0% found this document useful (0 votes)

44 views

Geography Revision Module Vision

The document provides an overview of the universe, solar system, and the formation and evolution of celestial bodies. It discusses the Big Bang theory, the characteristics of stars and galaxies, and the classification of planets into terrestrial and jovian types. Additionally, it covers the Earth's movements, time zones, and the formation of the Moon, along with other celestial objects like asteroids, comets, and meteors.

Uploaded by

Abi

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

0% found this document useful (0 votes)

44 views

Geography Revision Module Vision

Uploaded by

Abi

Available Formats

Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd

You are on page 1/ 271

QUICK REVISION MODULE

(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) GEOGRAPHY

UNIVERSE AND
SOLAR SYSTEM
THE UNIVERSE: THE VAST SPACE
SURROUNDING US IS CALLED UNIVERSE.
IT IS MOSTLY EMPTY SPACE.
ORIGIN OF THE UNIVERSE

BIG BANG THEORY OR EXPANDING UNIVERSE HYPOTHESIS

It was given by Edwin Hubble.

In the beginning, universe was a tiny ball (single atom) with unimaginably
small volume and inﬁnite temperature and density.

13.7 billion years ago, this ball exploded leading to a huge expansion. This
expansion is continuing until now, at a smaller pace. First atom began to
form within 3 minutes of Big Bang.

Within 300,000 years of explosion, temperature dropped to 4500 K and gave

rise to atomic matter. Universe became transparent.

The expansion in universe means increase in space between the galaxies.

An alternative theory is ‘Hoyle’s concept of steady state’ which considers
universe to be roughly of same size at any point of time.

The Stars: They are the heavenly bodies like the sun that are extremely hot and
have light of their own. Stars are made up of vast clouds of hydrogen gas, some
helium and dust.
Galaxies: They are building blocks of the universe. Galaxy is a vast system of
billions of stars, which also contains a large number of gas clouds mainly of
hydrogen gas (where stars are born), and dust, isolated in space from similar
system.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS

A galaxy starts to form by accumulation of Hydrogen gas in the form of a

very large cloud called Nebula.
This growing Nebula starts developing localized clumps of gas.
These clumps continue to grow into even denser gaseous bodies, giving rise
to formation of star.
This event took place 5 to 6 billion years ago.

STELLAR EVOLUTION
LOW AND MEDIUM-MASS STARS (INCLUDING THE SUN)

White
Main “Planetary” dwarf
Sequence Red giant nebula

High-mass High-mass star

Nebula stars
Neutron
star

Main Sequence
Red supergiant Supernova
Very high-mass Black
star hole

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

BIRTH AND EVOLUTION OF A STAR

In the beginning, Galaxy had just very cold (-1730C), dense and
large cloud of gases (Hydrogen and Helium). Very large gravi-
tational pull led to the formation of a highly condensed body
PROTOSTAR called Protostar. A protostar is a huge, dark, ball of gases. It
does not emit light.

Further contraction of Protostar leads to collision of Hydrogen

gases and increases the temperature of the protostar from
-1730 C to 107 0C. Hence, fusion reaction, where 4 Hydrogen
STAR nuclei fuse to form Helium and release tremendous amount of
energy in the form of heat and light. It makes the star shine.

Fusion reaction stops in the core when its Hydrogen gets ex-
hausted. Pressure of the core diminishes and core starts shri-
nking. Fusion takes place as some Hydrogen remains in the
envelope/outer shell. It makes the star unstable. The star Ex-
RED STAR pands and turns Red.
Sun will enter its Red giant phase in 5000 million years from
now. Its expanding outer shell at the time will engulf inner
planets i.e. Mercury Venus and Earth.

When mass of star < 1.44 times the mass of Sun (Chandra
Shekhar limit), it ends up as a white dwarf.
The Red Giant Star looses its outer envelop and core shrinks
DWARF into an extremely dense ball of matter due to gravitation. This
STAR leads to another set of fusion reaction where Helium fuses to
form carbon. The fuel gets completely exhausted and the core
shrinks under its own weight and becomes a white dwarf.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

When mass of star > 1.44 times that of Sun, there remains
enough Helium in the core for fusion reaction. The outer
envelope explodes causing Supernova Explosion.
When mass of the star is between 1.44 to 3 times that of Sun,
SUPERNOVA it becomes a Neutron Star
When mass of the star is bigger than 3 times that of Sun, it
becomes a Black hole.

THE SOLAR SYSTEM:

Sun is a ball of hot gases, Loop

mainly Hydrogen. THE SUN 6000o Prominence

Chromosphere Sun spots

Shining surface of the Spicules 1.5 Mo
Sun is called Photosphere. Radiative
Coronal
High
Zone 15 M o
Temp-
The outer layer of the Convection
Zone
erature
2 million
sun’s atmosphere is made Core Degress
up of thin hot gases is Photosphere
called Corona.
Coronal hole
Corona is visible only High speed
during full eclipse. Solar wind

GOLDILOCKS ZONE:

A habitable zone, also called a Goldilocks zone, is the region

around a star where orbiting planets similar to the Earth can
support liquid water. It is neither too hot, nor too cold.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

PLANETS
Planets are solid heavenly bodies which revolve round a star (e.g. the sun) in
closed elliptical paths. A planet is made of rock and metal. It has no light of its
own. A planet shines because it reﬂects the light of the sun. The planets move
round the sun from west to east, so the relative positions of the planets keep
changing day by day. There are 8 major planets including the earth.
.

The jovian planets

The terrestrial planets

Jupiter Saturn
Uranus Naptune Pluto
Mercury Venus Earth Mars

CASE OF PLUTO:

As per International Astronomical Unit, three given characteristics are required to

qualify as a planet:

1 The celestial body has to be in orbit of the Sun

2 It must have suﬃcient mass to assume hydrostatic equilibrium (i.e. a nearly

round shape), and

3 It must have ‘cleared the neighbourhood’ around its orbit i.e. it must become
the dominant gravitational body in their orbit. Pluto lacks the third charac-
teristic. That’s why it is not a planet anymore and has been categorized as
a Dwarf Planet.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 5

TWO GROUPS OF PLANETS: TERRESTRIAL VS JOVIAN
TERRESTRIAL PLANETS JOVIAN PLANETS
(EARTH LIKE) ( JUPITER LIKE)

Four innermost planets i.e. Mercury, Includes Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Ne-
Venus, Earth, and Mars ptune are known as the Jovian (Jupiter-
like) planets, because they are all gigantic
compared with Earth, and they have a
They have a compact, rocky surface like gaseous nature like Jupiter's -- mostly
Earth's terra firma. hydrogen, with some helium and trace
gases and ices.
None of the terrestrial planets have
rings, although Earth does have belts Also referred to as the "gas giants".
of trapped radiation.
All of them have significant planetary
Among the terrestrials, only Earth has magnetic fields, rings, and lots of satellites.
a substantial planetary magnetic field.
Mars and the Earth's moon have local- Jupiter is more massive than all the other
ized regional magnetic fields at differ- planets combined. It emits electromag-
ent places across their surfaces, but no netic energy from charged atomic part-
global field. icles spiraling through its strong magn-
etic field.
Of the terrestrial planets, Venus, Earth,
and Mars have significant atmospheres. Saturn, the farthest planet easily visible
to the unaided eye, is known for its ex-
tensive, complex system of rings. Its
Mercury lacks an atmosphere. Even moon Titan is the second largest moon
though most of its surface is very hot, after Ganymede (Jupiter’s moon).
there is strong evidence that water ice
exists in locations near its north and Among four Galilean satellites of Jupiter:
south poles which are kept permane- Lo is the most volcanically active body in the solar
ntly shaded by crater walls. system, due to heat resulting from tidal forces.
Europa is covered with an extremely smooth shell
of water ice. There is probably an ocean of liquid
Venus' atmosphere of carbon dioxide water below the shell.
is dense, hot, and permanently cloudy, Ganymede has mountains, valleys, craters, and
making the planet's surface invisible. cooled lava flows. Its ancient surface resembles
Earth's moon, and it is also suspected of having a
sub-surface ocean.
Mars' atmosphere, also carbon dioxide, Callisto, the outermost Galilean moon, is pocked
is much thinner than Earth’s. Mars has all over with impact craters, indicating that its
polar caps of carbon dioxide ice and surface has changed little since the early days of
water ice. its formation.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 6

Together, they have just 3 moons (1 Saturn, Uranus and Neptune all have rings
of Earth and 2 of Mars). made up of myriad particles of ice ranging
in size from dust and sand to boulders.

SATELLITES:
A satellite (or moon) is a solid heavenly body that revolves round a planet.
Except Mercury and Venus all other planets of solar system have satellites.
The satellites have no light of their own. They shine because they reﬂect the
light of the sun.
- Jupiter has the largest number of Moons. It also has the biggest moon of the
solar system, Ganymede.
- Saturn’s moon ‘Titan’ has its own atmosphere.

ABOUT EARTH’S MOON

It is a natural satellite of Earth. It revolves around the Earth in a
deﬁnite regular path.
Gravitational attraction of the earth holds the moon into its orbit.
It is about 1/4th size of the Earth in diameter and 1/8th in weight.
Moon does not have air or water. Its surface is covered with hard and
loose dirt, craters and mountains.
Days are extremely hot and nights are very cold on moon.

THEORIES OF FORMATION OF MOON:

1. DARWIN: 2. MATERIALFORMING 3. GIANT IMPACT OR THE BIG
Both earth and moon The moon was separ- SPLAT:
formed a single rapidly ated from what we have A body of the size of one to
rotating body. The whole at present the depress- three times that of Mars coll-
mass became dumb-bell ion occupied by Paciﬁc ided into the earth shortly
shaped and eventually ocean. after the earth was formed.
broke. It blasted a large part of
earth into the space. The
blasted portion started re-
volving around the earth
and eventually formed into
the present moon after 4.4
million years ago. Most
accepted theory.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 7

OTHER OBJECTS IN THE SKY:
ASTEROIDS
Asteroids are a belt of debris composed of rock and metals,
which somehow failed to assemble into a planet and keep
revolving between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter.
There are as many as 100,000 asteroids. The biggest aste-
roid called ‘Ceres’ has a diameter of about 800 km whereas
the smallest asteroid is of size of a pebble.
Asteroids can collide with earth. It is believed that the exti-
nction of dinosaur was due to such a collision. The Lonar
Lake in Maharashtra is a ﬁlled up crater formed after an as-
teroid collision.

COMETS They are celestial objects formed of ice and dust. They were
formed very early from the same gas clouds from which
other members of the solar system are formed.
They orbit the Sun. When their normal path gets disturbed,
they start moving towards the sun. As the comet approac-
hes Sun, the ice sublimates into gas and form along with
the entrained dust particle, a bright outﬂowing atmosphere
around the comet nucleus called Coma. The comet may also
form two tails, one of ionized molecules and radicals and
other of dust.
The tails of the comet always point away from the Sun. The
study of the tails of the comet has shown presence of Car-
bon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen and Oxygen in it.
Comets do not last forever. Whenever they come close to
sun, their gases get over and ultimately only dust particles
remain.

They are small celestial bodies (may include dust particles

METEORS of a comet, or a piece of broken asteroid) which enter into
the earth’s atmosphere and burns as a bright streak of light
due to heat produced by the friction of its impact with the
atmosphere.
They are also called shooting stars.
If a Meteor is big enough and does not gets burnt up comp-
letely, and lands on earth (like stones from sky), it is called
Meteorite.
It should be noted that the number of meteorites on moon’s
surface is much larger than that on earth because moon
does not have an atmosphere to burn the meteor.
Study of meteorites can reveal the nature of materials of
which the solar system is composed of.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

THE EARTH’S MOVEMENT:
The Earth, as the rest of the planets of 23o 5'
the Solar System, rotates on its and Is the angle
(rotation movement) and around the Sun between the Earth’s
(Orbit movement). These two movements are axis and the Sun. MARCH 21st
responsible for phenomena such as day and Spring equinox
night and the sequence of the seasons. in the Northern
hemisphere. Day
and nigh hours
ORBIT JUNE 21st are the same.
The Earth takes 365 days. Summer solstice
5 hours and 48 minutes to in the Northern
complete a burn around the hemisphere. It is
Sun. As the Sun Varies its the longest day
position relation as the Sun. of the year.
The seasons appear and thee LEAP YEARS
variation of the days and nights.
Every four years
February has 29
days instead of
SEPTEMBER 21st 28 they are the
Autumnal equinox in the leap years.
Northern Hemisphere. Day
and night have the same
amount of hours.

DECEMBER 21st JET LAG

Winter solstice in the Northern Long distance trips on an airplane cause
same well known disorders such as jet lag.
hemisphere. It is the shortest day
Since they alter the habitual schedules of
of the year.
the body.
24:00 GREENWICH
HOURS MERIDIAN
21:00 3:00

TIME ZONES
The Earth is divided in twenty four areas or time zones, each with a
diﬀerent time, with Greenwich Meridian as a central axis. As you areas a
18:00 N 6:00
meridian to the East, an hour is added, and when you cross it to the West,
an hour is substracted.

15:00 9:00

12:00
HOURS

ROTATION NORTHERN
Rotation is thee
HEMISPHERE
turn that the HEMISPHERES
earth does on The Earth is divided
ROTATION into two halves; the
its axis every day. AXIS northern hemisphere
It is the responsible EQUADOR
and southern hemis-
movement for the
phere. Equater is the
succession of days
imaginary line betw-
and nights, of the
een them. When it is
ﬂattening of the summer is the north,
poles, the marine south is winter and
currents and the vice versa.
diﬀerent time SOUTHERN
zones. HEMISPHERE

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

POSITION OF SUN OVERHEAD

VERNAL EQUINOX
Sun overhead at
Equator

SUMMER SOLSTICE WINTER SOLISTICE

Sun overhead at Sun overhead at
Tropic of cancer Tropic of Capricon

AUTUMNAL EQUINOX
Sun overhead at
Equator

ECLIPSE

SOLAR LUNER
ECLIPSE ECLIPSE

DAY NIGHT

NEW EARTH FULL

MOON MOON

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

ECLIPSE

EARTH’S
ORBIT

PENUMBRA
UMBRA

SUN MOON
TOTAL ECLIPSE EARTH
PARTIAL ECLIPSE
MOON’S
ORBIT

EARTH’S UMBRA
ORBIT

MOON

EARTH
SUN
MOON’S
ORBIT
PENUMBRA

FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

11
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
QUICK REVISION MODULE
(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ENVIRONMENT

UNCCD's Land Desertiﬁcation

deﬁnition Degrada- can be
of Land explained as:
includes:

It is land
long-term degradation in
Terrestrial bio-
reduction or loss arid, semi-arid and
productive system
of at least one of dry sub-humid
that comprises soil
the following areas

Can be caused by
Vegetation and biological climatic variation
other biota productivity or direct human
activities

the ecological and Extent of Land

ecological
hydrological Degradation:
integrity
processes According to FAO,
one-quarter of
world's land area
and more than
one-quarter of
also includes agricultural land
human value to are classiﬁed as
settlements and humans severely
infrastructure degraded.

Loss of
vegetation
cover leads to
loss of nutrition
Land-use & organic Water and Wind
changes and content erosion leads to
unsustainable loss of most
land fertile top layer
management of the soil

Acidiﬁcation, a Causes Salinity /

decline of soil Alkalinity is
or process aggravated by
pH. Caused by
excessive use of Land excessive
of synthetic Degradation irrigation in dry
climate
fertilizers, etc.

Forest heating: Waterlogging

is the process of in ﬂood prone
formation of ice areas,
beneath the soil. unplanned
It leads to soil drainage
degradation systems, etc.
Mass
movement may
remove fertile
and organic top
soil due to
gravity

1900 2000
Land use 46.5%
Crop and grazing lands;
sedimented, logged
change. and aﬀorested lands

According 6.9%
Urban and peri-urban
to land; transport, mining,
energy and water
27.2% infrastructure
Global Crop and grazing
lands; sedimented, 27.8%
18.7%
Land 70.1%
logged and
aﬀorested lands Natural and Mountains, deserts,
Natural and secondary secondary tundra, sloping lands
Outlook forests; mountains;
2.7%
forests and those unsuitable
for agriculture
deserts; tundra, sloping
lands and those Urban and
by UNCCD unsuitable for agriculture peri-urban land
46.5%

Impact of Land Degradation

Impacts on Response on/through Results in

Ecosystem Provisioning Ex.– conversion of Though it increases food availability, it results

services services forest into farmland in a reduction of both biodiversity and carbon
sinks.
Regulating Ex.– water regulation Flooding, drought
services services impact

Cultural EX.– recreation and Directly impacted

services tourism

Supporting Ex.–deforestation Degradation of natural habitat

services and expansion of
extensive agriculture

Climate Carbon sink Land degradation results in the escape of carbon

from carbon sinks.
Release of non-CO2 greenhouse Through increased rice cultivation, ruminant
gases stocks and manure disposal results in the higher
release of CH4, N20, and NH3 gases.

Albedo change Increased grazing, deforestation, and forest

ﬁres result in albedo change and thus impacting
the global radiative balance, as a result, it leads
to net climate cooling/warming.

Food security Agricultural productivity Annual productivity decline undermines

and poverty sustainable development, food, and water
security, and results in human migration and
even civil conﬂict. It aﬀects the weak and the
poor disproportionately.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) It has a direct negative and strong impact which
is diﬃcult to directly account for. The economic
cost in terms of loss of ecosystem goods and
services is estimated to be US$ 6.3 trillion a year
equivalent to 8.3% of global GDP in 2016.

Gender and It aﬀects the women and children Children missing schools, a higher dropout rate,
education disproportionately and results in reduced child care time, reduced time for other
increased timing requirements of work and for leisure activities. Women have to
food production, fuelwood collection. travel long distances to get water.

Human health Indirect impact Through climate change, biodiversity loss, loss
in agricultural productivity, etc.

Direct impact Can cause chronic bronchitis and respiratory

illness.

INDIA
Accounts for 2.4%
of world's total land
area and 18% of its 60% of the land is
total population. under cultivation,
with agriculture
contributing 14%
According to the
of its GDP.
State of India’s
Environment 2019, Land degradation is
30% of India’s total highly concentrated
geographical area is in some regions.
aﬀected by land 9 states accounting
degradation for 82% of
degradation.

Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 15 (Life on

Land), is of direct relevance to land degradation.
Ta r g e t 1 5 . 3 s p e c i ﬁ c a l l y a d d r e s s e s L a n d
Degradation Neutrality (LDN).

Methods of land reclamation and

conservation:

Under this the

Natural
quality of land
resource
remains stable
management
or increases

1. Sustainable Land 2. Land Support of

Management Degradation ecosystem
Soil and water (SLM) Neutrality (LDN) services
conservation
measures remains
stable

Degraded Within speciﬁed

landscape temporal and
management spatial scales.

SLM includes: Steps taken in India to achieve LDN:

Reforestation Comprehensive National Plan to Combat Desertiﬁcation

Agroforestry launched in 2001 for 20 years, talks about community-based
approach.
Te r r a c e c u l t i v a t i o n i n h i l l y a n d
mountainous areas Desertification and Land Degradation Atlas (2016) by
ISRO & others.
Sand dunes fixation prevents movement
Adopted Bonn Challenge to restore 13-million-hectare of
of sand
degraded land by 2020 & 8 million more by 2030.
Windbreaks, linear planting of trees and
Government of India in collaboration with Global
shrubs, to prevent erosion by wind.
environment facility launched Sustainable Land and
Firebreaks act as barrier in progress of Ecosystem Management (SLEM) programme.
wildfires National Green Mission
Zai technique Involves digging a pit in soil Integrated Watershed Management Programme
to catch water and concentrate compost. At UNCCD COP 14 (New Delhi) 2019, Delhi declaration was
adopted. Pledge to restore 26 million hectares till 2030 & to
set up a Centre of Excellence at Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun.

Focusing on micro-watershed
Adoption of watershed
Government' approach towards addressing land degradation

approach Using technologies such as remote

sensing and focus on spatial planning.

Govt. launched Integrated Watershed

Management Programme (IWMP)

Use of contouring, gully plugging, vegetative

as well as engineering-based solution
Integrated treatment
Fodder and Feed Development Scheme

Involves interrelated, integrating &

sustainable approach in farm management
Synergy between cropping, animal
Integrated farming husbandry, ﬁshery, forestry, etc.
based approach
Eg. National Aﬀorestation Programme,
National Mission for Green India.

Focus on water Aquifer recharge, water budgeting, crop

management planning, building check dams, etc.

Command Area Development and Water

Management (CADWM) programme

Focus on social Eg. Constitution of Watershed Committee

aspects under the Gram Sabha, Social Audit under
MGNREGA, joint forest management and
social fencing by involving local communities

Other aspects of the government's approach for addressing the problem of land
degradation includes 1. ) incorporation of livelihood-related activities (through the
development of micro-enterprises, SHGs, Mahila Kisan Sashaktikaran Yojana for
capacity building of women farmers, etc.)
2.) Adoption of climate-adaption related solution.
3.) Increasing role of Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRIs) and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs).

