements must be obtained far enough away to
probe the smooth Hubble expansion (that is, where the random velocities induced by 5. Suggested answers for checking my progress 14.2
gravitational interactions with neighboring galaxies are small relative to the Hubble
1. C 2. 3. C 4. A 5. B 6. C
velocity), and nearby enough to calibrate the absolute, not simply the relative, distance
scale. The objects under study also need to be sufficiently abundant that their statistical
uncertainties do not dominate the error budget. Ideally the method has a solid physical

352 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 353

7. The speed of light is usually given in a vacuum. It is a little slower in air and much contract even further and form a black hole, which is so dense that no matter or light
slower in water. Light does not usually travel through steel. can escape from it.

λ λ
9. 0.9996 = ⇔ 0.9996 = ⇔ λ = 479.808 nm 14.7 Additional information
λ0 480 ×10−9

Evolution of the Terrestrial Planets

4. 6 Unit Summary
During the bombardment era, the impacts of planetesimals kept the young planets
The universe is extremely large and consists of millions of galaxies and billions of stars. hot. So hot, in fact, that they were completely molten. During this time, the planets
We are in the Milky Way galaxy. differentiated. That is, the material separated, with the denser, heavier materials (such
as iron) sinking to the center, and the lighter materials (such as rock) floating on top.
Cosmology is the study of the structure and evolution of the Universe. Our Universe This led to a layering of materials into three distinct bands: the core, mostly iron and
is expanding. The speed at which a distant galaxy recedes from the Earth is given by nickel; the mantle, denser rocks; and the crust, lighter rocks. The top of the mantle and
Hubble’s law the crust form a layer called the lithosphere. This layer is formed of relatively rigid rock.
Beneath the lithosphere, the rock deforms easily although, strictly speaking, it is not
v = Hod
molten. Only on the Earth is this lithosphere broken into plates, which slide on the soft
Where H= 2.3 ×10−18 s −1 Hubble ’s constant and d is is the distance of the galaxy from the
mantle rock below, leading to plate tectonics.
0

Earth. The strength and thickness of the lithosphere determine which geological processes
A major theory of the beginning of the universe is called the Big Bang Theory. The Big operate on the surface. A thick lithosphere suppresses volcanic activity and tectonics.
Bang theory explains how the universe began. The universe is expanding, moving out The size and temperature of the interior of the planet governs the thickness of the
from a specific point. By interpolating backward, it is estimated that all of the galaxies lithosphere. Hot interiors keep the mantle fluid quite far from the core, so the
in the universe started at one point. The theory states a great explosion was the start lithosphere is thin. Planets with cool interiors have thick lithospheres.
of the universe. There are opposing theories and questions concerning the beginning
of the universe. Example 14.5

Stars are believed to begin life as collapsing masses of gas (protostars), largely hydrogen. 1. What determines the thickness of the lithosphere of a planet? Why is the thickness of
As they contract, they heat up (potential energy is transformed to kinetic energy). When the lithosphere important to the geologic evolution of the planet?
the temperature reaches about 10 million degrees, nuclear fusion begins and forms
heavier elements (nucleosynthesis), mainly helium at first. The energy released during Answer
these reactions heats the gas so its outward pressure balances the inward gravitational
The internal temperature plays a major role in determining the thickness of the
force, and the young star stabilizes as a main-sequence star. The tremendous luminosity
of stars comes from the energy released during these thermonuclear reactions. After lithosphere.
billions of years, as helium is collected in the core and hydrogen is used up, the core
Hot planets have thin lithospheres, and cool ones have thick lithospheres. The thickness
contracts and heats further. The outer envelope expands and cools, and the star
of the lithosphere determines how geologically active the surface is. If the lithosphere
becomes a red giant (larger diameter, redder color).
is very thick, volcanoes will never occur, for example.
The next stage of stellar evolution depends on the mass of the star, which may have
lost much of its original mass as its outer envelope escaped into space. Stars of residual
Leaving the Main Sequence
mass less than about 1.4 solar masses cool further and become white dwarfs, eventually
fading and going out altogether. Heavier stars contract further due to their greater Mass also determines how a star leaves the main sequence phase of its life, and what
gravity: the density approaches nuclear density, the huge pressure forces electrons type of star it then becomes.
to combine with protons to form neutrons, and the star becomes essentially a huge
nucleus of neutrons. This is a neutron star, and the energy released during its final core 1) Those stars with solar masses less than 0.5 do not have enough size or pressure in
collapse is believed to produce supernova explosions. If the star is very massive, it may their core to fuse helium, and so collapse directly into a ‘dead’ star known as a White