Schemes addressing desertiﬁcation:

Schemes Ministry Results in

Objectives

Drought Prone Areas Ministry of Rural To minimise the adverse effects of drought on the production
programme (DRAP) Development of crops, livestock, and productivity of land, water, and human
resources ultimately leading to drought proofing of the
affected areas.
Desert Development Ministry of Rural To minimise the adverse effect of drought and control
Programme (DDP) Development desertification through rejuvenation of natural resource base
of the identified desert areas.

National Watershed Ministry of To strengthen people’s participation in project planning,

Development Program Agriculture implementation, and monitoring by generating awareness on
for Rainfed Areas the programme measures of the schemes so as to transform
(NWDPRA) watershed management as people’s movement with tapering
departmental support.

Global policy responses to land

degradation:
During the Stockholm UN Conference on the Human United Nations Convention to Combat
Environment in 1972 first effort on tackling land degradation
Desertification (UNCCD)
was made.
It was established in 1994. UNCCD is the sole legally
In 1992 at the Rio Summit land degradation was recognised binding international agreement linking environment
as a major challenge to sustainable development. and development to sustainable land management. It is
one of the conventions adopted during the World Earth
Summit at Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest
Degradation (REDD+) Aims to encourage developing The convention focuses on arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-
countries to contribute to climate change mitigation efforts humid areas, known as the drylands.
by reducing greenhouse gas emissions. It focuses on The convention aims at achieving targets of sustainable
sustainable management of forests and enhancement of development goals and poverty reduction by means of
forest carbon stocks. arresting and diverting Land degradation.
The convention is particularly committed to a bottom-up
approach, by engaging people at the local level in
The Johannesburg World Summit on sustainable
combating desertification and land degradation.
development WSSD in 2002 designated the global
environment facility as the funding agency for the India became a signatory to UNCCD on October 14,
implementation of UNCCD. 1994, and ratified it on December 17, 1996.
Global land outlook is a publication of UNCCD.
The Land for Life Programme was launched at the UNCCD
Conference of the Parties (CoP) 10 to confront the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF)
challenges of land degradation and desertification.
It is a global partnership of governments, businesses,
The Born Challenge is a global effort to bring 150 million civil society, and indigenous people’s organizations.
hectares of the world's deforested and degraded land into Its focus on reducing emissions from deforestation and
restoration by 2020 and 350 million hectares by 2030. forest degradation, forest carbon stock conservation,
sustainable management of forests, and the
The UN General Assembly declared the UN Decade on enhancement of forest carbon stocks in developing
Ecosystem Restoration 2021-2030 (which is co-led by FAO countries, activities commonly referred to as REDD+
and UNEP), which is expected to shine an additional spotlight FCPF supports REDD+ efforts through two separate but
on land restoration and mobilise financial resources. complementary funds, the FCPF Readiness Fund and the
FCPF Carbon Fund.

Desertiﬁcation The Green Revolution, based on the use of ﬂood

and Drought irrigation and chemical fertilizers, has resulted in land
day is observed degradation and soil salinity. M S Swaminathan the
father of the Green Revolution in India calls for an
by United
“Evergreen Revolution”, which involves the integration
Nations and of ecological principles, and technological development
celebrated and dissemination, which can result in improvement in
each year productivity and at the same time can ensure ecological
on 17th June. sustainability and social well-being.

Water Degradation
Distribution of water on the Earth's surface:

Water covers 71% of the Earth’s

surface. Out of this only 2.5% is
f r e s h w a t e r. 6 8 . 6 % o f t h e
freshwater is locked up in ice and
glaciers and 30.1% is in the
ground. 1.3% of the freshwater is
in lakes, rivers, streams, and
clouds, etc.

Global circulation of water / Hydrological cycle:

Phase change of liquid water into vapour or

gas on heating is called evaporation 90% of
The vapour is this comes from evaporation from water
carried upward bodies and about 10% is from the process
by the rising air evaporation
of transpiration.
currents. Higher and evapotran-
up water vapour spiration
condenses to
form droplets. Transpiration is the process through which
When droplets plants lose large quantities of water
grow insuﬃcient through their leaves.
size it results in
surface
precipitation. precipitation Water also reaches atmosphere through
runoﬀ the process of sublimation, which is when
water changes from solid state directly
into vapour without going through liquid
state.

Precipitation over the

Some of the precipitation that falls on the surface
oceans is greater than the enters the ground and is stored as groundwater the
continents. rest moves as surface run-oﬀ into streams and rivers
and ultimately ﬂows into the oceans.

Decreased The water table is an underground boundary

Eﬀect of Decreased
water between the soil surface and the area where
water water
quantity groundwater saturates spaces between
degradation: quality sediments and cracks in rock. Water pressure
or ﬂow
and atmospheric pressure are equal at this
boundary.

STATUS OF WATER IN INDIA

As per Composite Dependency on India faces a paradoxical

India accounts for
Water groundwater
around 17% of world's situation of floods and
Management Index
popula droughts. Every year
(CWMI) report,
only 4% of world’s 2018 published by many areas get
freshwater resources NITI Aayog. summarized during the
monsoon and on the
60% irrigation other hand roads have
needs, 85% of rural become common
drinking water phenomenon in India.
needs and 50% of Fr o m 1 9 9 6 to 2 0 1 5
India’s a water urban needs are nearly 19,000,00 7.5
India is undergoing
stressed country met by
the worst water million people annually
and according to groundwater.
crisis in its history were simultaneously
estimates, the
and nearly 600 affected by floods and
demand will exceed million people are droughts, respectively.
supply by a factor of facing high to
two by 2030. extreme water
stress. India uses the
largest amount of
groundwater and is
also the third “Day zero situation,”
largest exporter of is when a city's tap
According to census
21 major cities will groundwater. dries out and people
estimates (1951-
reach zero have to stand in long
2011), Per-capita
groundwater levels l i n e s f o r w a t e r.
water availability
by 2020 Example – “Day Zero”
has reduced by
situation in Cape
about 70% in 60
India exports Town in South Africa.
years.
groundwater
through virtual
water trade through
70% of India's agricultural exports.
surface water is Example it
About 82% of rural contaminated exported more than
households in India 10 trillion liters
do not have through Basmati rice
individual piped export in 2014-15
water supply & 63 alone.
million live without
access to clean
water in their
vicinity.
MSPs on water intensive crop and subsidies in electricity
consumption has resulted in unsustainable exploitation
of groundwater resources by agricultural sector.

Implications of water degradation

It will result in social unrest and political instability
Social and political risks and in some cases can even lead to civil &
international conﬂict.

Risk to food security Groundwater accounts for 62% of water

used in irrigation. The rapid depletion of
groundwater has created a risk to food
Risk to water security in urban areas
security because of heavy dependence of
agriculture on groundwater resources.

Urban population is expected to reach 600 million

Economic risks by 2030. Only 35% of urban households have piped
water supply.

It has resulted in threat to livelihoods of millions, the commodity prices

have increased.
Industrial water requirement is estimated to quadruple between 2005
and 2030.
It is expected to aﬀect textiles, paper, and beverages sector
disproportionately. 39% of the portfolio of Indian banks is exposed to
sectors that face a high level of operational water risk.

70% of India’s thermal power plant are

expected to face high water stress by
Risk of energy shortages 2030. Thermal power constitutes more
than 80% of total utility power
generation and 90% of them rely on fresh
water sources for cooling. This may result
into power shortages.

Water degradation results in direct

Environmental Risks destruction of biodiversity. Building
dams and linking rivers have direct
impact on environment and biodiversity.

Risk of desertiﬁcation

Extensive groundwater extraction contributes to loss of vegetation

cover which eventually leads to desertification.
Water erosion due to surface run-off is responsible for around 11% of
desertification in India making it the biggest cause.
Land degradation further cost around 2% of India’s GDP.

Methods of water conservation:

Surface Methods of rainwater harvesting

water
storage In urban areas In rural areas
Recycle Rain
water water Roof top rainwater/run- Rainwater harvesting
harvesting oﬀ harvesting through through

Recharge pit Gully plug

Recharge trench Contour bund
Conservation Tube well Gabion structure
Change Ground
Techniques water Recharge well Percolation tank
in
Agriculture recharge Check Dam/Cement plug
Recharge shaft
Subsurface dyke
Interbasin Catchment
transfer Area
of water Protection

Catchment Area Protection and

Watershed Management

Catchment area protection includes actions,

Catchment Area procedures or installations undertaken to prevent PM Krishi Sinchai Yojana and World
Protection (CAP) or reduce harm to environmental integrity of Bank assisted Neeranchal Watershed
drainage areas used to catch water, such as Program are designed for CAP
reservoirs or basins.

Is a process of implementing land use practices and It involves management of those land
Watershed water management practices to protect and and water resources in a comprehensive
Management improve the quality of water and other natural manner
resources within watershed.

Traditional water conservation systems in various states

Water conservation
system State and region Type

Jhalaras Jodhpur (Rajasthan) Stepwell

Talab Bandhi Bundelkhand (UP), Udaipur (Rajasthan) Lake

Bawaris Rajasthan Stepwell

Taanka Thar desert region of Rajasthan Cylindrical paved underground pit

Ahars are reservoirs with embarkments on three

Ahar Pynes South Bihar sides that are built at the end of diversion channels
like pynes. Pynes are artiﬁcial rivulets.

Johad Rajasthan, they are called Madaks in Small earthen check dams
Karnataka and Pemghara in Odisha

Panam Keni Wayanad (Kerala) Special type of well

Khadins Jaisalmer (Rajasthan) Embarkments

Kund Western Rajasthan and Gujarat Saucer-shaped catchment area

Baoli Rajasthan, Delhi, Gujarat Stepwell

Bhandara Phad Maharashtra Check dam

Buldhana Pattern Buldhana district, Maharashtra Storage type

Tamswada pattern Nagpur and Wardha, Maharashtra Storage type

Zings Ladakh Small tanks

Kuhls Himachal Pradesh Channels

Zabo Nagaland Channels

Jackwells Shompen tribe of the Great Nicobar Islands Wells

The Ramtek model Maharashtra Tanks

The Pat system Jhabua district of Madhya Pradesh Channels

The Eri system Tamil Nadu Tanks

India’s Policy Framework In international policy frameworks such as

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG), Paris
Agreement & Sendai Framework have
convergence on water conservation and its
responsible use to ensure sustainable
1.) Creation of a new Ministry of Jal Shakti
development, ensuring livelihood security
for poor and the weak and reduced risks from
This step aims at dealing with all matters disasters.
relating to water in one place in an
integrated manner to enable better
decision making for surface water
projects and allocation.
It aims at improving efficiency in agriculture
using techniques such as micro-irrigation. It is a
2.) Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) co m p r e h e n s i ve s c h e m e a n d d e a l s w i t h
watershed development, afforestation, soil and
moisture conservation, rainwater harvesting,
horticulture, pasture development, etc.
3.) Composite Water Management Index
(CWMI) is published by NITI Aayog to encourage
cooperative and competitive federalism in
water conservation and its management.
The policy advocates rainwater harvesting and
conservation of water. It also focuses on
conservation of river & other water bodies and
4.) National Water Policy 2012 lays emphasis on scientific infrastructure
development.

It recommends rainwater harvesting for all types

5.) Model Building Byelaws, 2016 of building with plot size 100-meter square or
more.

This scheme emphasizes on Recharge of

6.) Atal Bhujal Yojana 2019 groundwater in seven states. The initiative is in
collaboration with the World Bank.

The guidelines aim to ensure robust

groundwater regulation mechanism in the
7.) Guidelines for groundwater extraction 2019
country through the system of NOC (no objection
certiﬁcate)

Introduced the concept of water

CENTRAL GROUND WATER AUTHORITY conservation fees (WCF), recycling
and treating polluted water and
For industry
Central Ground Water Authority has been provides for installing digital ﬂow
constituted under Section 3 (3) of the meters. It makes roof top
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 to rainwater harvesting mandatory.
regulate and control development and
management of groundwater resources in Req u e s t f o r N O C s h a l l b e
the country. considered only when water
For drinking
supply department or agency is
Powers & Functions: and domestic use
unable to supply adequate
amount of water in the area.
The Authority has been conferred with the
following powers: Flexibility to States may suggest additional
(i) Exercise of powers under section 5 of the states conditions.
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 for
issuing directions and taking such measures
in respect of all the matters referred to in Monthly water level data should
sub-section (2) of section 3 of the said Act. be submitted to Central ground
Monitoring
water authority through web
(ii) To resort to penal provisions contained in portal.
sections 15 to 21 of the said Act.
(ii) To regulate and control, management and
development of ground water in the country Agr i c u l t u r a l u s e r s , u s e r s
and to issue necessary regulatory directions employing non—energized
for the purpose. m e a n s to e x t ra c t wa te r,
Exempted from
individual households, and armed
(iv) Exercise of powers under section 4 of the requirement of
forces establishment during
Environment (Protection) Act,1986 for the NOC
operational deployment or
appointment of oﬃcers.
during mobilization in forward
locations.

Water policy timeline in India

2000 2012 2014 2015

Right to National water DDUGJY PMKSY

water policy revamped launched launched
Supreme court Govt. allocates Govt. begins separating Govt. expands efforts
recognizes 'right funds to prepare electricity feeders for to make irrigation more
to water' as a detailed project agriculture, reducing efficient, with a focus
part of right to life reports incentives for excess irrigation on microirrigation

2019 2018 2017

Ministry of Jal Shakti India-Israel water Model Groundwater

established partnership formalized Bill framed
Govt. publishes initial bill Several functions Govt. signs MOU to leverage
asserting state control over consolidated under central Israel's expertise for a National
groundwater extraction Ministry of Water Resources Campaign for water
Conservation in India

Successful Models of
Decentralized Water Management
A multistakeholder Use technology and
Mukhya mantri programme which
Adopts a
jal swavlambhan participatory water focus on creation of
Rajasthan aims to make villages water conservation
management
abhiyan (mjsa) self suﬃcient
approach structure
in water

Aims at drought- Focus on improving The programme

Neeru-chettu prooﬁng the state and irrigation and focus on use of
Andhra
providing water in scientiﬁc technology
Programme Pradesh reduce
and repair and
economic inequalities drought prone areas
renovation.

Aims to make The approach of this The program also

Jalyukt shivar Maharashtra programme focuses harnesses
Maharashtra drought-free with focus on deepening and technologies such as
abhiyan on 5000 water scarce Widening of streams geo-tagging of
villages and construction of water resources.
check dams.

Aims to restore over The programme focus on development of

Mission 46,000 tanks across the minor irrigation structures, promoting
Telangana state and bring over 20
Kakatiya community based irrigation management,
lakh acres land under and restoration of tanks
cultivation

2VBSU[

1ZSPYFOF
Fig: Rock cycle.
2024
S
According to Energy Outlook Report-2021, energy consumption in India has more than

A
doubled since 2000.

I
Distribution of primary energy
consumption worldwide in 2022
despite

N
around 6%

capita energy consumption

O
third of the global average.

I
In Dec 2023, India’s total energy generation capacity is
428 GW. In this total capacity share of non-fossil fuel
stands at 44.6%.

I S
V This

Nuclear (7.48GW)
1.2% Fossil fuel (237GW) 56.8%
49.27%
1.6%
Renewable (without 5.94%
large hydro) (134GW) 0.14%
31.75%
According to Invest India, India is 3rd
Large Hydro largest energy producer country. Also,
(46.9GW) India ranked 4th globally in renewable
11.12% energy installed capacity.

173.6GW 42%

42.8 GW (10.3%)

67.08 GW (16.1%) Updated Nationally Determined India’s Climate commitments at COP26

Contribution (NDC) Summit at Glasgow (Panchmitra)
BM Power/Cogen: 10.24 GW o Achieving about 50% cumulative electric o Reach 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy
(2.5%) power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030.
sources by 2030. o Meet 50% of its energy requirements from
Waste to Energy: 0.55GW o Reducing the emissions intensity of its GDP by renewable sources by 2030.
45% by 2030 from the 2005 level. o Reduce projected carbon emissions by 1 billion
(0.1%) tonnes by 2030.
o Creating an additional carbon sink of 2.5 to o Reduce carbon intensity of the economy by
Small hydropower: 4.9GW 3 billion tonnes of CO2 equivalent through 45% by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels).
(1.2%) additional forest and tree cover o Achieve net-zero emissions by 2070.

India 4th largest Solar energy producer globally

Solar Thermal Power systems

Solar Photovoltaic

directly convert

Dhursar concentrating solar power (CSP)

AHMEDABAD | BENGALURU | BHOPAL | CHANDIGARH | DELHI | GUWAHATI | HYDERABAD | JAIPUR | JODHPUR | LUCKNOW | PRAYAGRAJ | PUNE | RANCHI 2 13
New Initiatives
India's manufacturing policy recognizes solar manufacturing as an industry of strategic importance.
Solar Park scheme for setting up 50 solar parks and Ultra Mega Solar Power Projects.
VGF scheme for setting up 5000 MW of grid connected projects, also has separate component (1000MW) for N-E states.
Solar Rooftop Scheme to create 40,000 MW capacity by 2022.
Development of Solar city Programme to develop 60 cities/towns. With at least one city to a maximum of five in one state.
A 25% capital subsidy for solar manufacturing units is available under the Modified Special Incentive Package Scheme (M-SIPS).
PRADHAN MANTRI SURYODAYA YOJANA aims to promote rooftop solar installations in homes across the country.
Suryamitra (Solar PV technician) Programme to create a work force to meet the demand of solar energy sector.
Production Linked incentive (PLI) to incentivise manufacturing of domestic solar cell modules.

headquartered at Gurugram, Haryana.

five key programmes of action:

Green Grids Initiative — One Sun, One World, One Grid

Aims to connect different regional grids through a common grid that will be used to transfer RE power and, thus, realize
potential of RE sources, especially solar energy.
Led by India and UK in collaboration with International Solar Alliance (ISA) and World Bank Group.
Divided into 3 phases:
o Phase 1: Indian Grid interconnection with Middle East, South Asia and South East Asian grids.
o Phase 2: Would connect the functional first phase to the pool of renewable resources in Africa.
o Phase 3: Final step of global interconnection.

intergovernmental organization,

fourth highest

India is a member
Tamil Nadu has the highest wind energy potential

N
The estimated potential of tidal and wave power in India is 12,455
Megawatts (MW) and 41,300 MW, respectively.

I O
I S
V
5. Current installed capacity of Large Hydro- 46.8GW
4.94GW

Share in total energy generation- 10.2GW (2.5%).

AS
N I
O
Global Biofuel alliance (GBA):
• India launched the GBA at the G20 summit.
• Aim: To serve as a catalytic platform, fostering global collaboration for the advancement and widespread adoption of biofuels.

I
• GBA Members:
7 G20 countries: Argentina, Brazil, Canada, India Italy, South Africa, USA.
4 G20 invitee countries: Bangladesh, Singapore, Mauritius, UAE.
8 non-G20 countries: Iceland, Kenya, Guyana, Paraguay, Seychelles, Sri Lanka, Uganda, Finland.

S
12 International organizations: World Bank, ADB, WEF, World LPG Organization, UN Energy for All, UNIDO, Biofutures Platform,
ICAO, IEA, International Energy Forum, IRENA, World Biogas Association.

V I
Geothermal energy is the heat that comes from the sub-surface of the earth.

Geological Survey of India identified more than 350 hot spring

sites,
estimated potential 10000 MW.

seven geothermal provinces

The Puga valley in the Ladakh region

S
1. NATIONAL GREEN HYDROGEN MISSION (NGHM)

NATIONAL GREEN HYDROGEN MISSION (NGHM)

Aim: To make India a Global Hub for producing, utilizing, and exporting GH.
Expected Mission Outcomes by 2030

A
GH production capacity of at least 5 MMT per annum.
Renewable energy capacity addition of about 125 GW in country.

I
Abatement of nearly 50 MMT of annual greenhouse gas emissions.
Over ₹1 lakh crore cumulative reduction in fossil fuel imports.
Mission Sub Components
Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition Programme (SIGHT) for financial incentive, implemented by Solar
Energy Corporation of India, under two components namely

N
Component I - Targeting domestic manufacturing of electrolysers
Component II - Production of Green Hydrogen
Strategic Hydrogen Innovation Partnership (SHIP) PPP framework for R&D.

2. Hydrogen for Heritage scheme: Indian Railways (IR) has envisaged to Run 35 Hydrogen trains and Retro fitment of Hydrogen

O
Fuel cell on existing Diesel Electric Multiple Unit (DEMU).
3. Incentive Scheme for Production of Green Ammonia and Green Hydrogen: To maximize the production, enhance cost-

I
competitiveness and encourage large scale utilization of Green Ammonia and Green hydrogen.
4. India inaugurated India's 1st Green Hydrogen Plant in Stainless Steel Sector located at Jindal Stainless Limited, Hisar.

I S
V
Star-labelling program of BEE

It is mandatory for all RACs along with LED

lamps, Colour TV, Electric Geysers, etc.

ENERGY CONSERVATION (AMENDMENT) ACT, 2022

Empowers central government to specify a carbon credit trading scheme.
Government empowered to set requirements for designated consumers to meet a minimum share of energy
consumption from non-fossil sources like green hydrogen, green ammonia, etc.
Failure to meet obligation will be punishable with a penalty.
‘Energy Conservation and Sustainable Building Code’ to replace Energy Conservation Code for buildings.
Also applicable to the office and residential buildings meeting certain criteria.
Expands the scope of energy consumption standards vehicles and vessels.
State Electricity Regulatory Commissions (SERCs) empowered to make regulations for discharging their functions.
State Governments required to constitute energy conservation funds
Increases and diversifies number of members and secretaries in governing council of BEE.

I S
2.

3. Draft Energy Conservation and Sustainable Building Code’ for residential and Commercial buildings
published by BEE.

V
4. LEED rating System
About LEED rating system
A globally recognized certification system.
Provides a framework for healthy, efficient, carbon and cost-saving green buildings.
Developed by: U.S. Green Building Council and administered by Green Business Certification Inc.
Achieves and recognizes building at 4 certification level: Certified, Silver, Gold, Platinum.
LEED India Programme administered by: Indian Green Building Council (IGBC).

N
The OPEC Plus arrangement has recently decided to cut the crude oil

O
production during 2020 and 2022. The cut was extended till mid-2024.
This particularly brings out India's vulnerability to the volatile international
crude oil prices as OPEC makes up about 83% of the country's total

I
crude oil imports.

S
India has also set the

I
national target of
achieving 30% EV sales
penetration by 2030
and launched National
Mission on

V
Transformative Mobility
and Battery Storage to
promote localization of
EV component
manufacturing.

Geological Survey of India discovered 5.9 million tonnes

of inferred Lithium resources in the Salal-Haimana
area of Jammu & Kashmir's Reasi District.

S
promote
Electric Vehicles
+ PLI Scheme
+ GST
reduced

A
18%-95%

N I
I O
(FAME India)

I S
V
Other Initiative to enhance EVs Adoption
Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Hybrid and Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme: This flagship scheme offers
subsidies for both manufacturers and buyers of EVs. The current phase, FAME-II, provides subsidies based on battery size
and vehicle category.
Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: This scheme incentivizes local manufacturing of electric vehicles and key
components like Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) batteries.
Reduced GST Rates: The government has reduced the Goods and Services Tax (GST) on EVs from 18% to 5% to make them
more price competitive with conventional vehicles.

CONTINENTAL DRIFT
AND PLATE TECTONICS
CONTINENTAL
DRIFT AND PLATE
TECTONICS

SUPERCONTINENT
A supercontinent is the assembly of most or all the Earth’s continental blocks
to form a single large landmass. A supercontinent cycle is the breakup of one
supercontinent and the development of another. Pangaea, last supercontinent.

Pangaea
The Asia
Supercontinent North
Panthalassa America
250 Million
Ocean Asia
Years Ago
North Europe Europe
Tethys Sea
America Panthalassa
Equator Ocean
Equator Africa &
Africa &
South Arabia
Arabia
America
South
America India
India
Panthalasa
Ocean Australia
Antarctica Australia
Antarctica

CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY (ALFRED WEGNER

IN 1912)
All the continents formed a single continental mass (Pangaea), a mega ocean
(Panthalassa) surrounded by the same. Around 200 million years ago, the
Pangaea began to split. The initial two blocks – Gondwanaland and Laurasia –
started drifting away and in between a shallow sea emerged by ﬁlling up the
water from Panthalasa. It was known as Tethys Sea.

1
EVIDENCE

Evidences
Evidences

Rock of same Placer deposits Distribution of

age acros fossils
oceans

Tillite deposits Jigsaw fit

Jig-Saw ﬁt - The shorelines of Africa and South America facing each other have
a remarkable and unmistakable match.

Rock of same age across ocean - The belt of ancient rocks of 2,000 million years
from Brazil coast matches with those from western Africa.

Placer deposit - The occurrence of rich placer deposits of gold in the Ghana coast
and the gold bearing veins are in Brazil.

Tillite - Tillite indicating extensive and prolonged glaciation.

Distribution of fossils - The observations that Lemurs occur in India, Madagascar

and Africa led some to consider a contiguous landmass “Lemuria” linking these
three landmasses.

FORCES FOR DRIFTING –

The polar-ﬂeeing force relates to the rotation of the earth. This was, according to
Wegener, the cause for movement of continents towards equatorward.

Tidal force – due to the attraction of the Moon and the Sun was the main reason
given by Wegener for the westward movement of the Americas.

2
CONVECTION CURRENT THEORY
Ridge

Arthur Holmes put forward his PULL

” Lithosphere
B
Trench “SLA
theory of convection current in Trench

1928-29. Cause of the origin of these Ast

hen
osp
currents is the presence of Mantle her
e
radioactive elements which causes 700km

thermal diﬀerences in the mantle Outer Core

portion. Inner
Core

SEA FLOOR SPREADING THEORY –

ByThe
Harry Hess
ocean in 1961
crust rocks are much
younger than the continental rocks.

The sediments on the ocean ﬂoor

are unexpectedly very thin.
Convergent Mid-ocean ridge
boundary (divergent boundary)
Volcanoes Trench Trench

Continent

Mid-oceanic ridge was not found transform fault

only in Atlantic Ocean, but ridges Subducting

plate

were present in all the oceans. Convection Currents in mantle

The rocks equidistant on either

sides of the crest of mid-oceanic Lithosphere
Rising magma
ridges show remarkable similarities x-x-x- Earthquake
in terms of period of formation,
chemical compositions and
magnetic properties

PLATE TECTONICS –
Term plate was first used by Tuzo Wilson. Hypothesis of plate tectonics was first
outlined by W.J. Morgan in 1967.
There is spreading of sea floor and new oceanic crust is being continually
created at the active mid-oceanic ridges and destroyed at trenches.

3
The amount of crust consumed almost equals the amount of new crust created.

MAJOR AND MINOR PLATES –

90o 180o 0o

EURASIAN PLATE NORTH AMERICA

PLATE
Mid-Atiantic
Ridge
JUAN DE FUCA EURASIAN PLATE
Aleutian
PLATE
Trench
San Andreas Fault

AR PLA
PH LAT

AB TE
East Pacific CA
RI

IA
ILI E

PL BBE
P

Rise

N
AT AN
PP

COCOS E AFRICAN PLATE

INE

PACIFIC PLATE PLATE

CAROLINE
0o 0o
PLATE
Java Trench SOUTH AMERICA
INDO - AUSTRALIAN NAZCA PLATE
PLATE PLATE

SCOTIA
60o PLATE Divergent Boundary
0 2000 6000 Km
Convergent Boundary
ANTARCTIC PLATE Transform Boundary
90o 180o 0o

TYPES OF BOUNDARIES –
Type of Margin Divergent Convergent Transform

Motion Spreading Subduction lateral Sliding

Constructive Destructive (oceanic lithosphere Conservative (lithosphere

Eﬀect
(oceanic lithosphere created) destroyed) neither created or destroyed)

Topography Ridge/Rift Trench No major eﬀect

Volcanic activity? Yes Yes No

Volcanoes
Ridge (voicanic arc) Trench
Earthquakes within crust

*
*
*
Lithosphere
*
Asthenosphere *
*
Earthquakes

4
TYPES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES –
Oceanic-Oceanic convergence
Cooler, denser oceanic lithosphere

c
ch
sinks beneath the warmer, less

ar
en

nd
Tr

la
denseoceanic lithosphere. Oceanic crust

Is
Continental

water reduces the melting point of Lithosphere

crust

rocks in the asthenosphere and Lithosphere

causes partial melting Asthenosphere

Formation of volcanic Arcs.

Oceanic-Continent convergence

Volcanice
Dense oceanic lithosphere subducts

arc
Tr
beneath the less dense continental Oceanic crust
lithosphere. Continental crust

Volcanic arcs form on continental Lithosphere

Lithosphere

lithosphere.
Accretionary wedge forms on the Asthenosphere

continental crust

Continent-Continent convergence
Both of them have a density that
e

au
ng
ra

Plate
tain
is much lower than the mantle, Mo
una
High
which prevents subduction Continental crust Continental crust
The intense compression can also
cause extensive folding and Lithosphere Lithosphere

faulting of rocks within the two Ancient oceanic crust Ancient oceanic crust
colliding plates

Exogenic forces – external forces caused by events occurring outside the earth
Endogenic forces – internal forces caused by events occurring inside the earth.

5
FORCES WHICH AFFECT THE EARTH’S CRUST

Endogenetic Forces
Exogenetic Forces

Diastrophic Forces Sudden Forces

Epeirogenetic Orogenetic Volcanic Eruption Earthquakes

Forces Forces

Tensional Forces Compressional Forces

Faulting
Warping Folding

Diastrophic forces - Diastrophism refers to deformation of the Earth’s crust.

Diastrophic movements are gradual and might stretch for thousands of years.

Epeirogenic or continent forming movements are radial movements . They can

cause upliftment or subsidence of continents.

Orogenic or the mountain-forming movements act tangentially to the earth

surface. Folds are a result of ductile deformation of rocks in response to external
forces. Faulting is a process under which rocks are forcefully broken with
accompanying displacement.

DENUDATIONAL PROCESSES

PROCESS Mass Movements Erosion/

Weathering
Transportation

Gravitational/
DRIVING/
FORCE/ Molecular Stresses/ Gravitational Kinetic Energy
ENERGY and/or Chemical Force
Actions

6
Weathering – mechanical disintegration or chemical decomposition
of rocks in situ by diﬀerent geomorphic agents.

Chemical Hydration - process by which certain types of mineral

Weathering expand as they take up water and expand, causing
additional stresses in the rock due to increase in the
volume of mineral itself.
Oxidation and reduction - oxidation is the addition of
oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides while reduction
is the reverse of oxidation.
Solution - few minerals such as rock salt are signiﬁcant
y soluble in water. Such rock-forming minerals are
easily leached out without leaving any residue in rainy
climates and accumulate in dry regions.
Carbonation - many minerals are soluble in rainwater,
which contains carbon dioxide and acts as a weak
carbonic acid.

Physical Expansion by unloading – pressure release (unloading)

Weathering mechanism causes disintegration of rock. Process is
termed as exfoliation.
Thermal expansion of rock – is the cause of rock
cracking and disintegration.
Salt weathering – On drying and crystallization the salts
expand and set up a disruptive eﬀect.
Frost action and crystal growth – When water ﬁlls the
pores, cracks and crevices in rocks and then freezes, it
expands and exerts a bursting pressure.

Biological Burrowing and wedging by organisms.

Weathering Decaying plant and animal matter help in the
production of humic, carbonic and other acids.
Tree roots can occasionally be shown to have forced
apart adjacent blocks of rock.

7
Mass movement - Mass movement or mass wasting is the term used for the
movement of material down a slope under the inﬂuence of gravity.

Factors favouring mass movement are: (i) weathering; (ii) rock composition;
(iii) texture and structure of material; (iv) slope gradient; (v) extent of
lubrication.

TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT –

Slow movements –
Creep - slow downhill movement of debris and soil on moderate slope.
Solifluction- slow downslope flowing soil mass or fine grained rock debris
saturated or lubricated with water.
Rapid movement –
Earthflow – movement of water-saturated clayey or silty earth materials
down hillsides.
Mudflow – thick layers of weathered materials get saturated with water
and either slowly or rapidly flows down along definite channels.
Looks like a stream of mud.
Avalanche – Can be much faster than Mudflow

Landslides - Landslides occur when gravitational and other types of shear

stresses within a slope exceed the shear strength (resistance to shearing)
of the materials that form the slope.

EROSION AND DEPOSITION –

Erosion is a term referring to those processes of Denudation which wear away
the land surface by the mechanical action of the debris which is being acquired
and transported by various agents of erosion. Deposition is a consequence of
erosion. The erosional agents loose their velocity and hence energy on gentler
slopes and the materials carried by them start to settle themselves.

8
2024

Gases vs. particles: Size of particulation : Types of PM:

The MAIA 10 PM
investigation
2.5

Low Birth Weight (LBW)

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)

,
SO2 , , , ,

, ,
;
,

AQI

Notified by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB).

NAAQA standards serve as guidelines for

monitoring and controlling air pollution.

NO2 SO2 (CH4)

(SO2)

SO2

CO2

States\UTs

785

Red tides: Excess nitrogen

causes explosive growth of
toxic microscopic algae,
poisoning fish and marine
mammals.

Toxic sediments: Chemicals

and toxic metals contaminate
shell- fish beds, kill spawning
fish, and accumulate in the
tissues of bottom feeders. Oxygen-depleted zone:
Healthy zone : Clear,
Sedim-entation and algae
oxygen-rich waters promote
overgrowth reduce sunlight, kill
growth of plankton and sea
beneficial sea grasses, use up
grasses, and support fish.
oxygen, and degrade habitat.

(HABs)

Consequences of HABs

Bioaccumulation and
Bio-Magnification.

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Amendment Act, 2024 decriminalises several violations, and instead
imposes penalties between ₹10,000 and ₹15 lakh and also specifies that the central government, in consultation with the
CPCB, may exempt certain categories of industrial plants from obtaining consent for establishing industries.

MARPOL

,
,
,
, ,

“2.24 billion tons of municipal solid waste annually, of which only 55 per cent is managed
in controlled facilities”

350

764

third

Unlike water and air pollution, there is no specific legislation in India that regulates land pollution. In general, land pollution is dealt under
Environmen- tal Protection Act, 1986 which defines hazardous substances and confers the powers of making rules related to them upon the
Central government. Acting on such powers, the Central government has brought Solid Waste Management Rules 2016, Hazardous and Other
Wastes (Management& Transboundary Movement) Rules 2016, Plastic Waste Management Amendment Rules 2018, E-Waste (Management) Rules
2022 and Bio-Medical Waste Management Rules, 2018.

,
,
,
, ,

,
,
,
, ,

Stockholm declaration (1972)

Convention on long-range transboun-
Dary air pollution (AIR Convention), 1979

Framework convention on climate

Change (UNFCCC) 1992

,
,
,
, ,

Segregation

Prohibited the manufacture, import, stocking, distribution, sale and use of single-use plastics.

The thickness of plastic carry bags increased from 50 to 75 microns from 30th September 2021 and to 120 microns with effect
from 31st December 2022.

Single use plastic (SUP) defined as a plastic item intended to be used once for the same purpose before being disposed of or
recycled.

Thickness of plastic carry bags increased from 50 microns to 75 microns with effect from 30th September 2021 and to 120 microns
with effect from the 31st December, 2022.

Complete ban on use of sachets using plastic material for storing, packing or selling gutkha, tobacco and pan masala.

Extended Producer Responsibility guidelines made applicable to plastic producers.

Plastic Waste Management (Amendment) Rules, 2022: Introduced the Guidelines on Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)
for plastic packaging and stipulated mandatory targets on EPR, recycling and reuse of plastic packaging.

Addition: India produces 3.4 million tonnes of plastic

waste per year.

across

Retailers offer products

that can be easily reused
and refurbished, provide
end-of-life take-back or
maintenance and repair
services, and support
producers in raising
There are many ways awareness to consumers.
consumers can contribute to
a circular economy, such as
making greener buying
choices, sharing assets
(E.g.: cars, tools, etc.),
repurposing them, or
offering them for
refurbishment.

AHMEDABAD | BENGALURU | BHOPAL | CHANDIGARH | DELHI | GUWAHATI | HYDERABAD | JAIPUR | JODHPUR | LUCKNOW | PRAYAGRAJ | PUNE | RANCHI 07/11
E waste management Rules, 2022
Compulsory Registration of manufacturer, producer, refurbisher, or recycler of the e-products with Central Pollution Control Board
(CPCB).
Introduction of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) Certificates to incentivize registered electronic waste recyclers by introducing
(not part of 2016 Rules).
CPCB to conduct random sampling of electrical and electronic equipment placed on the market to monitor and verify the
compliance of reduction of hazardous substances provisions.
Imposition and collection of environmental compensation on the producer in case of nonfulfillment of obligations as per CPCB
guidelines.

MOUNTAIN BUILDING, ISLAND

FORMATIONS AND HOTSPOTS
MOUNTAIN TYPES

On the basis of Time Period

1. Pre-Cambrian : 4.6b years ago. E.g. Laurentian Mountain

2. Caledonian : 320mya. Mountains of Scotland, Satpura, Aravallis,
MahadeoHills
3. Hercynian : 240mya. Urals, Pennines, Appalachians
4. Alpine : 30mya. Young fold mountains such as Alps, Himalayas, Andes,
Rockies .

On the basis of formation

1. Circum-erosional or Relict Mountains : Mountains of denudation. Examples,
Vindhyachal ranges, Aravallis, Satpura, Eastern Ghats, Western Ghats etc.
2. Tectonic Mountains :
Fold Mountains
A. Young Fold: Himalayas, Rockies
B. Old Fold: Appalachian, Urals
Block/Horst Mountains
Form Rift Valleys. Sierra Nevada, Satpura, Vindhyas
Volcanic Mountains or Mountains of accumulation
Vesuvius, Kilimanjaro, Fuji
Dome Mountains
Magmatic intrusion and Upwarping.
Example: Batholithic domes, Salt domes

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

Fold Mountains

Anticline
Compression
Syncline

Shortened crust

Fig.1 Earth’s crush before folding Fig.2 Earth’s crush aftore folding

anticline asymmetric fold

simple fold recumbent fold
overfold nappe
syncline

thrustplane (fault line)

Fig.3 Type of Folding

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

2
Block Mountains

Fault

Fault
Rock
strata

Tension
Block MT (HORST)
Block Subsided Block Subsided

Fig. 4 Block mountains formed by tensional forces

Fault

Rock
strata

Compression
Bloc
Rises k Ri
Block ses

Rift Valley

Fig. 5 Rift valleyformed by compressive forces

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

3
Fold Mountains

Bending of Earth’s crust

Youngest and Highest mountains
Formed of sedimentary rocks, which were deposited in shallow seas
Length is much more than their width
Arc shaped mountains (Concave on one side, convex on other)
Found along margins of continents facing ocean
Mostly located in two directions i.e. North - South (Rockies and Andes) and
West-East (Himalayas and Alps)

Block Mountains

Tension or compression leads to Faulting

When crust on both sides subside, the upstanding block becomes Horst or
Block mountain. Example: Black Forest
When central portion between two adjacent fault blocks subside, it forms
Graben or Rift Valley. Example: East African Rift Valley
Most block mountains are formed due to tension rather than compression.

TYPES OF ISLAND

Continental Islands

Connected with mainlandthrough Strait, Channel or shallow Lagoon

1. Individual Islands: New Foundland, Madagascar

2. Archipelagoes: Island groups with varying shapes and sizes.
British Isles
3. Festoon or Island Arcs: Forms loop around mainland. One tectonic plate
subducts other one.
Andaman & Nicobar Islands, East Indies

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

4
Oceanic Islands

No connection with the mainland

1. Volcanic Islands:
Topmost parts of the cones of extinct (mostly) volcanoes. Example: Mauna Loa,
Galapagos, Mauritius, Reunion Island

2. Coral Islands
Example: Marshall Islands, Bermuda, Lakshadweep, Maldives

Hotspots

It is a very hot region deep within the Earth, usually responsible for
volcanic activity.

Sometimes magma heats up groundwater creating Geysers.

40 to 50 hot spots around the world, including near the Galapagos Islands
and Iceland.

They can create entire chains of islands e.g. Hawaii.

They are used to track movement of earth’s plates.

FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

65
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
2024

What is Climate Change?

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines climate change as a change of climate
which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is
in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.

Theories of Climate Change

Astronomical or The Earth's orbit around the sun changes overtime. It leads to variations in
Orbital Theory the amount of solar radiation received, thereby affecting the climate.

The continental drift theory of Wegner, the sea floor spreading by H.H. Hess,
Theories of and the plate tectonics by Morgan reveal that the continents and ocean basins
continental drift are under constant movement. Changes in the distribution of continents and
ocean basins also lead to changes in climate.

Variation in the composition of the atmosphere (Co2, NO2, CH4, H2O etc.) can affect
Theories Theories about the
climate.
changes in the
of Climate Atmospheric
Change The carbon dioxide theory about climate change was put forward by T.C.
Composition Chamberlin.

The volcanic dust deflects light of short wavelengths coming from the sun,
but allows the long wave terrestrial radiation to easily pass through, thus cooling
The Volcanic Dust the Earth's temperature.
Theory
The volcanic dust is considered to be responsible for the 'Little Ice Age'.

The number of sunspots increases and decreases over an 11-year cycle.

Sunspots Theory
There is a close relationship between the sunspots and the heat and energy
received at the earth's surface.

Climate Change Drivers

heat trapping emissions from burning coal, gas and oil in

power plants and cars; cutting down and burning forests;
tiny pollution particles(aerosols); black carbon pollution

changes surface albedo

changes evapotranspiration rates and soil moisture

characteristics; Desertification also increases surface
An El Niño warm water phase changes global weather albedo
patterns

cows and sheep produce large amounts of methane

when they digest their food

Produce nitrous oxide emissions

Produce a very strong warming effect

Greenhouse Gases and Global warming: Green House Effect, Sources

& Causes and Evidences

What is Global warming?