354 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 355

Dwarf. These type of stars can be a million times denser than that the Sun, but have At a speed of 220 km/s, the time it will take the Sun to travel this far is
only 1% the Sun’s diameter and luminosity. Over several billion years, the leftover heat it
d 1.6 ×1018 km
still emits will subsequently radiate away to leave a BlackDwarf, which is a hypothetical t
= = = 2.3 ×108 ly
v 220 km / s
stellar remnant that has no heat or light.
The Sun travels once around the center of the galaxy in about 230 million light years

Because the stellar lines are shifted to be of shorter wavelength than the
reference lines, they are bluer than they should be. This means that the star is
approaching. To find out how quickly, use the Doppler equation:

d 1.6 ×1018 km
t
= = = 2.3 ×108 ly
v 220 km / s

6. Many methods are available.

Fig.14. 1 The fate of star depends on its mass
•• For nearby stars (up to 500 or 100 ly away) we can use parallax. In this method
we measure the angular distance that a star moves relative to the background
of stars as the Earth travels around the Sun. Half of the angular displacement is
2) Those stars with solar masses between a 0.5 and 8 continue to fuse hydrogen into
then equal to the ratio of the Earth–Sun distance and the distance between the
helium in their core until the hydrogen available runs out and hydrogen fusion takes
Earth and that star.
place in a shell surrounding the core, which then expands to the star’s outer layers,
resulting in it growing in size and luminosity to form a Subgiant, and then a Red Giant. In •• The apparent brightness of the brightest stars in galaxies, combined with the
the meantime, the star’s helium rich core starts to fuse helium into carbon and oxygen, inverse square law, can be used to estimate distances to galaxies, assuming they
and after its helium supply is exhausted the star’s outer layers will be ejected to form a have the same intrinsic luminosity.
planetary nebula, while its core becomes a whitedwarf. •• The H–R diagram can be used for distant stars. Determine the surface temperature
using its blackbody radiation spectrum and Wien’s law and then estimate its
3) More massive stars will either evolve into Red Giants, or even Red Supergiants as they luminosity from the H–R diagram. Using its apparent brightnessequation will
fuse heavier and heavier elements in their cores. Over time, they may oscillate between give its distance.
existence as a red and Blue Supergiant before being unable to fuse the iron which has •• Variable stars, like Cepheid variables, can be used by relating the period to its
formed in its core, leading to it becoming unstable and collapsing. A massive explosion luminosity. The luminosity and apparent brightness can be used to find the
then causes the star to go supernova, in the process creating many elements heavier distance.
than iron, such as uranium and plutonium, with those stars with 8 or more solar masses
•• The largest distances are measured by measuring the apparent brightness of
leaving behind a Neutron Star, and those with 30 or more Sun’s masses transforming
Type Ia supernovae.
into a BlackHole.
•• All supernovae are thought to have nearly the same luminosity, so the apparent
brightness can be used to find the distance.
14.8 End unit assessment solutions
1. B 2.D 3.D 4.D

5. The total distance the Sun must travel in one orbit is the circumference of a circle of
radius 8 500 pc: C = 2π R =2π × 85000 pc = 53400 pc

Multiplying by 3 ×1013 km / pc gives 1.6 ×1018 km .

356 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 357

7.
G M
9.
P F A R A D A Y F R A N K L I N

T J U R X M
C O P E R N I C U S I D N E W TF R
O A
N N K L I N
X
L N S S A E L E E
N E W T O N
E N M T R L B E I E EY L
M E D I S O N G A M O W G A L I L E O L BN I A Y
Y R R R I E G A L IH L E OS A G NA N A

P S C N M I F EE R M A H T S AGG A N
M I F E R M A T G
P A S T E U R H A B H E
A B H E
U U R NR RN R I I B B
L R O S S C U R IC EU R LI E L LI N LN I A NE N U A S E U S
E U C L I D O ZO IZ I L L
N C M E N D E L
N N C M E N D E L
I H
G I H
8. 10. 10.

E S A G X D I Q A A A A N Y Y H T R A E A M
G R P A T L Y J I T I R I N G N R U T A S X
W S O M Z P I V O U R
T H U N D E R R W M R
H K R V G L M O O N T
M I B T L A Q G B P R
Z R E T A W I S F O E
J E I E S N L U N S E
L B D E A K U B D S T M G T U O E D A K J T
F A N E L T F H X E I
R O F J R R Z O O P C
S E R P O W U T R Y P
O L A C I M E H C H A V Q W S A R I L D E U
L T E L E S C O P E J
P T N V H X G P R E B
14.9 Additional activities
A I O Z O N E L M R S

V T P F V T S V X E O

M I N E R A L Q I Y T
9.
358 Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide Physics S6 -Teacher’s guide 359
14.9 Additional activities

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