Global warming refers to the increase in average global temperature since the Industrial Revolution. The average global temperature
has increased by more than one degree Celsius since 1880. Global warming is an ongoing process; scientists expect the average global
temperature to rise an additional 0.3 to 0.7 degrees Celsius through 2035.

Greenhouse Gases: Sources and Causes

Global Warming Potential (GWP):

The Global Warming Potential (GWP) was developed to allow comparisons of the global warming impacts of different gases.

It is a measure of how much energy the emissions of 1 ton of a gas will absorb over a given period of time, relative to the
emissions of 1 ton of carbon dioxide (CO2).

The larger the GWP, the more that a given gas warms the Earth compared to CO2 over that time period. The time period usually
used for GWPs is 100 years.

Atmospheric
Greenhouse Gases GWP Sources/Causes
lifetime (yrs)

Carbon Dioxide (CO2) 50-200 1 Burning of fossil fuels, deforestation

12 +
_3 Growing paddy, excreta of cattle and other livestock, termites,
Methane (CH4) 21 burning of fossil fuels, wood, landfills.

Burning of fossil fuels, fertilizers; burning of crop residue

Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 120 310

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) 150 to 11700 Primarily produced for use in refrigeration, air-
1.5 to 209 conditioning, insulating foams and aerosol propellants

6500 to 9200 The aluminum smelting industry has been a major source of
Perfluorocarbons (PFCs) 2600 to 50000 atmospheric perfluorocarbons.

SF6 is a substance which originates only from

anthropogenic sources used primarily in the electricity and
Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6) 3200 23900 electronics supply industries, e.g., the semiconductor industry,
where it is used as an electronic insulator due to its inertness.

Global warming evidences

Ozone Layer Depletion

The main reason of ozone layer depletion is believed to be the release of chlorofluorocarbon compounds (CFCs), also
known as freons.

Once CFCs are released in the atmosphere, they mix with the normal atmospheric gases and eventually reach the
stratosphere. In stratosphere, they get broken down by powerful UV radiations, releasing chlorine free radical. The
chlorine radicals are continuously regenerated and cause the breakdown of ozone.

Ozone- Depleting Substances Sources

Manufacturing of polyurethane, phenolic, polystyrene and polyolefin foam polymers,

Chlorofluorocarbons
blowing agents
Halons Used in portable fire extinguishers.

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons Used in the refrigeration, foam, solvent, aerosol and firefighting sectors as a transitional
(HCFCs) substance to substitute CFCs.

Methyl Bromide Used as a fumigant in agriculture, for pest control in structures and stored commodities,
and for quarantine treatments.

Carbon Tetrachloride Used as chlorinated solvent in different industries, feedstock for different CFCs.

Methyl Chloroform Used for cold cleaning, vapour degreasing, chemical processing, adhesives in industries.

Nitrogen Oxides Explosions of thermonuclear weapons, industrial emissions and agricultural fertilizers.

Role of Polar Stratospheric Clouds

In 1980s atmospheric scientists working in Antarctica reported

about depletion of ozone layer commonly known as ozone hole
over the South Pole. It was found that a unique set of conditions was
responsible for the ozone hole.

In summer season, nitrogen dioxide and methane react with

chlorine monoxide and chlorine atoms forming chlorine sinks,
preventing much ozone depletion.

In winter, special type of clouds called polar stratospheric clouds

are formed over Antarctica. These clouds provide surface on which
chlorine nitrate formed gets hydrolysed to form hypochlorous acid. It
also reacts with hydrogen chloride produced to give molecular
chlorine.

ozone depletion effects

climate change increased UV-B radiation reaching earth's surface

accumulation of tropospheric photochemical

ozone and acid aerosols, causing formation of direct human damage to materials: damage to biological
worsening air pollution and acid rain tropospheric ozone health effects paint, plastic, rubber links in humen food chain

environmental effects: suppression of immunity: eye damage: increased

crop and forest damage increase in infectious incidence of contracts aqualastic: Less
diseases, less effective and bindness ocean plantion,
vaccination lower fish harvests

human health effects: rise in incidence

respiratory illness of skin cancer terrestrial: reduced crop,
and heart problems yield, stunted paint growth

Consequences/ Impacts of climate change:

Impact on Hydological Cycle
1. Water: Reduced availability of water resources/ Serious threat to water security.
2. Agriculture: Water demand for crops and livestock will be affected. Affecting the crop yield in both irrigated and rainfed regions.
3. Energy Production: Climate change increases streamflow variability thus affecting the hydropower generation.

4. Municipal Services: Increased temperature can also encourage presence of algal bloom and cyanotoxins thus needing additional and
new treatment methodologies.
5. Freshwater Ecosystem: Between 1970 and 2000, populations of freshwater species included in the Living Planet Index declined on
average by 50%.

Impact on Oceans
Ocean warming: Climate Change leads to more stable stratification of layers by density. Which promotes more Oxygen Minimum
Zones (OMZs)

Ocean Acidification: Anthropogenically emitted CO2 gets dissolved in the sea water. It forms Carbonic Acid in the process, reducing
the pH of water.

Ocean Deoxygenation: Volumes of areas depleted of oxygen, known as "anoxic waters. Major causes include - degassing due to
warming of sea water and less intermixing due to stable stratification of layers e.g. Baltic Sea and Black Sea.

Impact on Food Security

The multiple adverse impacts
of global warming and climate change
on food production
Climate and
Global warming Climate change
atmosphere Production
Heat waves Seasonal variation
Temperature aspects
Drought Powerful storms
Precipitation Crops
Soil erosion Torrential rains
Carbon dioxide Livestock Food security Combined
Tropospheric/ Floods
Ozone... Fish... Food systems ground level Waterlogged land
adapted to ensure ozone (toxic
to plants) Cumulative Soil erosion
availability,
Non-climate access, Weeds (more
Non-production and resistant)
factors utilization,
aspects Pests (more
Soil fertility and stability
Incomes and resistant)
Irrigation Processing Plant diseases
Fertilizers Transports Soil salinization
Demography Storage - from sea
Economics Retailing... level rise
Social-politics...

Socio-Economic Impact of Climate Change

Sensi-
climate tivity
to Other
Sector change Sign
drivers
drivers climate
change

Cooling Temp- Positive for Population

demand erature suppliers Income
Humi- Energy
dity Negative for prices
consumers Technology
Hot
spells change

Temp- Positive for Aging

Health erature suppliers Income
services
Precip- Negative for Diet/
itation consumers lifestyle
Temp-
Negative for
Population
Transp- erature
ortation Precip- all users Income
Positive for Urbaniz-
itation transport ation
Starm construction Regulation
Intensity industry
Mode
Seasonal Shifting
Variability Consumer
Freeze/ and
Thaw commuter
cycles behavior

Impact of Climate change on Gender and Security

Impact on Human Health and Security

IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON HUMAN HEALTH
Injuries, fatalities, mental Asthma, cardiovascular
health impacts disease

Severe Air Malaria, dengue,

Weather Pollution encephalitis,
Heat-related illness hantavirus, Rift
and death, Valley fever, Lyme
MOR
cardiovascular E E Changes disease,
failure Extreme NGTURES WE
A in Vector chikungunya, West
A
X HER
PE I
INGS TEM RIS

Heat
TR

Nile virus
T
R

Ecology
EME
SEA RISI

Environ-
A VEL

mental Increasing
L

E
E
S

Degrada-
L 2
NGVELS
Forced migration, CO RE allergens
civil conflict, tion INC
Respiratory aller-
mental health gies, asthma
Water and
impacts Water Quality
Food Supply
Impacts
Impacts
Malnutrition Cholera,
diarrheal cryptosporidiosis,
disease campylobacter,leptospirosis,
harmful algal blooms

Impact On Urban and Rural Areas

On urban Areas On urban Areas

Urban temperature variation: Increased frequency of It will affect rural livelihood as they are dependent mostly
hot days and warm spells will exacerbate urban heat island on natural resources.
effects.
Loss of land and disruption to transport.
Drought and water scarcity
Increased migration
Coastal flooding, sea level rise
Increased intensity of knowledge diffusion.
Inland flooding
Urban Heat Islands (UHI)

Changes in Climate in the Indian Region

The Ministry of Earth Sciences’ (MoES) has come up with the report titled ‘Assessment of Climate Change over the Indian Region’. As
per the report, following are the observed and projected changes in various climatic dimensions over the Indian region:

TYPES OF CORALS
Hard coral Soft coral
Also known as Stony corals Ahermatypic coral, do not
and Hermatypic coral. They produce a rigid calcium
produce a rigid skeleton made carbonate skeleton and do not
of calcium carbonate in crystal form reefs. Soft coral colonies
form called aragonite. They tend to resemble trees, bushes,
are Reef building corals. fans, whips, and grasses.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

CORAL FORMATION AND TYPES

Fringing
Forming border along the
shorelineand surrounding islands

Barrier
They are separated from
their adjacent land mass
by a lagoon of open, often
deep water

Atoll
Atolls are circular or oval,
with a central lagoon.

CONDITIONS FOR GROWTH OF CORALS

1. Warm water (70–85° F or 21–29° C). It is possible for soft corals

to grow in places with warmer or colder water.
2. Clear and shallow water.
3. Corals need salt water to survive, so they also grow poorly near
aXeTa^_T]X]VbfXcWUaTbWfPcTaad]^Ň
4. Other factors – availability of hard-bottom substrate and the
availability of food such as plankton.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

IMPORTANCE OF CORAL ECOSYSTEM

1. They are referred as Rainforests of the Sea.

2. Coral reefs dissipate much of the force of incoming waves.
3. Contribute to local economies through tourism.
7^aP[TR^bhbcT\b_a^SdRTQT]TŋRXP[RWT\XRP[R^\_^d]Sb
and medicines.

THREATS TO CORALS
FXbX]VcT\_TaPcdaTbP]S^RTP]PRXSXŋRPcX^]
8T\P]SU^aŋbWTahaTb^daRTb
3. Pollution Impacts - on coral reef ecosystems include increased
sedimentation, nutrients, toxins, and pathogen introduction.
4. other threats like coral disease; tropical storms; tourism and
recreation; vessel damage; marine debris, and aquatic invasive
species.

GLOBAL DISTRIBUTION OF CORALS

300N

Equator

300S

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

REGION TYPE OF REEF

Andaman & Nicobar Islands Fringing Reefs

Gulf Of Mannar (Tamil Nadu) Fringing Reefs

Gulf of Kutchh (Gujarat) Fringing Reefs

Lakshadweep Islands Atolls

Gulf of Kutchh

Lakshadweep
Islands
Andaman
Islands

Nicobar
Gulf of Mannar
Islands

FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

4
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
ãå ã
ãå 4<46

!IG<;NCHA
!FCG;N?!B;HA?
!FCG;N?!B;HA?
$+0('$%$'_%(1*$/858 _%+23$/ _&+$1',*$5+ _'(/+, _*8:$+$7, _+<'(5$%$' _-$,385 _-2'+385 _/8&.12: _35$<$*5$- _381( _5$1&+,
8468022022 www.visionias.in

According to the UNEP, Climate Change Mitigation refers to efforts to reduce or prevent emission of greenhouse
gases.
Mitigation can mean using new technologies and renewable energies, making older equipment more energy
efficient, or changing management practices or consumer behavior.

SECTORS MITIGATION STRATEGIES

Energy efficiency improvements and fugitive emission reductions in fuel

extraction as well as in energy conversion, transmission, and distribution systems.
Fossil fuel switching and low-GHG energy supply technologies such as renewable
Energy System energy (RE), nuclear power, and carbon dioxide capture and storage (CCS).

Modal shift to lower-carbon transport systems like electric vehicles

Lowering energy intensity (MJ/passenger km or MJ/tonne km)
Reducing carbon intensity of fuels (CO2 eq/MJ)
Transport Sector
Behavioral change- avoiding journeys where possible

Carbon Efficiency- Fuel switching to low-carbon fuels

Energy efficiency of technology- Efficient appliances, efficient lighting, efficient
heating, ventilation & air conditioning systems, smart meters & smart grids.
System/infrastructure efficiency- nearly/net zero & energy plus buildings, urban
Buildings
planning.

Energy efficiency
Emissions efficiency
Material efficiency in production by reducing yield losses in materials production,
manufacturing, and construction and Re-using old material
Industry Material efficiency in product design
Reducing overall demand for product services

Conservation of existing Carbon pools in forest vegetation and soil by

controlling deforestation and protecting forest in reserves
Improved biomass stocks by planting trees on non-forested agricultural lands.
Management of forests for sustainable timber production including extending
rotation cycles, reducing damage to remaining trees, etc.
Forestry Protecting secondary forests and other degraded forests whose biomass and
soil carbon densities are less than their maximum value and allowing them to
sequester carbon by natural or artificial regeneration.

High input carbon practices, e.g. improved crop varieties, crop rotation, use of
cover crops, perennial cropping systems, agricultural biotechnology.
Improved water availability in cropland including water harvesting and
application.
Cropland Drainage management to reduce emissions, reduce Nitrogen runoff
Management
Replanting of native grasses and trees.

Biochar Application
Use of animal manures and integrated livestock agriculture techniques.
Agroforestry (including agropastoral and agrosilvopastoral systems)
Integration of biomass production with subsequent processing in food and
bioenergy sectors.

Reduced losses in the food supply chain and in final consumption.

Changes in human diets towards less emission intensive products.
Demand side Lifestyle changes like walking and cycling.
mitigation

Negative Emission Technologies

Major Strategies For Negative Emission Technologies
NATURAL Forestry/Agricultrue
Afforestation/ Reforestation Tree growth takes Soil carbon sequestration Land management
up CO2 from the atmosphere changes increase the soil carbon content,
resulting in a net removal of CO2 from the
Other Land-use/Wetlands Restoration or atmosphere
construction of high carbon density, anaerobic Biochar or Partly burnt biomass is added to soil
ecosystems absorbing additional CO2

• Less costly • Closer to deployment • More vulnerable to reversal

COMBINED Natural+ Technological

Bioenergy with Carbon Capture & Storage (BECCS) Plants turn CO2 into
biomass that fuels energy systems; CO2 from conversion is stored
underground.

TECHNOLOGICAL Energy / Industry

Accelerated Weathering Natural minerals react with CO2 and bind them in new minerals.

Ocean Alkalinity Enhancement Alkaline materials are added to the

ocean to enhance atmospheric drawdown and negate acidification
Direct Air-Capture CO2 is removed from ambient air and stored
underground.
CO to durable carbon CO2 is removed from the atmosphere
& bound in long-lived materials
More costly Greater R&D needs Less vulnerable to reversal

Carbon Capture and Storage Methods

Carbon Capture Utilisation Storage (CCUS)

Group of technologies designed to reduce the amount CARBON CAPTURE, UTILISATION AND
of CO2 released into the atmosphere. STORAGE (CCUS)

Capture Transport Use

Storage

Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and

Storage (BECCS)

Bioenergy with carbon

Forests replanted after harvesting
capture and storange so more CO2 is removed from
(BECCS) Plants convert the atmosphere Carbon dioxide
CO2 into biomass, which capture
provides energy. CO2 Atmospheric carbon dioxide
is captured and stored
underground.
Carbon dioxide
CO2 transport

Biological CO2 sequestration Bioenergy conversion

plant to provide, heat, Biological CO2
power, hydrogen etc. sequestration

Also can sequester

some extra carbon into Depleted petroleum
CO2 the soil as “bio-char” reservoirs, saline
aquifers, etc.

Direct Air Capture Carbon Capture and

Storage (DACCS)

Direct air capture

carbon capture CO2

and storage
CO2
(DACCS) CO2 is
CO2
extracted from the
ambient air by
chemical processes
and stored CO2
underground.

BIOCHAR
FEED STOCKS
Biochar production processes utilize cellulosic biomass such as wood chips, corn
stover, rice and peanut hulls, tree bark, paper mill sludge, animal manure and most
urban, agricultural and forestry bio-mass residues.

Transport
Energy
Biomass )C) 50%
- manure )C) 100%
- organic wastes
Co-Products
-bioenergy crops (grasses, (oil, cosmetics)
willown) Industry
- crop residuces
Pyrolysis
Residual heat

OUTPUTS
Besides biochar, bioenergy is also
)C) 50% produced in the form of either
Returned to synthetic gas (syngas), or bio-oils,
soil as Bio-char which can be used to produce heat,
power or combined heat and power.

OCEAN
FERTILISATION

OCEAN FERTILIZATION
Purposeful introduction of plant nutrients to
the upper ocean to increase marine food
production.

Geo-Engineering
Radiation Management (RM)
GEO-ENGINEERING
Projects designed to tackle the effects
of climate change directly, usually by
Space Mirrors Reflective Aerosols
removing CO2 from the air or limiting
the amount of sunlight reaching the Cloud Seeding
planet's surface.
Biochar
Afforestation
CO2 AirCapture
Iron
Fertilization
Alkalinity
Addition CO2 Storege
Artificial Direct
Upwelling Injection

Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR)

Carbon Pricing
An instrument that captures the external costs of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and ties them to their sources
through a price.

Types of Carbon Pricing

Emissions Trading It caps the total level of GHG emissions and allows those industries with low
Systems (ETS) emissions to sell their extra allowances to larger emitters.

It directly sets a price on carbon by defining a tax rate on GHG emissions or -

A carbon tax
more commonly - on the carbon content of fossil fuels.

An offset mechanism designates the GHG emission reductions from project- or

program-based activities, which can be sold either domestically or in other
countries.
Offset programs issue carbon credits according to an accounting protocol and
have their own registry.
These credits can be used to meet compliance under an international agreement,
domestic policies or corporate citizenship objectives related to GHG mitigation.

Other mechanisms Results-Based Climate Finance (RBCF) is a funding approach where payments
are made after pre-defined outputs or outcomes related to managing climate
change, such as emission reductions.
Many RBCF programs also simultaneously aim to reduce poverty, improve access to
clean energy and offer health and community benefits.

Internal carbon pricing is a tool an organization uses internally to guide its

decision-making process in relation to climate change impacts, risks and
opportunities.

International Efforts for Climate Change Mitigation

International Processes: Climate Change

United Nations

UNEP WMO

IPCC UNFCCC GEF

Assessment Convention Finance

Other international Organization within and outside UN: COP is supreme

body of UNFCCC
UN Secretary General UNFCCC is a
UN Department of Economic and Social Affaires freestanding entity -
UN Habitat not a "subsidiary" of
UN.
UN Industrial Development Organization
World Bank
World Health Organization
World Trade Organization
Food and Agriculture Organization

Conference of the Parties (COP)

It is the supreme decision-making body of the Convention. All States that are Parties to Convention are represented at
COP. It meets every year, unless the Parties decide otherwise.

Kyoto CoP 3, 1997

Kyoto Protocol was adopted:

Annex-based structure
Only binds developed countries
Based on principle of “common but differentiated responsibility and respective capabilities”
In its Annex B, the Kyoto Protocol sets binding emission reduction targets for 37 industrialized countries and
economies in transition and the European Union.
These targets add up to an average 5% emission reduction compared to 1990 levels over the five year period
2008–2012 (the first commitment period).

Kyoto Mechanisms Classification of Parties to the Kyoto Protocol

International Emissions Trading: Annex I: These are the industrialized (developed) countries
allows parties to buy 'Kyoto units' from and "economies in transition" (EITs). EITs are the former
other countries to help meet their centrally-planned (Soviet) economies of Russia and Eastern
domestic emission reduction targets. Europe. The European Union-15 (EU-15) is also an Annex I Party.
Clean Development Mechanism Annex II Parties are made up of members of the Organization
(CDM): Countries can meet their for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). Annex II
domestic emission reduction targets Parties are required to provide financial resources to enable
by buying ‘Kyoto units’ from (projects developing countries in reducing their greenhouse gas
in) non-Annex I countries. emissions (climate change mitigation) and manage the impacts
Joint implementation (JI): Any Annex of climate change (climate change adaptation)
country can invest in emission
reduction projects (referred to as Annex B: Annex I Parties with first or second round Kyoto
"Joint Implementation Projects") in any greenhouse gas emissions targets.
other Annex I country as an alternative Non-Annex I: mostly low-income developing countries.
to Reducing Emissions Domestically. Developing countries may volunteer to become Annex I countries
The Adaptation Fund: to finance when they are sufficiently developed.
adaptation projects and programmes
in developing countries. Fund was Least-Developed Countries (LDCs): 49 Parties are LDCs, and
financed mainly with a share of are given special status under the treaty in view of their limited
proceeds from CDM project activities. capacity to adapt to the effects of climate change.

Governments reached a broad political agreement on the operational

Bonn CoP 6, 2021
rulebook for the 1997 Kyoto Protocol
Resulted in the Marrakesh Accords, setting the stage for ratification of the
Marrakesh CoP 7, 2001
Kyoto Protocol.
Governments adopted the Bali Road Map, which includes the Bali Action Plan.
Bali CoP 13, 2007 The Road Map was a set of decisions that represented the various tracks that
were seen as key to reaching a global climate deal.

It produced the Copenhagen Accord. The accord endorsed the continuation

Copenhagen CoP 15, 2009 of the Kyoto protocol.
Accord also lays the groundwork for financial commitments from
developed countries to developing countries for climate change mitigation
and adaptation efforts.

To commit to a maximum temperature rise of 2 degrees Celsius above pre-

industrial levels, and to consider lowering that maximum to 1.5 degrees in the
near future.
To establish a Green Climate Fund to provide financing to projects,
programmes, policies and other activities in developing countries.
Establishment of Technology Mechanism which included Technology
Cancun CoP 16, 2010
Executive Committee and Climate Technology Centre and Network.
Cancun Adaptation Framework, which included setting up an Adaptation
Committee to promote the implementation of stronger, cohesive action on
adaptation.
Developing countries submitted nationally appropriate mitigation actions
(NAMAs), to be implemented subject to financial and technical support.

$POUJOVBUJPO PG UIF ,ZPUP 1SPUPDPM UJMM WKURXJK D VHFRQG FRPPLWPHQW
SHULRG
-BVODIPGBOFXQMBUGPSNPGOFHPUJBUJPOTIRUDQHZSURWRFROE\IRUWKH
%VSCBO$P1 SHULRGEH\RQG
7RFRQGXFWDGSFTIHMPCBMSFWJFXPGUIFFNFSHJOHDMJNBUFDIBMMFOHF EDVHGRQ
WKHEHVWDYDLODEOHVFLHQFHDQGGDWD
7KH %PIB "NFOENFOU UP UIF ,ZPUP 1SPUPDPM ZDV DGRSWHG IRU D VHFRQG
%PIB$P1 FRPPLWPHQWSHULRGVWDUWLQJLQDQGODVWLQJXQWLO+RZHYHULWKDVQRW\HW
HQWHUHGLQWRIRUFH
*RYHUQPHQWVUHVROYHGWRVWUHQJWKHQPHDVXUHVWRDMPTFUIFBNCJUJPOHBQ
8BSTBX$P1 (VWDEOLVKHGWKH8BSTBX*OUFSOBUJPOBM.FDIBOJTNGPS-PTTBOE%BNBHF
&XWWLQJHPLVVLRQVIURPGHIRUHVWDWLRQWKH8BSTBX'SBNFXPSLGPS3&%%
%RWKGHYHORSHGDQGGHYHORSLQJFRXQWULHVSOHGJHGWRWDNHWKHDBQJUBMJ[BUJPO
PGUIFOFX(SFFO$MJNBUF'VOE ($' SDVWDQLQLWLDOELOOLRQWDUJHW
7KH-JNB.JOJTUFSJBM%FDMBSBUJPOPO&EVDBUJPOBOE"XBSFOFTTFDOOHGRQ
JRYHUQPHQWVWRSXWFOLPDWHFKDQJHLQWRVFKRROFXUULFXODDQGFOLPDWHDZDUHQHVV
-JNB$P1
LQWRQDWLRQDOGHYHORSPHQWSODQV
-JNB 8PSL 1SPHSBNNF PO (FOEFS WR DGYDQFH JHQGHU EDODQFH DQG WR
SURPRWHJHQGHUVHQVLWLYLW\LQGHYHORSLQJDQGLPSOHPHQWLQJFOLPDWHSROLF\
$MFHBMMZCJOEJOHLQWHUQDWLRQDOWUHDW\RQFOLPDWHFKDQJH
5HDIILUPHGWKHJRDORIOLPLWLQJJOREDOWHPSHUDWXUHLQFUHDVHWRZHOOEHORZ
5IF1BSJT"HSFFNFOU
GHJUHHV&HOVLXVZKLOHSXUVXLQJHIIRUWVWROLPLWWKHLQFUHDVHWRGHJUHHV
$P1
7KHFRXQWULHVWRLPSOHPHQWOBUJPOBMMZEFUFSNJOFEDPOUSJCVUJPOT /%$T RQD
\HDUF\FOH
&RXQWULHVQHJRWLDWHGWRSUHSDUHWKHGJOFQSJOUGPS1BSJTEFBM,WVRXJKWWRPDNH
.BSSLFTI $P1
WKHUXOHVWKDWZRXOGKHOSLQWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIWKHODZLH3DULV$JUHHPHQW

5BMBOPB%JBMPHVF,WLVDSURFHVVGHVLJQHGWRKHOSFRXQWULHVLPSOHPHQWDQG
HQKDQFHWKHLU1DWLRQDOO\'HWHUPLQHG&RQWULEXWLRQVE\
7KHILUVWHYHU(FOEFS"DUJPO1MBOWRWKH81)&&&ZDVDGRSWHGKHUH
#POO$MJNBUF.FFU -PDBMDPNNVOJUJFTBOEJOEJHFOPVTQFPQMF³TQMBUGPSNDQHZSODWIRUPWR
$P1 LQFOXGH LQGLJHQRXV SHRSOH´V YRLFHV LQ WKH LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ RI WKH 3DULV
$JUHHPHQW
1RILQDQFLDOFRPPLWPHQWVZHUHDJUHHGXSRQEHWZHHQWKHQHJRWLDWLQJSDUWLHV
RQWKHLVVXHRIMPTTBOEEBNBHF

$OOFRXQWULHVµVKDOO¶VTFUIFMBUFTUFNJTTJPOTBDDPVOUJOHHVJEBODFIURPWKH
,3&&
,BUPXJDF$P1
'HFLGHGWKDWWKH´BEBQUBUJPOGVOEµ±DILQDQFLDOPHFKDQLVPVHWXSXQGHUWKH
.\RWR3URWRFRO±TIPVMEDPOUJOVFVOEFSUIF1BSJT"HSFFNFOU

4BOUJBHP /FUXPSL ZDV HVWDEOLVKHG IRU WHFKQLFDO DVVLVWDQFH WR WKH PRVW
YXOQHUDEOHFRXQWULHV
.BESJE$P1 )LYH\HDUHFOEFSBDUJPOQMBO ("1 LQWHQGHGWRVXSSRUWWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
RIJHQGHUUHODWHGGHFLVLRQVDQGPDQGDWHVLQWKH81)&&&SURFHVV

$+0('$%$'_%(1*$/858 _%+23$/ _&+$1',*$5+ _'(/+, _*8:$+$7, _+<'(5$%$' _-$,385 _-2'+385 _/8&.12: _35$<$*5$- _381( _5$1&+,
8468022022 www.visionias.in

Glasgow Climate Pact (GCP): Aims to limit global warming to 1.5° C by 2030,
and cut GHG emissions by 45% by 2030 and to zero overall by 2050.
Finalization of Article 6 covering Market- and non-market-based mechanisms
of the Paris Agreement.
Glasgow CoP 26, 2021
Glasgow Dialogue was created on funding for loss and damage.
Target action against fossil fuels: First-ever COP decision to explicitly target
action against fossil fuels, calling for a “phasedown of unabated coal” and
“phase-out” of inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies.
Sharm el-Sheikh dialogue launched on Article 2.1c of the Paris Agreement,
which says “financial flows” should be aligned with global temperature targets.
New funding arrangements established for assisting developing countries
Sharm El-Sheikh that are particularly vulnerable.
CoP 27, 2022 Koronivia Joint Work for Agriculture (KJWA) given another four-year lease.
First joint work programme of the Technology Executive Committee and
the Climate Technology Centre and Network, set up for 2023–2027.
Work programme on just transition was launched.

Countries agree to accelerate the transition away from fossil fuels in a “just,
orderly and equitable manner”.
Loss and Damage Fund: Will be hosted by World Bank to assist vulnerable
developing countries.
Declaration on a Global Climate Finance Framework: To help in delivering
commitments for developed countries to provide and mobilize $ 100billion of
climate finance annually.
Dubai COP 28, 2023 Global Renewables and Energy Efficiency Pledge: Signed by 118 countries, to
triple the global installed renewable energy capacity to at least 11,000GW and
double the global energy efficiency improvement rate to more than 4% by 2030.
Global Goal on Adaptation: To enhance adaptive capacity.
Global Stocktake (GST): A five-year process to check progress against Paris
goals and inform the next round of NDCs.
COP28 marked the 1st Global Stocktake of the Paris Agreement.

Financial Mechanisms
It is a financial mechanism established under the 1992 Rio Earth Summit.

Introduction It is managed by World Bank.

Presently, it involves an international partnership of 184 countries (Including India)

Global international institutions, civil society organizations and the private sector.
Environment Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)
Conventions
Facility under GEF United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)
financial UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD)
mechanism
Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)
Minamata Converntion on Mercury
formally not linked with Montreal protocol but supports it

Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF) GEF/UNDP Small Grants Programme (SGP)

Established in 2001 by UNFCCC. The program is funded by GEF and executed by the
The fund, managed by the GEF, supports the UNDP.
world’s most vulnerable countries in their It was launched alongside the Rio Earth Summit in 1992.
efforts to adapt to the effects of climate It provides direct financial and technical support to
change. The LDCF is the only fund communities and Civil Society Organizations for
dedicated to supporting climate various projects that conserve and restore the environment
adaptation action in LDCs. while enhancing people's well- being and livelihoods.
It has helped countries prepare and In India the program is hosted through the National Host
implement National Adaptation Institution (NHI) i.e. - Centre for Environment Education
Programs of Action (NAPAs), and also (CEE) supported by MoE&F.
supports the National Adaptation Plan (NAP)
process.

Special Climate Change Fund (SCCF)

SCCF was established in response to guidance from the Conference of the Parties (COP7) in Marrakech in 2001.
The SCCF complements the Least Developed Countries Fund (LDCF).

It was set up by the UNFCCC at Cancun CoP 16 in 2010.

World Bank is the Interim Trustee of the fund.
GCF is the world’s largest dedicated fund helping developing
countries reduce their greenhouse gas emissions and enhance their
Green ability to respond to climate change.
Climate
Mandated to invest 50% of its resources to mitigation and 50% to
Fund (GCF) adaptation in grant equivalent.
The Fund pays particular attention to the needs of societies that are
highly vulnerable to the effects of climate change, in particular Least
Developed Countries (LDCs), Small Island Developing States (SIDS),
and African States.

First announced at CoP 27, operationalized at CoP 28.

L&D refers to the negative consequences of climate change,

like rising sea levels, heatwaves etc.

Loss and Meant to compensate countries already dealing with climate

Damage change.
(L&D) Fund Will be administered by the World Bank as a World Bank-
hosted Financial Intermediary Fund for an interim period of
four years.

Countries including UAE, Germany, UK, Japan, etc., pledged

money to the fund.

Are the Current Ambition The current NDCs of the parties are not enough, and would lead to a warming of
and Action sufficient to about 2.7°C by the end of the century.
achieve Paris Agreement Need for more ambition and action from all parties to enhance their NDCs and
goal? align them with the 1.5°C pathway.

Are current financial An estimated $5-7 trillion annually is needed to green the global economy by
resources enough for 2030 to achieve shared climate goals.
combating climate As of 2019, only around $3 billion has been contributed out of the promised $100
change? billion per year to help developing countries cope with climate change.

Greenwashing presents a false picture of the progress being made on the climate
Issue of Greenwashing
change front.

Economic Interests vs.

Some countries heavily dependent on fossil fuels may resist rapid transitions to
Environmental
Responsibility cleaner energy sources.

Carbon Markets and

Countries failed to agree on rules for the global carbon market.
Offsetting

India and Climate Change

National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)

NAPCC Ministry Major Objectives/Targets

National Solar Ministry of New and

Achieve 100 GW of solar power by 2022
Mission (NSM) Renewable Energy

National Mission Ministry of Power To achieve growth with ecological sustainability.

Enhanced Energy Mandating reduction in energy consumption in large
Efficiency (NMEEE) energy- consuming industries.
Financing for PPP to reduce energy consumption through
demand-side management programs in the municipal,
buildings, and agriculture sectors,
Energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-
efficient appliances.
8468022022 www.visionias.in

NAPCC Ministry Major Objectives/Targets

National Mission Ministry of Environment, Expanding the forest and tree cover to 33% of the total
for a Green India Forest and Climate Change land area of the country.
(GIM) Improved ecosystem services by Increasing Forest/tree
cover by 5 mha and improving quality of forest cover on
another 5 mha (a total of 10 mha).

Development of sustainable habitat standards.

National Mission Ministry of Housing
on Sustainable and Urban Affairs Promoting energy efficiency as a core component of
Habitat (NMSH) urban planning by extending the existing Energy
Conservation Building Code (ECBC).
Strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel
economy standards, and
Using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of
efficient vehicles and incentives for the use of public
transportation.
Increasing water-use efficiency by 20%

National Water Ministry of Jal Shakti Creating a comprehensive water database in the
Mission (NWM) Focuses on monitoring of groundwater, aquifer
mapping, capacity building, water quality monitoring and
other baseline studies.
Promoting citizen and state action for water
conservation, augmentation, and preservation.
Focusing attention on overexploited areas.
Promoting basin-level integrated water resources
management.

National Mission Ministry of Agriculture Enhancing food security by making agriculture more
for Sustainable & Farmers’ Welfare productive, sustainable, remunerative, and climate
Agriculture resilient.

National Mission Ministry of Science To continuously assess the health status of the
for Sustaining and Technology Himalayan Ecosystem. Enable policy bodies in their
Himalayan policy formulation functions.
Eco-systems Start of new centres relevant to climate change in the
existing institutions in the Himalayan States.
Regional cooperation with neighboring countries in
Glaciology.

National Mission Ministry of Science To gain a better understanding of climate science,

on Strategic and Technology formation of knowledge networks among the existing
Knowledge knowledge institutions engaged in research and
for Climate Change development.
(NMSKCC)
Development of national capacity for modelling the
regional impact of climate change on different
ecological zones within the country.

National Adaptation Fund on

Climate Change Action Programme (CCAP)
Climate Change (NAFCC)

It was launched in 2015 to meet the cost CCAP is a central scheme.

of adaptation to climate change for It was approved in 2014 at a total cost of Rs. 290 crores for
the State and Union Territories of duration of five years.
India that are particularly vulnerable to
Its objective is to create and strengthen the scientific and
the adverse effects of climate change.
analytical capacity for assessment of climate change in the
The Scheme has been taken as Central country, putting in place appropriate institutional framework for
Sector Scheme with National Bank for scientific and policy initiatives and implementation of climate
Agriculture and Rural Development change related actions in the context of sustainable
(NABARD) as the National Implementing development.
Entity (NIE).
Some of the components include: the National Carbonaceous
Aerosols Programme (NCAP), Long Term Ecological
Observatories (LTEO), and Coordinated Studies on Climate
Change for North East Region (CSCCNER).

India’s Third Biennial Update Report (BUR)

It has been submitted to UNFCCC in 2021.

India’s emission intensity of gross domestic product (GDP) has reduced by 24% between 2005 and 2016.

‘s Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC)

First NDC was published in 2015. India updated its NDC in August 2022. Till now, the country has achieved 2 of
its previous NDCs well ahead of its target.

Quantitative Targets

Previous Updated
Targets for 2030 Progress
NDC, 2015 NDC, 2022
Reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP By 33 to 35% By 45% by Estimated
by 2030 from 2030 from reduction of
1 2005 level. 2005 level. 28% over
2005 levels

Cumulative electric power installed capacity About 40% About 50% 42.3%
from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources achieved by
with the help of transfer of technology and low- end of
2
cost international finance including from Green November,
Climate Fund (GCF). 2022

Create an additional carbon sink through 2.5 to 3 Same as

additional forest and tree cover. billion tonnes earlier
3
of CO2
equivalent

Quantitative Targets

Previous NDC, 2015 Updated NDC, 2022

Put forward and further propagate a healthy and sustainable way of Put forward and further
living based on traditions and values of conservation and moderation. propagate a healthy and
sustainable way of living
based on traditions and
values of conservation
4 and moderation, includ-
ing through a mass
movement for 'LIFE'-
'Lifestyle for Environment'
as a key to combating
climate change.

5 Adopt a climate friendly and a cleaner path than the one followed Same as earlier
hitherto by others at corresponding level of economic development.

Better adapt to climate change by enhancing investments in Same as earlier

development programmes in sectors vulnerable to climate change,
6
particularly agriculture, water resources, Himalayan region, coastal
regions, health and disaster management.

Mobilize domestic and new & additional funds from developed Same as earlier
7 countries to implement the above mitigation and adaptation actions in
view of the resource required and the resource gap.
Build capacities, create domestic framework and international Same as earlier
8 architecture for quick diffusion of cutting-edge climate technology in
India and for joint collaborative R&D for such future technologies.

India's Panchamrita
At the COP 26 of UNFCCC held in Glasgow, United Kingdom, India expressed to intensify its efforts to address the
challenge of climate change by presenting to the world five nectar elements (Panchamrit) of climate action.

INDIA'S CLIMATE COMMITMENTS AT COP26 SUMMIT IN GLASGOW (PANCHAMRITA)

Achieve the target Increase Meet 50% of Reduce the Reduce the
of Net Zero by the non-fossil energy its energy total projected carbon intensity
year 2070 capacity to requirement carbon emissions of its economy
500 GW by 2030 from renewable by one billion by less
energy by 2030 tonnes from than 45%
now till 2030 by 2030

India in COP27, LT-LEDS to the UNFCCC. It lays out the steps to achieve net zero by 2070 and rests on 7 key
transitions to low-carbon development pathways.

Elements

Low carbon development of electricity systems consistent with development

Integrated, efficient, inclusive low-carbon transport system

Adaptation in urban design, energy and material-efficiency in buildings, and sustainable

urbanisation

Economy-wide decoupling of growth from emissions and development of an efficient, innovative

low-emission industrial system

CO2 removal and related engineering solutions

Enhancing Forest and vegetation cover consistent with socio-economic and ecological
considerations

Economic and financial aspects of low-carbon development

Other Initiatives
Energy Efficiency measures

Perform Achieve and Trade (PAT)- Market based mechanism to enhance Energy Efficiency through certification of
energy saving which can be traded.
Star Rated Appliances to provide the consumer an informed choice about the energy saving and thereby the cost
saving potential of the marketed household and other equipment.
Energy Conservation Building Code 2017 to establish minimum energy performance standards for buildings in
India.
Street Lighting National Programme (SLNP): Deployment of LED street lights that are approximately 50% more
energy efficient than incandescent bulbs and High-Pressure Sodium (HPS) lighting.
Unnat Jeevan by Affordable LEDs and Appliances for All (UJALA) to address India’s high cost of electrification
and high emissions from inefficient lighting.
Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) to recognize energy-efficient buildings, as well as to
stimulate their large-scale replication
Zero Defect and Zero Effect (ZED) to rate Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs) on quality control and
certification for energy efficiency, enhanced resources efficiency, pollution control, use of renewable energy and
waste management using ZED Maturity Assessment Model.
Eco Niwas Samhita 2021 specifies code compliance approaches and minimum energy performance requirements
for building services, and verification framework with Eco Niwas Samhita 2021.
ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ

\ * 7 #7* *

/BUJPOBM"GGPSFTUBUJPO1SPHSBNNFIRUDIIRUHVWDWLRQDQGUHIRUHVWDWLRQRIGHJUDGHGIRUHVWVDQGQRQIRUHVWDUHDV
/BHBS7BO6EZBO:PKBOB$LPVDWHFRORJLFDOUHMXYHQDWLRQRIWKHFLW\IRUHVWVE\FUHDWLQJGHYHORSLQJDWOHDVWRQH
FLW\ IRUHVW LQ HDFK FLW\ KDYLQJ 0XQLFLSDO &RUSRUDWLRQ &ODVV , &LWLHV IRU SURYLGLQJ ZKROHVRPH KHDOWK\ OLYLQJ
HQYLURQPHQW

'78
3FOFXBCMFFOFSHZUBSHFUT,QGLDDLPVIRU*:RIUHQHZDEOHHQHUJ\LQVWDOOHGFDSDFLW\E\
(SFFO&OFSHZ$PSSJEPS1SPKFDUWKDWDLPVDWV\QFKURQL]LQJHOHFWULFLW\SURGXFHGIURPUHQHZDEOHVRXUFHVVXFKDV
VRODUDQGZLQGZLWKFRQYHQWLRQDOSRZHUVWDWLRQVLQWKHJULG
'BTUFS "EPQUJPO BOE .BOVGBDUVSJOH PG )ZCSJE &MFDUSJD 7FIJDMFT JO *OEJB '".& *OEJB VOEFS /BUJPOBM
&MFDUSJD .PCJMJUZ .JTTJPO 1MBO IRU SURPRWLQJ HFRIULHQGO\ YHKLFOHV LQ WKH FRXQWU\ ± K\EULG DQG HOHFWULF
WHFKQRORJLHV

7* #77
4XBDII#IBSBU.JTTJPOIRU6ROLG:DVWH0DQDJHPHQWLQFOXGLQJWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIZDVWHWRHQHUJ\SODQWV
4UFFM 4DSBQ 3FDZDMJOH 1PMJDZ WR FUHDWH D PHFKDQLVP IRU WUHDWLQJ ZDVWH VWUHDPV DQG UHVLGXHV SURGXFHG IURP
GLVPDQWOLQJ DQG VKUHGGLQJ IDFLOLWLHV LQ FRPSOLDQFH WR )B[BSEPVT 0UIFS 8BTUFT .BOBHFNFOU
5SBOTCPVOEBSZ.PWFNFOU 3VMFT
/BUJPOBM#JPFOFSHZ1SPHSBNNF /#1 VXSSRUWVVHWWLQJXSRI%LRHQHUJ\SURMHFWVLQWKHFRXQWU\XQGHU:DVWHWR
(QHUJ\3URJUDPPH%LRPDVV3URJUDPPHDDQG%LRJDVSURJUDPPH

\9
1SBEIBO.BOUSJ,SJTIJ4JODIBZFF:PKBOBIRUHQGWRHQGVROXWLRQVLQLUULJDWLRQVXSSO\FKDLQDQGDLPVWRXVHPLFUR
LUULJDWLRQWHFKQRORJLHVH[WHQVLYHO\WRVDYHZDWHULQFUHDVHSURGXFWLRQDQGSURGXFWLYLW\RIFURSVLQDVXVWDLQDEOH
PDQQHUDQGKHOSLQDFKLHYLQJIRRGVHFXULW\
3BJOGFE "SFB %FWFMPQNFOU 3"% WR H[SORUH SRWHQWLDO XWLOL]DWLRQ RI QDWXUDO UHVRXUFHV EDVHDVVHWV
DYDLODEOHFUHDWHGWKURXJKZDWHUVKHGGHYHORSPHQWDQGVRLOFRQVHUYDWLRQDFWLYLWLHVLQWHUYHQWLRQVXQGHU0*15(*6
1:'35$593 )355.9<,:03HWF

1797& *
'SBNFXPSL GPS &OFSHZ &GGJDJFOU &DPOPNJD %FWFMPQNFOU '&&&% WR HDVH WKH ILQDQFLQJ RI HQHUJ\ HIILFLHQF\
SURMHFWV
&OFSHZ&GGJDJFODZ'JOBODJOH1MBUGPSN &&'1 WRSURYLGHDSODWIRUPWRLQWHUDFWZLWK)LQDQFLDO,QVWLWXWLRQV ),V DQG
SURMHFWGHYHORSHUVIRULPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIHQHUJ\HIILFLHQF\SURMHFWV
4PWFSFJHO(SFFO#POETDQQRXQFHGLQEXGJHWIRUPRELOL]LQJUHVRXUFHVIRUJUHHQLQIUDVWUXFWXUH
$PNQFOTBUPSZ"GGPSFTUBUJPO.BOBHFNFOUBOE1MBOOJOH"VUIPSJUZ $".1" 'VOETIRUSURPRWLQJDIIRUHVWDWLRQ
DQGUHJHQHUDWLRQDFWLYLWLHVDVDZD\RIFRPSHQVDWLQJIRUIRUHVWODQGGLYHUWHGWRQRQIRUHVWXVHV
,QGLDMRLQHGWKH*OUFSOBUJPOBM1MBUGPSNPO4VTUBJOBCMF'JOBODF *14' WKDWDFNQRZOHGJHVWKHJOREDOQDWXUHRI
ILQDQFLDOPDUNHWVZKLFKKDVWKHSRWHQWLDOWRKHOSILQDQFHWKHWUDQVLWLRQWRDJUHHQORZFDUERQDQGFOLPDWHUHVLOLHQW
HFRQRP\E\OLQNLQJILQDQFLQJQHHGVWRWKHJOREDOVRXUFHVRIIXQGLQJ

$+0('$%$'_%(1*$/858 _%+23$/ _&+$1',*$5+ _'(/+, _*8:$+$7, _+<'(5$%$' _-$,385 _-2'+385 _/8&.12: _35$<$*5$- _381( _5$1&+,
ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ

2 7 7 78 7 *

3&%% 5HGXFLQJHPLVVLRQVWRDFKLHYHDGGLWLRQDOFDUERQVHTXHVWUDWLRQHPLVVLRQUHGXFWLRQLPSURYHIRUHVWEDVHG
OLYHOLKRRGVFRQVHUYDWLRQRIUDUHHQGHPLFDQGHQGDQJHUHGVSHFLHVIRXQGLQWKHDUHDDQGLPSURYHPHQWRIZDWHUVKHG
K\GURORJ\
*OUFSOBUJPOBM4PMBS"MMJBODF,WZDVODXQFKHGMRLQWO\E\,QGLDDQG)UDQFHDW&23LQ3DULV,QWRSURYLGHD
GHGLFDWHGSODWIRUPIRUFRRSHUDWLRQDPRQJVRODUUHVRXUFHULFKFRXQWULHVDQGWKHZLGHUJOREDOFRPPXQLW\
*UJTHVJEFECZJUT5PXBSETTUSBUFHZXIJDIBJNTUPNPCJMJTF64% CJMMJPOPGJOWFTUNFOUTJOTPMBS
FOFSHZTPMVUJPOTCZ
$PBMJUJPOGPS%JTBTUFS3FTJMJFOU*OGSBTUSVDUVSF $%3* /DXQFKHGE\,QGLDLQE\,QGLDDW81&OLPDWH$FWLRQ
6XPPLW 1HZ<RUN ,WLVDJOREDOSDUWQHUVKLSRIQDWLRQDOJRYHUQPHQWV81DJHQFLHVDQGSURJUDPPHVSULYDWHVHFWRU
DQGDFDGHPLFDQGUHVHDUFKLQVWLWXWLRQV
,WDLPVWRSURPRWHUHVLOLHQFHRILQIUDVWUXFWXUHV\VWHPVWRFOLPDWHDQGGLVDVWHUULVNVWKHUHE\HQVXULQJVXVWDLQDEOH
GHYHORSPHQW
.JTTJPO ²-*'&³ -JGFTUZMF GPS &OWJSPONFOU ,WV FRQFHSW ZDV LQWURGXFHG E\ WKH ,QGLD DW WKH 8QLWHG &23 LQ
*ODVJRZ
,WDLPVWRPRELOL]HDWOHDVWELOOLRQ,QGLDQVDQGRWKHUJOREDOFLWL]HQVWRWDNHLQGLYLGXDODQGFROOHFWLYHDFWLRQIRU
SURWHFWLQJDQGSUHVHUYLQJWKHHQYLURQPHQWLQWKHSHULRGWR
(MPCBM (SFFO $SFEJU *OJUJBUJWF (($* ZLWKLQ WKH /,)( PRYHPHQW ZDV ODXQFKHG E\ ,QGLD DW &R3 ,W LV D
PHFKDQLVPWRLQFHQWLYL]HYROXQWDU\SURSODQHWDFWLRQVDQGHQYLVLRQVWKHLVVXHRI*UHHQ&UHGLWVIRUSODQWDWLRQVRQ
ZDVWHGHJUDGHGODQGVDQGULYHUFDWFKPHQWDUHDV
1IBTF**PGUIF-FBEFSTIJQ(SPVQGPS*OEVTUSZ5SBOTJUJPO -FBE*5 *OEJBBOE4XFEFOFRODXQFKHGLWIRUWKH
SHULRGDW&23
,WDLPVWRDFFHOHUDWHWKHWUDQVLWLRQRIFKDOOHQJLQJVHFWRUVVXFKDVVWHHOFHPHQWFKHPLFDOVDYLDWLRQDQGVKLSSLQJ
WRMPXDBSCPOQBUIXBZT
5IF(MPCBM3JWFS$JUJFT"MMJBODF (3$" OHGE\WKH1DWLRQDO0LVVLRQIRU&OHDQ*DQJD 10&* ZDVODXQFKHGDW
&23
,W FRYHUV JOREDO ULYHUFLWLHV LQ FRXQWULHV LQWHUQDWLRQDO IXQGLQJ DJHQFLHV DQG NQRZOHGJH PDQDJHPHQW
SDUWQHUVDQGLVILUVWRILWVNLQGLQWKHZRUOGWRIRVWHUJOREDOFROODERUDWLRQIRUULYHUFRQVHUYDWLRQDQGVXVWDLQDEOH
ZDWHUPDQDJHPHQW

5 *
4NBSU$JUJFT.JTTJPOIRUSURYLGLQJDFOHDQDQGVXVWDLQDEOHXUEDQHQYLURQPHQWWKURXJKWKHDGRSWLRQRI³VPDUW
VROXWLRQV
"UBM .JTTJPO GPS 3FKVWFOBUJPO BOE 6SCBO 5SBOTGPSNBUJPO ".365 IRU SURYLGLQJ EDVLF VHUYLFHV HJ ZDWHU
VXSSO\VHZHUDJHXUEDQWUDQVSRUW WRKRXVHKROGVDQGEXLOGDPHQLWLHVLQFLWLHVZKLFKZLOOLPSURYHWKHTXDOLW\RIOLIHIRU
DOOHVSHFLDOO\WKHSRRUDQGWKHGLVDGYDQWDJHGLVDQDWLRQDOSULRULW\
1SBEIBO.BOUSJ6KKXBMB:PKBOBIRUSURYLGLQJ/3*FRQQHFWLRQVWR%3/KRXVHKROGVWKXVUHGXFLQJWKHGHPDQGIRU
WUDGLWLRQDOELRPDVVIURPIRUHVWV
/BUJPOBM1PMJDZPO#JPGVFMT°ZKLFKDLPVDWWDNLQJIRUZDUGWKHLQGLFDWLYHWDUJHWRIDFKLHYLQJEOHQGLQJRI
ELRIXHOVZLWKIRVVLOEDVHGIXHOVE\
%FEJDBUFE'SFJHIU$PSSJEPSIRUFRQVWUXFWLRQRIVL[IUHLJKWFRUULGRUVWUDYHUVLQJWKHHQWLUHFRXQWU\WRSURYLGHDVDIH
DQGHIILFLHQWORZFDUERQIUHLJKWWUDQVSRUWDWLRQV\VWHP

$+0('$%$'_%(1*$/858 _%+23$/ _&+$1',*$5+ _'(/+, _*8:$+$7, _+<'(5$%$' _-$,385 _-2'+385 _/8&.12: _35$<$*5$- _381( _5$1&+,
8468022022 www.visionias.in

Global Efforts Related to Ozone Depletion

Vienna A framework agreement in which States agreed to cooperate

Convention 1985 to deal with the ozone problem

Negotiation concluded in 1987, came into effect in 1989.

Regulates the production and consumption of nearly 100
Montreal man-made chemicals referred to as ozone depleting
Protocol substances (ODS).
Only UN treaty ever that has been ratified by every
country on Earth - all 198 UN Member States

Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) are both ODS and powerful

greenhouse gases
Developed countries to completely phase out HCFCs by
Montreal 2020.
Amendment 2007 Developing countries to completely phase out HCFCs by 2030
(starting in 2013).
India’s Status: India has surpassed Montreal protocol
targets.
44% reduction achieved from the 2020 baseline (target-
35%).
Eliminated HCFC 141b (used as a blowing agent in
production of rigid polyurethane foam)
Phased out CFC, Carbon tetrachloride, Halons, etc. for
controlled uses.

Another group of substances, hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs),

were introduced as non-ozone depleting alternatives to
support the timely phase out of CFCs and HCFCs.
While these chemicals do not deplete the stratospheric ozone
layer, some of them have high Global Warming Potentials.
Kigali Amendment Countries agreed to add HFCs to the list of controlled
2016 substances, and approved a timeline for their gradual
reduction by 80-85% by the late 2040s.
India’s Status- India will complete its phase down of HFCs in
4 steps from 2032 onwards with cumulative reduction of 10%
in 2032, 20% in 2037, 30% in 2042 and 85% in 2047.

LANDFORMS AND EVOLUTION

Causes.
Endogenic (tectonic forces) and Exogenic (gradational forces).
Landforms and crustal order of relief.

First order of relief Continental platforms and the ocean basins.

Mountains, plateaus, plains, continental shelves, continental slopes, abyssal plains, mid-oceanic
Second order of relief ridges, submarine canyons and trenches.

Third order of relief Mountain peaks, cliﬀs, hills, spurs, sand dunes, valleys, etc.

1. FLUVIAL (RIVER BASED) LANDFORMS

1.1 Erosion.

Hydraulic Action: Solution or Corrosion:

Breakdown of the rocks Hydraulic Chemical action
of valley sides due to action of river water.
the impact of
Water Currents.

Attrition
Solution

Attrition: Mechanical Abrasion Abrasion or Corrasion: Rock

tear and wear of the Particles bounce, scrape and drag
erosional tools in along the bottom and sides of the
themselves. river, they break oﬀ additional
rock fragments.

1.2 Transportation.

Suspension: Fine, light Solution: Minerals are

material is carried along dissolved in the water.
by the river This is a chemical change

Traction: Large boulders

and rocks are rolled along Saltation: small pebbles and
the river bed stones are bounced along the
river bed

River bed

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

1.3 Deposition: Including the features formed due to deposition.

Usually in plains and

Concave low lying areas.
side erode
actively and
Point bars are also known Floodplain
known as
cut bank. as meander bars, found in
convex side of meanders. Oxbow
Bar & swale lake Braided
topography Meander cut
stream:
off from the
Point Meander River splits
bar main stream
scars into a maze
and form of
of channels.
Channel an oxbow
Levee: cutoff lake.
Yazoo Fertile flood plain:
Raised Natural Incipient stream Layer of sediments
ridge of levee oxbow deposited during
coarse Alluvium
material. each flood forms
Bedrock flood plain.

Development of the river valley.

Headwater streams Erosional Landforms: Depositional Erosional and

swiftly flow down Waterfalls Landforms: Depositional:
steep mountain slopes Gorges Deltas Meanders
and cut deep, v-shaped Rapids Levees Oxbow lakes
valleys. Waterfalls and Potholes Braided Rivers Floodplains
rapids occur in this zone. V-shaped valleys
Interlocking spurs
At the lowest elevations,
Lower-elevtion streams a river meanders across
merge to flow down a broad, nearly flat valley
gentle slops. Valleys and floodplain. At a river’s
broaden as coalescing mouth, it may divide into
rivers start to meander. separate channels as it
flows across a delta
Youth extending out to sea. The
Stage coastal plain and delta
are made of river sediments.

ZONE
1 Head Maturity
wate Stage
rs
ZONE
2 Trans
Alluvial Fan fe r zone
Old Stage
ZONE
3 Depo
sition
al zon
e

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

Youthful Stage - Mature Stage - Old Stage -
Upper course Middle Course Lower Course

Vertical and headward Vertical and Lateral Deposition

erosion erosion Lateral erosion
Rough channel bed Wider and deeper channel High discharge & velocity
High competence, low Competence decreases, High capacity, low competence
capacity capacity increases Meandering course
Characteristics
Large gradient / slope Wide ﬂood plain
High turbulence Channel depth & width at
Narrow channel maximum
Straight course Low gradient / slope

V-shaped valley, waterfalls, Meanders, river, cliffs, slip, Levees, deltas, point bars,
rapids, potholes, gorges, off slopes, flood plains, sand bars, oxbow lakes,
Features braided streams, meanders, larger flood
interlocking spurs plain, raised banks

River rejuvenation, River Terrace and Incised or Entrenched Meanders.

River rejuvenation : Either due to a fall in sea level relative to the level of the land or a rise of the land relative to the sea.

River Terrace:
Remnant of a former Land surface has been Incised
floodplain. lifted above base level meanders
Source Paired Terraces
knick point:
Sudden break Original
sea-level
Or
or irregularity ig i n
al gra
ded profile
in the gradient First fall in
sea-leavel
along the long Fir
st r
egra
ded
profile of a profile
Second fall in &
Unpaired Terraces
Uplift
river. Mo
st re present sea-lavel
cent gra
Knick points de d profile

Mouth Base level

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

2. COASTAL LANDFORMS: PROCESS INCLUDED TIDES,
CURRENT AND WAVES.

Direction of wind

Upper layer breaking wave

of air sinks Surf zone: Zone of breaking
of waves.
swash
Swash: After wave breaks,
water from it runs up the
Friction from the beach slows beach known as Swash.
air pressure the lower part of the wave but
creates waves upper part continues to move Backwash: Movement of
forward and breaks backwash water back down the beach
to the sea.

2.1 Coastal erosion.

Sea Arch: if Blow Hole: Hole on the roof of

Cave developed the cave due to hydraulic action Former
Cliff: Rock rising
on two sides, of waves. sea cliffs
Terrace vertically above
then
sea water with
headland join Sea Cave Wave- cut platform (terrace) steep slope.
to form Sea arch
sea arch
Sea Cliff
es Wave-cut platfrom:
slid
nd Cliff retreats
La
Sea stack
Notched cliff Wave-cut forming
platform gentle sloping
rock cut flat
Wave- Built Platform: surface.
Due to deposition of
sediments derived from Geos: Roof of cave
Wave-built the erosion (Deopsitional collapses forming a
Continual erosion by waves in caves led to terrace feature) long narrow inlet, or
arch stack stump creek.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

2.2 Depositional Features.
2.2.1 Wave-Built Platform or Terrace (Included in coastal erosion dig)
2.2.2 Beaches called shingle beaches contain excessively small pebbles and even cobbles.

If bars are formed

in such a way that
one end is linked to
land and the other
end projects into
Oﬀshore bars may enclose the sea, they are
a water body to from a called spits.
lagoon.
Spit

Lagoon Baymouth bar

Tombola Sand bars that obtain a length

of hundreds of kilometres are
called oﬀshore bars or
A connecting bar that joins longshore bars.
two landmasses (mainland to
island) is known as a tombola.

2.3 Types of Coasts.

2.3.1 Coastlines of submergence: Become lowered below current sea level.

Type of Coast Features Examples Image

Formed when a non-

glaciated highland coast
becomes submerged and North-western Spain and
Ria Coasts the valleys ﬁlled with sea south-western Ireland.
water. Often “V” shaped.

Fjord is a narrow, high-

walled, and very long
submerged glacial valley.
Fiord (Fjord) Coasts Fjord coasts of Norway.
Formed when a descending
glacier carves a U-shaped
valley into the bedrock.

ridges
Formed when a mountain
ridge running parallel to
Dalmatian or
the sea coast is submerged. Dalmatian coast of
Longitudinal former course
Alternating crests and Yugoslavia. of rivers whose
Coasts valleys have
troughs runs parallel to the been drowned
sea coast.

River
Coasts where lowland coast
are submerged, ﬂooding
river. Their entrances are
Estuarine Coast Thames of Britain. Delta Estuary
sand and silt free.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 5

2.3.2 Coastlines of Emergence: The coast has been raised (due to fall in
sea level or a rising of the crust) and the ocean waves now erode a lower level.

Type of Coast Features Examples Image

Old Coastline
Raised
Formedwhen coastal beach

plateau lands are raised Uplifted part

of continental
Emerged Upland above sea level. Northern part of west shelf forming
coastial plain
Coasts coast of India
Spit Bars
Raised beach or cliﬀ-line.

Inlet

Produced by the uplift of Waves cut old Cave

part of the neighbouring Platform

continental shelf.
Present
Emerged Lowland cliﬀ Inlet
Coasts of Kerala and
Coasts
Main feature: spits lagoons, Tamil Nadu Sea

bars, marshes and beaches.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 6

3. GLACIAL LANDFORMS: MOVING MASS OF ICE AND
SNOW. PROCESSES INVOLVED ARE OF ACCUMULATION,
COMPACTION AND RE-CRYSTALLISATION OF SNOW.
3.1 Action of Glacier.

Freeze-thaw is when melt Plucking is when melt Roche moutonnee: Rock hill shaped by the
water or rain gets into cracks water from a glacier passage of ice to give a smooth up-ice slide
in the bed rock and at night freezes around lumps of (stoss side) and a rough plucked surface on the
the water freezes, expands cracked and broken rock. down-ice side (lee side)
and causes the crack to get When the ice moves
larger. downhill, rock is plucked
from the back wall.

Freeze-thaw
Roche
Abrasion is when rock frozen moutonnee
Plucking
to the base and the back of the
glacier scrapes the bed rock.
Plucking

Abrasion
Ice

Rock lip

Abrasion Stoss side Lee side

3.2 The Landforms created by glacial erosion.

Pyramidal Peaks Arete: Narrow, knife edge Bergschrund: Crevasse or

or Horns: Formed when ridge separating two corries. wide crack opens along
three or more corries the headwall of a glacier.
from in the side of Tarn: Lake found in Cirque: Arm chair
one mountain. a corrie shaped hollow found in
the side of a mountain.
Arete
Horn A series of Tarns lakes,
Pater resembling a string of
Truncated spurs: Tarn noster prayer beads, are known
These ridges that have Hanging lakes Cirques as paternoster lakes.
triangular facets valley
produced by glacial Glacial trough
erosion at their
lower ends are
termed as
truncated
spurs.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 7

3.3 Glacial landforms resulting from deposition.

Drumlins are Erratics: Boulders of considerable Outwash Deposits: Rock debris

elongated hills size are deposited far from their origin. washed down and deposited.
of glacial deposits. Outwash deposits are roughly
stratified and assorted.
Direction of glacier movement
Eskers: Drumlin Kames: Rounded mounds/
Sinuous ridges hills of fluvioglacial deposits.
Kettle lake
of sand and
gravel Te Kame
rm Outwash Plain: Broad
Esker
Stream
in
al Out wash plain surface of stratified
M
or
ai drifts is formed.
Glacial till or Boulder Lake behind Moraine ne

Clay: Unassorted coarse Boulder Clay

Sand and gravels
and ﬁne debris dropped Kettle: Depressions
by the melting glaciers. found between the
outwash plains.
Glacio-Fluvial Deposits

Terminal moraines are

found at the terminus or
the furthest (end) point
reached by a glacier.

Lateral moraines are

found deposited along
the sides of the glacier.

Medial moraines are

found at the junction
between two glaciers.
Medial moraines Ground moraines are
disorganised piles of
Lateral moraines
rocks of various shapes,
Terminal moraines sizes and of diﬀering
rock types.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

4. LANDFORM BY THE ACTION OF WIND (AEOLIAN): MOST
OF THE DESERTS ARE CONFINED WITHIN THE 15° TO 30°
NORTH AND SOUTH LATITUDINAL BELTS. FACTORS
INCLUDING: MEAN ANNUAL RAINFALL, COLD CURRENTS,
CONTINETIALITY, ETC.

Processes involved: Attrition, Deﬂation, Abrasion or Corrosion, etc.

Surfaces formed in desert.

Surface Features Example

Almost horizontal, sand sheets or of Erg in the Sahara and Saudi Arabia,
Erg (Sandy or True Desert) regular dune lines, or of an koum in Turkmenistan.
undulating sand sea.

Stony desert, horizontal sheets of

Stony Desert smoothly angular gravel cover the Reg in Algeria and Serir in Libya and
Surface. Egypt.

Characterised by deep dissection,

Badland ravines, gullies, and sharp- edged South Dakota, U.S.A.
ridges.

Large areas of sand and dust, with Deserts in Sahara are known
Hamada or Rocky Desert patches of barerock. as Hamada.

In highlands, mountain ranges and Ahaggar Mountain and Tibesti

Mountain Desert
the plateau areas. mountain of Sahara.

4.1 Erosional Landforms-Wind.

MESA resistant
Ventifact: Less resistant Resistant hard rock
Stone with one rock rock
CLIFF BENCH soft rock Mesa: Flat, table- like
or more Resistant landmass with a very
highly Rock rock worn CANYON resistant horizontal
polished, pedestals away slown top layer and very
BUTTE
ﬂattened or steep sides.
facets as a Mushroom
result of Ventifacts or Rocks
erosion by Dreikanter Buttes: Mesas
windblown Hard rock gives rise to that are reduced to
sand. upstanding ridges ﬂat- topped hills.
Upstanding ridges of Zeugens
Yardangs Inselberg or
resistant rock
bomhardts.:
Steepsided hill
Inselberg of solid
rock, rising
Undercutting by Prevailing Wind abraded furrows abruptly
wind abrasion wind in soft rock from a plain.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

4.2 Depositional Landforms-wind.

Barchans: Crescent- Ripple Marks: Small

shaped sand dune. scale depositional
Barchan Seif features of sand.
Two”horns” that
face downwind.
Gradually migrate Sand dunes: Mounds
with the wind. or ridges of windblown
sand.

Transverse
Parabolic dunes
form when Seif has only one
sandy surfaces Parabolic wing or point.
are partially
covered with
veqetation. Transverse dunes are aligned
parabolic dunes perpendicular to wind direction.
are reversed
barchans. Direction of Wind

Langitudinal dunes form

when supply of sand is
poor and wind direction is
Longitudinal constant.

Loess: Fine-grained material that has been transported and deposited by the wind.

4.3 Fluvial Desert Landforms: Inﬂuenced by the action of running water.

material washed streams spread

old saline lake deposits forward into the alluvial fans at wadi or enclosing
(these deposits hold sudden changes arroyos rill mountains
alluvial zone
clues to climatic change) in slops

bajada

piedmont slope

piedmont

water table
playa lake (shallow
seen as a response to need for
temporary and salty)
the removal of debris, its angle suﬃcient
to ‘power’ water that carries debris

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

5. KARST TOPOGRAPHY: LIMESTONE OR DOLOMITIC
REGION SHOWING TYPICAL LANDFORMS PRODUCED BY
THE ACTION OF GROUNDWATER THROUGH THE
PROCESSES OF SOLUTION AND DEPOSITION IS CALLED
KARST TOPOGRAPHY.

5.1 Erosional landform.

Section of
collapse sink
Sequence: Sink Hole: Surface
Sink holes depression or hole in a
region of limestone
Sink hole->
terrain.
Swallow hole->
Doline->Uvalas
Cave Cave Swallow hole:
Coalescence of closely
spaced sink holes into
one large hole.
Caves having openings
at both the ends are Valley sinks/ Uvalas
Dolines: Futher Larger
called tunnels.
depression.

Uvalas are extensive Lapies: Weathered limestone

depression. surface found in karst
regions.

5.2 Depositional Landforms.

Well Jointed Lime stone

Stalactite: The depsoit
of limestone grows
downwards like pillars.
Vertical
Coloumns
Stalactite (pillars) Stalagamite: The deposite
grows upward from the ﬂoor.
Cave Stalagamite

Pillars: Both stalactite

and stalagmite often join
together to form vertical
Underground water column.

FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

11
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
QUICK REVISION MODULE
) UPSC PRELIMS 2024 )
ENVIRONMENT

SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT
Sustainable development is development that
meets the need of the present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs

1
THE MAIN PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ARE:

Conservation
of the
Ecosystem

Progressive Population
Social Control and
Tradition Management
and Culture
PRINCIPLES
OF SUSTAINABLE
INFOGRAPHIC
DEVELOPMENT

Participatory Proper
approach and Human
Collective Resource
responsibility Management

PILLARS OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Social
Social

Environmental Economic

SUSTAINABLE
INFOGRAPHIC
DEVELOPMENT

2
HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
UN
Commission
on Sustainable Forest
Development Principles
(CSD)

The Agenda
Con vention on 21
Biod iversity
Rio
Declaration on
The Environment and
Framework Development
Conven tion on
Clim ate Change
(UNFCCC)

1992- Rio Summit: United Nations

Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED), also called
Earth Summit resulted in:

1972: UNEP was set up.

1987: Brundtland Report entitled
“Our Common Future” deﬁned
Sustainable development

1972-Stockholm Conference/
UN Conference on the Human
Environment: The concept of
sustainable development received
recognition.
1789-MALTHUS: Human population
grows in a geometric progression,
while subsistence could grow in
only an arithmetic progression.

3
HISTORY OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Rio Declaration proclaimed 27 principles of sustainable development.

Agenda 21 outlines actions to be taken to achieve sustainability.

Forest Principles provide recommendations for conservation and

sustainable development forestry.

CSD: It is responsible for monitoring implementation of

UNCED decisions.

1997- Kyoto Protocol

2000- Millennium Summit: Millenium Development Goals from

2001 to 2015

2002- Johannesburg Declaration: World Summit on Sustainable

Development (WSSD) held in Johannesburg for a 10-year assessment
of the Rio outcomes (Rio +10).

4
THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

2012-UN
Conference These
on Sustainable are based
Development/ Rio+20: on Agenda 21 and
Sustainable the Johannesburg
Development Goals Plan of
(SDGs) were Implementation.
launched.

For the
These are SDGs, the
17 goals baseline is from
with 169 2015 estimates
targets. Deadline (It was 1990
for achieving for MDGs).
SDGs: 2030
Agenda
2030 has five
overarching themes,
SDGs came known as the five
into effect Ps: people, planet,
in January prosperity, peace and
2016 partnerships,
which span across
the 17 SDGs.
SDG
Financing Lab:
An OECD-led initiative SDG Fund:
that strives to inform Created in 2014
decision-makers and by UN to support
policy leaders on how sustainable
to ensure the resources development
needed to achieve the activities.
2030
Agenda.

5
SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS

1 2 3

No Zero Good Health

Poverty Hunger & Well-being

6 5 4

Clean Water Gender Quality

& Sanitation Equality Education

7 8 9

Aﬀordable & Decent Work & Industry, Innovation

Clean Energy Economic Growth & Infrastructure
12 11 10

Responsible Sustainable Cities

Consumption & Reduced
& Communities Inequalities
Production
13 14 15

Climate Life Below Life On

Action Water Land
17 16

Partnerships Peace, Justice &

For the Goals Strong Institutions

6
Coordination by: NITI Aayog

SDG India Index:

By NITI Aayog- To measure the progress of
India and its States towards the SDGs for 2030
INDIA &
SDGs
23 States have prepared Vision documents and
action plans to guide their eﬀorts on the SDGs.

NITI Aayog is collaborating with IMF:

On estimating the ﬁnancial cost of achieving
key SDGs.

GREEN ECONOMY =

LOW
CARBON + RESOURCE
EFFICIENT
+ SOCIALLY
INCLUSIVE
GROWTH

GREEN ECONOMY: A green economy is deﬁned as low carbon, resource

eﬃcient and socially inclusive.

7
Partnership for Action on Green Economy (PAGE) :

Launched in 2013

Aim: To put sustainability at the heart of economic

policies and practices to advance the 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development

PAGE brings together ﬁve UN agencies

UN Environment,

International Labour Organization,

UN Development Programme,

UN Industrial Development Organization, and

UN Institute for Training and Research

8
MEANING & ORIGIN OF EIA

Meaning: It is the study to predict the eﬀect of a proposed

activity/project on the environment.

UNEP deﬁnes Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) as a tool

used to identify the environmental, social and economic impacts of
a project prior to decision-making.

Origin:
EIA introduced by NEPA in 1970 in US

India: Till 1994, it was an administrative decision and

lacked legislative support.
In 1994, EIA notiﬁcation promulgated under the
Environmental (Protection) Act 1986.

EIA PROCESS

PROJECT The submission of a project proposal signiﬁes

PROPOSAL: the commencement of the EIA process.

Projects without any negative environmental

SCREENING: impact are cleared at this stage.

PRELIMINARY If Screening does not clear a project, it moves to this stage.

ASSESSMENT: This step can clear projects of the need for a full EIA.

9
EIA PROCESS

It is a process of detailing the terms of reference of EIA.

The Ministry of Environment & Forests has published
SCOPING: guidelines for diﬀerent sectors, which outlines the
signiﬁcant issues to be addressed in the EIA studies.

Impact Prediction and Assessment of Alternatives.

Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation plan should
be drawn up for the selected option and is supplemented with an
Environmental Management Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent
towards environmental improvements

EIA Report

The State Pollution Control Boards will conduct

the public hearing before the proposals are sent to
PUBLIC MOEF for obtaining environmental clearance.
HEARING:
Any one likely to be aﬀected by the proposed project is
entitled to have access to the Executive Summary of the EIA.

Decision-Making

Monitoring the Clearance Conditions.

The Project Proponent, IAA and Pollution Control Boards should
monitor the implementation of conditions. The proponent is required to
ﬁle once in six months a report demonstrating the compliance to IAA

IT CATEGORIZED THE PROJECTS INTO 2 CATEGORIES:

Category A Projects Category B Projects

National Level Appraisal State Level Appraisal

Appraised by Impact Assessment Appraised by State Level Environment

Agency and Expert Appraisal Impact Assessment Authority and State
Committee Level Expert Appraisal Committee

Requires Mandatory environmental These projects undergo screening and are

clearance. Hence these projects do classiﬁed into 2 types:
not undergo screening. 1. Category B1(EIA is mandatory)
2. Category B2(Do not require EIA)

10
Categories of projects

Category 'A' Projects Category 'B' Projects

Require prior environmental Require prior environmental clearance from the
clearance from the Central State/UT Environment Impact Assessment Authority
Government. (SEIAA).
Decision taken based on the Decision taken based on the recommendations of a
recommendations of an Expert State or UT level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC).
Screening done for determining if they require further

Category 'B1' Projects Category 'B2' Projects

Require an EIA report for its Do not require an EIA report for its
appraisal prior to the grant of appraisal prior to the grant of

EIA NOTIFICATION, 2006

EIA CYCLE COMPRISES FOUR STAGES:

SCREENING PUBLIC HEARING

SCOPING APPRAISAL

11
Project category Need of environmental clearance

1. Oﬀshore and onshore Oil, Gas and shale exploration

Exempted projects 2. Hydroelectric projects up to 25 MW

3. Irrigation projects between 2000 to 10000 hectares
of command area.
4. Small and medium cement plants
5. Acids other than Phosphoric, Ammonia or Sulphuric
acid
6. MSMEs in dye and dye intermediates, bulk drugs,
synthetic rubbers, medium-sized paint units.
7. All inland waterway projects and expansion and
widening of highways between 25 KM and 100 KM
with deﬁned parameters.
8. Aerial ropeways in ecologically sensitive
areas.
9. Speciﬁed building construction and area
development projects; built-up area up to
1,50,000 sq. m.

12
KEY PROVISIONS OF THE 2020 DRAFT

REDUCED TIME FOR PUBLIC HEARINGS:

The notice period for public hearings is reduced
from 30 days to 20 days.

EXEMPTION OF PROJECTS:
Projects classiﬁed into A, B1 and B2 and a number
of projects are exempted from public scrutiny.

ANNUAL SUBMISSION OF REPORTS:

The new draft EIA, proposes the submission of
compliance reports annually (Earlier: 6 months)

Report Prepared Solely by Project Proponents

NO PUBLIC REPORTING FOR NON-COMPLIANCE.

Instead, the government will take cognizance of reports
only from the violator-promoter, government authority,
Appraisal Committee or Regulatory Authority.

POST-FACTO CLEARANCE:
Another major proposal in the draft 2020 is granting
‘post-facto clearance’ where a project that has been
operating without environmental clearance, can be
regularised or allowed to apply for clearance.

PENALTY FOR FIRMS:

Firms found violating the terms of their
establishment, if they have to get the clearance,
however, will have to pay a penalty.

13
QUICK REVISION MODULE (UPSC PRELIMS 2024)
GEOGRAPHY

AIR MASS

WARM COLD
AIR MASS
+25OF
-15OF

A large body of air having little horizontal variation in temperature and

moisture. The homogenous surfaces, over which air masses form, are called
the source regions .

FIVE MAJOR SOURCE PRIMARY AIR

REGIONS MASSES
1. Warm tropical and 1. Maritime tropical
subtropical oceans (mT)
2. The subtropical hot 2. Continental cA Arctic Front

deserts tropical (cT) mP

cP mP
3. The relatively cold high 3. Maritime polar
latitude oceans (mP) mT T Polar Front
mT
4. The very cold snow 4. Continental polar
covered continents in (cP)
high latitudes 5. Continental arctic
5. Permanently ice (cA)
covered continents in ‘m’ stands for Maritime;
the Arctic ‘c’ stands for continental;
‘T’ stands for tropical;
and Antarctica ‘P’ stands for polar and
‘A’ stands for arctic region

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

FRONTS Cold Warm

When two diﬀerent air masses with distinct properties (temperature, mois-
ture, density, pressure etc.) meet, the boundary zone between them is called a
front . The process of formation of the fronts is known as Frontogenesis while
Frontolysis is the end stage of a front .

FRONT CAN BE RECOGNIZED WITH FOLLOWING OBSERVATIONS:

Sharp temperature changes over a relatively short distance.

Sometimes change of 10 degrees to 20 degrees Celsius may be observed.
Change in moisture content
Rapid shifts in wind direction
Pressure changes
Clouds and precipitation patterns

TYPE OF FRONTS

WARM FRONT US CIRRU

S
STRAT
When a warmer and lighter air mass moves against an existing CIRRO
AIR
cold and dense airmass, it rises over the coldet and denser air WARM
S
TRATU
ALTOS
mass. Unlike the cold front, the changes in temperature and wind STR ATUS
NIMBO COLD AIR
direction are gradual.

COLD FRONT CO
L
WARM AIR
When a cold and dense airmass forces its way under warm and
DA
IR CUMULONIMBUS
lighter airmass it makes the warm and lighter airmass to ride over
it. Cold front is much steeper than the warm front.

STATIONERY FRONT COL

This happens when two masses of air are pushing against each M
WAR
other but neither is powerful enough to move the
other. Wind blows parallel to the front.

WARM
OCCLUDED FRONT
At an occluded front, the cold air mass from the cold front meets VERY COLD
the cool air that was ahead of the warm front.
COLD

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

CYCLONES

Extra-Tropical cyclone (Temperate cyclone) – These are the weather

disturbances in the mid and high latitude, beyond the tropics.

1. The general
direction of
North Cold Air

movement of
Cold Air
Cold Air temperate cyclones
Front Coldnt
nt is from west to east.

W
Fro War
Fro

ar
m Fron

m
ld
2. Heavy
t Co

Fr
Air

on
Warm Air Warm A
ir

t
m
South War concentration of
storms tracks in the
1 2 3 vicinity of the
First Stage; (Open Stage) Cold and
warm Air Masses move almost
Second Stage; The cold and warm
airmass attempt to force their
Third Stage; On account of the
rising of warm airmass a low Aleutian and
parallel to each other and the
fronts are localised.
entry into each other’s territory.
Therefore the fronts have become
pressure centre develops. The air
moves towards the low pressure Icelandic lows.
a zone of conﬂict. centre forming whirlwinds. As a
result a cyclone develops. Cold and 3. During winter
months, the
warm fronts too have been fully
developed.

opposing air masses

Cold Air have greater
contrasts in their
properties. So the
ld
Fro
nt
nt winter cyclones are
Co Warm Fro
Warm Air Front
Co
ld
ir
Warm Front
Front greater in number
Cold A
Warm Air and are more
4 5 6 intense.
Fourth Stage; On account of great Fifth Stage; Warm front is riding Sixth and Last Stage; The warm
4. Jet streams
surge ahead of cold front both
fronts are coming closer and warm
over the cold front. It is called
occluded front. It is the end stage
front has dissolved. Warm and cold
Air Masses move in opposite
supports the growth
front is shrinking away. of a cyclone. direction on both sides of polar
front. This is the end of a cyclone.
and inﬂuence the
path of temperate
cyclones.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

TROPICAL CYCLONE
Undisturbed Winds
Tropopause The tropical cyclone Conditions favoura-
km Tropo
p ause
Tropo
p ause develops from the ble for the formation
15
Steering Wind Flow
‘warm core’ of extreme- and intensiﬁcation of
Subsiding
12 Warm Air ly low pressure area in tropical storms are:
Out F Flow
the tropical oceanic
low Out
Large sea surface
areas.
9
T2
with temperature
6
T1 Ra
in nd
s They are energized higher than 27° C
Ba Ba

from condensation
in
Presence of the
nd
Ra
Eye Wall

Eye Wall

s
3 Nb

process in the towering Coriolis force

P2 Nb Cu
Cu K K

cumulonimbus clouds,
P1

Small variations
Eye
300 200 200 300

surrounding the centre in the vertical

Direction of the Storm of the storm. wind
On reaching the land A pre-existingweak
the moisture supply is low-pressure area
cut off and the storm or low-level-cyclon-
Top View
dissipates. ic circulation
Coriolis force causes Upper divergence
cyclonic circulation. above the sea
Eye
level system.
At the equator, the
Coriolis force is zero Small variations
and the wind blows in the vertical
perpendicular to the wind speed
Eyewall
isobars. The low pres-
sure gets filled instead
of getting intensified.
That is the reason why
0 miles 100 200
tropical cyclones are
100 200 300 not formed near the
equator.
Because of weak verti-
cal wind shear, cyclone
Region Local Name
formation processes are
Indian Ocean Cyclone or limited to latitudes
Chakrvaat
equatorword of the
Atlantic Hurricanes
sub-tropical jet stream.
Western Pacific Typhoons
and South China
Sea
Western Australia Willy-willies

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN EXTRA-TROPICAL AND
TROPICAL CYCLONES –
EXTRA-TROPICAL CYCLONE TROPICAL CYCLONE
Have a clear frontal system and get Fronts are not present and get
energy from the horizontal tempera- energy from warm and moist air
ture contrasts that exist in the atmos- of ocean
phere
Can originate over the land and sea Originate only over the seas
Travel both on oceans and land On reaching the land they dissipate.
Aﬀects a much larger area as Wind velocity in a tropical
compared to the tropical cyclone. cyclone is much higher and it is
more destructive.
Move from west to east Move from east to west

THUNDERSTORMS AND TORNADOES

Thunderstorm – A storm accompa- Tornado – From severe thunder-
nied by thunder and lightning is storms sometimes spiraling wind
called thunderstorm. It is associated descends like a trunk of an ele-
with the cumulonimbus clouds. Thun- phant with great force, with very
derstorms are caused by intense con- low pressure at the centre causing
vection on moist hot days. massive destruction on its way.
Such a phenomenon is called a
tornado.
TORNADO

Descending
air

Funnel
cloud with
upward
current

Low
Pressure

FOR DETAILED ENQUIRY, PLEASE CALL:

5
Vision IAS
www.visionias.in GUWAHATI
2024
2024
¬ñ¬Ė)bĖBĖ;,$)bĖW,qĖb)WHf$)Ė[T
#WHAĖb)Ė[fBñĖfB,bĖH#ĖA[fWABb[ĖH#
b),[ĖBW$xĖ,[Ė;B$;xĖĀ;xāñ

F9JC@IH=CB
5]]dP[X]b^[PcX^]aTRTXeTSQhcWT
TPacWPc_TaXWT[X^]Xbb[XVWc[h\^aT
cWP]PcP_WT[X^]

FCH5H=CB
5]V[TbÛSTVaTTbfXcWcWT
_[P]TÛXcbâQXc

=B7@=B5H=CB
=U@PaVTP]V[TÛX]RXST]RT êTa
WTPSbd] aPhbR^]RT]caPcTSX]P
b\P[[TaPaTPVXeX]V\âTP\^d]c
ÛX]b^[PcX^]PccWT_[PRT
=U@PaVTP]V[TÛX]RXST]RT ^Q[X`dT
bd]aPhb [TbbP\^d]cÛX]b^[PcX^]
:57HCFG 5[b^[^]VTacWT_PcWÛbd]0baPhb
=B:@I9B7=B; VaTPcTaXbcWTP\^d]cÛaTōTRcX^]
P]SPQbâ_cX^]ÛWTPcQhPc\^b_WTaT
=BGC@5H=CB
@9B;H<C:85M
@^]VSPhb Gd\\Tab \âTX]b^[PcX^]
P]SbWâcSPhb fX]cTab [TbbTaX]b^[PcX^]

HF5BGD5F9B7MC:5HACG<D<9F9
8T_T]Sbd_^]R[^dSR^eTaXcbcWXRZ]Tbb
fPcTaeP_^daP]Sb^[XS_PacXR[TbTcR

GIBGDCH7M7@9
=]RaTPbTX]bd]b_^cb[TPSc^X]RaTPbT
X]cWTP\^d]c^Ub^[PaaPSXPcX^]

HCDC;F5D<M
JPaXPQ[TX]T[TePcX^]bdaUPRT^aXT]cPcX^]
b[^_TP]SPb_TRc P]S^QbcadRcX^]Qh
bdaa^d]SX]Vc^_^VaP_WXRUTPcdaTb

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳ
DTa_T]SXRd[Pa
FPhb 5c\^b_WTaT CQ[X`dT

5 G`\ R
GIB0GF5MG
CQ
[X`
dT DTa_T]SXRd[Pa
6 R
G`\

FPh
b R

R
R

9::97HC:5B;@9C:=B7@=B5H=CBCB=BGC@5H=CB

APgX\d\X]b^[PcX^]XbaTRTXeTSêTacWTbdQca^_XRP[STbTacb9`dPcâaTRTXeTb
R^\_PaPcXeT[h[TbbX]b^[PcX^]cWP]cWTca^_XRbSdTc^_aTbT]RTÛR[^dSb5ccWT
bP\T[PcXcdSTcWTX]b^[PcX^]Xb\âTêTacWTR^]cX]T]ccWP]êTacWT^RTP]b
5c\^b_WTaTVTcb\âTWTPcUa^\cWTcTaaTbcaXP[aPSXPcX^]cWP]Ua^\X]b^[PcX^]

<TPcX]VP]S7^^[X]V^UcWT5c\^b_WTaT

F58=5H=CB
9]TaVhXbcaP]bUTaaTSQh
T[TRca^\PV]TcXRaPSXPcX^]

58J97H=CB

7CBJ97H=CB
HaP]bUTaÛWTPccWa^dVW
7CB8I7H=CB WâXi^]cP[\êT\T]cÛPXa
9]TaVhXbcaP]bUTaaTSQh
SXaTRcR^]cPRc

7^^[
KPa\
<TPc KPa\

<TPc

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ʹ
ñĖĖ)bĖf$b
BâcWD^[T
R
5@698CHWT D^[PaT]TaVh D^[TfPaS
aTōTRcTSP\^d]cÛ STŋRXc caP]b_âc
aPSXPcX^]Qh9PacW ÛT]TaVh
bda_[db

CdcV^X]VT]TaVhVPX]
=]R^\X]VT]TaVhVPX]
<95H6I8;9HHWT
QP[P]RT^UX]R^\X]V
P]S^dcV^X]VWTPc
^]9PacW

9`dPcâXP[ca^_XRP[
T]TaVhbda_[db
D^[TfPaS
D^[PaT]TaVh caP]b_âcÛ
STŋRXc T]TaVhbda_[db
R
G^dcWD^[T

®ñĖbATWbfWó
:57HCFG5::97H=B;H<9H9AD9F5HIF9

@PcXcdST 5[cXcdST 8XbcP]RTUa^\

cWTGTP CRTP]7daaT]cb
AêX]VUa^\T`dP @^fTa[PhTabÛ A^STaPcX]VTŇTRc
câc^fPaSb_^[Tb cWTPc\^b_WTaT SdTc^]TPa]Tbbc^ @ X \ X c T S c ^ c W T
cWTX]R[X]PcX^]Û PaTR^\_PaPcXeT[h bTPfWX[TX]cTaXâ PSY^X]X]VR^PbcP[
cWTGd]0baPhbX]Ra fPa\TacWP]cWT PaTPbWPeTTgcaT\Tb PaTPb
TPbT d__Ta[PhTab ÛcT\_TaPcdaT

5Xa\Pbb G[^_TGWT[cTa BPcdaT^U

RXaRd[PcX^] P]SPb_TRc Va^d]SbdaUPRT
5Xa\PbbTbX]Uâ\ G[^_TbÛP\^d]cPX]UP G]^fWPbeTahWXVWP[QTS^
ÛfX]SbWT[_bX]cWT RX]VcWTbd]Tg_TaXT]RTb cWdbaTōTRcb\dRWXUcWT
aTSXbcaXQdcX^]ÛcT\ WXVWcT\_TaPcdaTcWP] X]b^[PcX^]
_TaPcdaT cWTb[^_Tb^]cWT[TT GP]ShbdaUPRTaTRâSWXVW
fPaSbXST cT\_TaPcdaTSdTc^PQbâ
_PcX^]

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͵
APaXcX\T Gd\\TaR7
aTVX^]
KX]cTaR7
FP]VTÛHT\_R7
ATcTa =]RaTPbX]V5[cXcdST
FTUaPRcX^]Û5Xa KPa\KX]Sb

KPa\X]VTŇTRc

Gd\\TaR7
KX]cTaR7
FP]VTÛHT\_R7

P TŇTRc^UP[cXcdST GTP7[X\PcT 7^]cX]T]cP[7[X\PcT

Q \PaXcX\TX]ōdT]RT

B^acWbXST G^dcWbXST
7^^[ KPa\

8=GHF=6IH=CBC:H9AD9F5HIF9

>5BI5FM >I@M H9FAG G=A=@5F5GD97H

=b^cWTa\bSTeXPcT =b^cWTa\bVT]Ta =b^cWTa\b @X]TY^X]X]V_[PRTbWPeX]VT`dP[

c^cWT]âcWêTa P[[h_PaP[[T[c^cWT cT\_TaPcdaT
cWT^RTP]P]Sc^ [PcXcdST
cWTb^dcWêTacWT =b^QPab @X]TY^X]X]V_[PRTbWPeX]VT`dP[
R^]cX]T]c _aTbbdaTb

=]b^dcWTa]WT\Xb_WTaT\âTâ =b^WP[X]T GP[X]Xch P\^d]cÛbP[c ÛbTP

[Tbb_PaP[[T[c^cWT[PcXcdSTbSdTc^ fPcTaXbbP\T
[Tbb[P]S\PbbP]ScWTePaXPcX^]X] =b^WhcT 5\^d]cÛ_aTRX_XcPcX^]XbbP\T
cT\_TaPcdaT =b^WT[ 5\^d]cÛbd]bWX]TXbbP\T
HT\_TaPcdaT5]^\P[h8XŇTaT]RTQTcfTT]cWT\TP]cT\_TaPcdaTÛP]h_[PRT
P]ScWT\TP]cT\_TaPcdaTÛXcb_PaP[[T[bAPgX\d\cT\_TaPcdaTP]^\P[XTbPaT
U^d]SX]cWTBâcWTa]WT\Xb_WTaT

=b^cWTa\bPaTVT]TaP[[h_PaP[[T[c^T`dPc^a7[^bT[hSaPf]Xb^cWTa\bX]SXRPcT
aP_XSRWP]VTX]cT\_TaPcdaTP]SeXRTeTabP

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 Ͷ
HT\_TaPcdaT=]eTabX^];T]TaP[[hcT\_TaPcdaTSTRaTPbTbfXcW]^a\P[
[P_bTaPcT 7_Ta\ HWTaXbT^UcT\_TaPcdaTfXcWWTXVWcXbZ]^f]
PbHT\_TaPcdaTX]eTabX^]

7CB8=H=CBG F95GCBG

@^]VfX]cTa]XVWcb HWTQ^cc^\[PhTa^UPc\^b_WTaTX]R^]cPRc
fXcWcWTVa^d]SXbP[b^R^^[TSP]ScWTd__Ta
[PhTaaT\PX]baT[PcXeT[hfPa\
7[^dS[TbbR[TPabZh B^^QbcadRcX^]c^cWTcTaaTbcaXP[aPSXPcX^]
8ahPXa B^^QbcadRcX^]c^cWTcTaaTbcaXP[aPSXPcX^]
7P[\Pc\^b_WTaT 7^[SPXabcPhb_dc]TPacWTVa^d]S
=RTR^eTaTSbdaUPRT 5XaX]R^]cPRcfXcWXcXbP[b^R^^[TSQdccWT
d__Ta[PhTaaT\PX]bfPa\

:aTTiX]V

7^[S5Xa

ATcTa

KPa\Ta5Xa

=]eT]bX^]
:a^]c 7^[S5Xa R7

HT\_TaPcdaT R7

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͷ
:^a\ST]bTU^V]TPacWT
TPacW0bbdaUPRTP]SRPdbX]V
_a^Q[T\bX]QaTPcWX]V

9::97HC:
H9AD9F5HIF9 JP[[Thb_T^_[TbTcc[TbS^f]
^]cWTd__Tab[^_Tb
=BJ9FG=CBCB
<IA5B

IbT^UŋaT^aQXVQ[^fTab
c^SaPX]^ŇcWTPaTP

H9AD9F5HIF9F5B;9G

8PX[h_PccTa]^UcT\_TaPcdaTRWP]VT;T]TaP[[h
8=IFB5@F5B;9C:H9AD9F5HIF9 \X]X\d\Xb>dbcQTU^aTbd]aXbTP]S\PgX\d\Xb
PQ^dcDA

8XŇTaT]RTQTcfTT]cWTPeTaPVTcT\_TaPcdaT
5BBI5@5J9F5;9F5B;9C: ÛW^ccTbc\^]cWP]SPeTaPVTcT\_TaPcdaTÛcWT
H9AD9F5HIF9 R^[STbc\^]cWÛcWThTPa@^fTaX][^f[PcXcdSTb
P]SWXVWTaX]WXVW[PcXcdSTb

ACFB=B; 5::H9FBCCB

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͸
¯ñĖbAH[T)W,Ė,Wf;b,HB

JPaXTSP\^d]c^U 8XŇTaT]cXP[WTPcX]V HT\_TaPcdaT 8T]bXchSXŇTa

X]b^[PcX^]^]TPacW ^UcWTTPacW SXŇTaT]RT T]RTbX]cWTPXa

5XaX]WâXi^]cP[ AêT\T]cÛPXaUa^\WXVW 8T]bXchSXŇTa

\^cX^]XbfX]S _aTbbdaTc^[^f_aTbbdaT T]RTbX]cWTPXa

DF9GGIF9J5F=5H=CBG

J9FH=75@DF9GGIF9J5F=5H=CB

GcP]SPaS_aTbbdaT
PcbTP[TeT[
\Q

GcaPc^b_WTaT
5[cXcdST Z\

FPSX^b^]ST Z\
QP[[^^]b
Z\
A^d]c9eTaTbc
Z\
7XaadbR[^dSb
6^TX]V Z\
Ha^_^_PdbT
Z\
7d\d[dbR[^dSb 5[c^bcaPcdbR[^dSb Z\ Ha^_^b_WTaT
Z\ Z\

DaTbbdaT \Q

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͹
>5BI5FMACBH< >I@MACBH<

<âXi^]cP[\êT\T]cÛPXaX]aTb_^]bTc^SXŇTaT]RTX]_aTbbdaTXbcTa\TS
PbfX]SfWX[TeTacXRP[â]TPa[heTacXRP[\êX]VPXaXbRP[[TSPXaRdaaT]c

:CF79G;CJ9FB=B;5=FACJ9A9BH

FPcT^URWP]VT^U @^f <XVW

DaTbbdaT DaTbbdaT 5[cXcdST
;aPSXT]c _aTbbdaTfXcWaTb_TRc KX]S
c^SXbcP]RT DaTbbdaT <XVW
;aPSXT]c:âRT 7âX^ DaTbbdaT
[X b:âR
T
BD

RB
BâcWTa] 8TōTRcX^]
HWTSTōTRcX^]XbP[fPhb <T\Xb_WTaT câXVWc
RB
c^cWTaXVWcÛcWTSXaT
7âX^[Xb RcX^]Û\^cX^]X]cWT
:âRT ]âcWTa]WT\Xb_WTaT B^STōTRcX^]
Pc9`dPcâ
9`dPcâ

P]Sc^cWT[TUcX]cWT
b^dcWTa]WT\Xb_WTaT G^dcWTa] 8TōTRcX^]
RG
<T\Xb_WTaT c^[TUc
RG
GD

:âRTfWXRWXbPRcX]V
7T]caX_TcP[ RT]caX_TcP[[h_d[[X]V
:âRT
PXaX]fPaSb
=b^QPa
=b^QPa
;aTPcTbcPccWTbdaUPRT GdaUPRTKX]S
P]SX]ōdT]RTVT]TaP[[h @^fDaTbbdaT
:aXRcX^]P[ TgcT]Sb
:âRT DaTbbdaT
I_c^P]T[TePcX^]Û ;aPSXT]c
<XVWDaTbbdaT
Z\ :âRT 7âX^[
Xb
:aXRcX^]P[:âRT :âRT

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͺ
8=GHF=6IH=CBC:DF9GGIF969@HG

GdQ_^[Pa[^f_aTbbdaTQT[c
9`dPc^aXP[[^f_aTbbdaTQT[c 5[^]VSTVaTT[PcXcdSTb
GdQca^_XRP[WXVW_aTbbdaTQT[c
STVaTTBG[PcXcdSTb X]Q^cWcWTWT\Xb_WTaT
c^STVaTTBG[PcXcdSTb
HWTa\P[[h_a^SdRTS [^f_aTbbdaTSdTc^fX]SbR^\X]V
7^[SP]SWTPehfX]SbSTbRT]Sb
8^[Sad\b Ua^\cWTbdQca^_XRbP]ScWT_^[Pa
aTbd[cX]VWXVW_aTbbdaT =]cTaHa^_XRP[7^]eTaVT]RT aTVX^]bR^]eTaVTX]cWXbQT[cP]S
<^abT[PcXcdST N^]T =H7N aXbTd_fPaS
GdQ5]cPaRcXR[^f

=]cWTAXSS[T[PcXcdSTb 9PbcTa[XTbUa^\TXcWTabXST^U

STVaTT SdTc^R^]eTaVT]RTPc cWTT`dPcâR^]eTaVTX]cWT D^[PaWXVW_aTbbdaTQT[c
bdQ_^[Pa[^faTbd[cX]Vd_[XUcX]V =H7NHWdbfX]SbâXVX]PcTSPc HWTa\P[[hX]SdRTSSdTc^[^f
P]SbX]ZX]VPcbdQca^_XRP[WXVW =H7NR^\TQPRZX]PRXaRd[Pa cT\_TaPcdaT
Ua^\X]V:TaaT[RT[[ UPbWX^]Uâ\X]V<PS[ThRT[[

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͻ
G<=:H=B;C:69@HG
HWT_aTbbdaTQT[cbbfX]VPa^d]ST`dPcâ
H^cWT]âcWÛT`dPcâ X]>d[h
H^cWTb^dcWÛT`dPcâ X]8TR
FTPb^]8dTc^cWTP__PaT]cP]]dP[\XVaPcX^]ÛcWTbd]

@^f_aTbbdaT 9gcT]Sb
T`dPcâXP[QT[c c^[PcXcdSTb
TgcT]SbcX[[ca^ STVaTTb
_XRÛRP]RTa b^dcW
APaRWâ
>d]T bT_cT\QTa 8TRT\QTa

KTbcTa[XTb KTbcTa[XTb KTbcTa[XTb

<âbT <âbT
@PcXcdST @PcXcdST <âbT
@PcXcdST BHÛ7P]RTa
B9 B9
HaPSTfX]Sb HaPSTfX]Sb B9
HaPSTfX]Sb
8^[SSad\ 8^[SSad\ 8^[SSad\
9`dPcâ
G9 <âbT
HaPSTfX]Sb G9 G9
HaPSTfX]Sb @PcXcdST HaPSTfX]Sb
<âbT <âbT HÛ7P_aXR^\
@PcXcdST @PcXcdST RG
RG
KTbcTa[XTb KTbcTa[XTb
KTbcTa[XTb

<XVW5XaDaTbbdaT @^f5XaDaTbbdaT

>d]T 8TRT\QTa

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͲ
;T]TaP[7XaRd[PcX^]^UcWT5c\^b_WTaT

DaX\PahRXaRd[PcX^]^aD[P]TcPahKX]SbFT[PcTSc^cWTVT]TaP[
PaaP]VT\T]c^U_aTbbdaTQT[cb^]cWTTPacW bbdaUPRT

KX]SP]S@PcXcdST FTVX^] 7XaRd[PcX^]7T[[ 8XaTRcX^] B^acWTa]P]S

G^dcWTa]<T\Xb_WTaT
aTb_TRcXeT[h
=]cTaHa^_XRP[
Ha^_XRP[TPbcTa[XTb
7^]eTaVT]RT
^acaPSTfX]Sb <PS[Th7T[[
N^]T =H7N P]S
STVaTTbBG B^acWTPbcP]S
bdaa^d]SX]V
G^dcWTPbc

KTbcTa[XTb KTbcc^TPbc
AXSS[T[PcXcdSTb :TaaT[RT[[
<^abT[PcXcdST =]b^dcWTa]<T\Xb_WTaT
STVaTTBG P]SD^[PaRT[[
F^PaX]VU^acXTbUdaX^db
ŋUcXTbP]SbRaTP\X]V
bXgcXTb
D^[PaTPbcTa[XTb
6Th^]S D^[PaaTVX^] D^[PaRT[[ :a^\TPbcc^fPaSb
STVaTTbBG fTbc

@^RP[KX]Sb

HWT@P]SP]SGTP6aTTiTb

:a^\<Di^]Tc^ :a^\<Di^]Tc^
@Di^]T @Di^]T
KPa\5Xa KPa\5Xa
7^^[GTP6aTTiT 7^^[[P]S
6aTTiT

<XVWDaTbbdaT @^fDaTbbdaT
@^fDaTbbdaT <XVWDaTbbdaT
8Ph @P]SfPa\Ta GTP7^^[Ta BXVWc @P]S7^^[Ta GTPKPa\Ta

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͳ
HWTA^d]cPX]P]SJP[[Th6aTTiTb
KPa\5Xa KPa\5Xa KPa\Ta5Xa
7^^[5Xa 7^^[5Xa
7^^[5Xa

5XaUa^\cWT 8T]bTPXa
eP[[ThQ[^fb STbRT]Sb
d_cWTeP[[Th X]c^cWT
JP[[Th

JP[[ThQaTTbT^a
P]PQPcXRfX]S A^d]cPX]QaTTiT
^aZPcPQPcXRfX]S
KPa\X]VA^d]cPX]bXSTb 7^^[X]VA^d]cPX]bXSTb
8Ph BXVWc

CcWTa[^RP[fX]Sb

BP\T <^c 8ah A^Xbc 7^[S JTah7^[S @^RPcX^]

@^^ BâcWTa]_[PX]bÛ=]SXPP]S
DPZXbcP]KTbcc^TPbcSXaTRcX^]
@TTfPaSbXSTÛcWT5[_b\^d]
:^TW] cPX]aP]VTb

7WX]^^Z 9PbcTa]b[^_Tb^UcWTF^RZXTb
X]IG5P]S7P]PSP
GXa^RR^ GPWPaPSTbTacc^ATSXcTaaP]TP]
bTP
?WP\bX] 9Vh_c

<Pa\PccP] BâcWfTbc5UaXRPUa^\cWT
]âcWTPbc
AXbcaP[ 5[_bc^fPaSbcWTATSXcTaaP]TP]
GTP
6[^fX]VS^f]Ua^\cWT\^d]c
6âP PX]bX]cWT5SaXPcXRGTPaTVX^]
=cP[h
6[XiiPaS 5]cPaRcXR
6aXRZŋT[STa G^dcWTa]5dbcaP[XP

DP\_Ta^ DP\_Pb^U5aVT]cX]PP]S
IadVdPh

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳʹ
I__Ta5Xa7XaRd[PcX^] >TcGcaTP\

Hf^_Ta\P]T]cYTcbcaTP\i^]TbX]TPRWWT\Xb_WTaT
GdQca^_XRP[YTcbcaTP\ D^[PaUa^]cYTcbcaTP\

GdQca^_XRP[YTc

D^[Pa>Tc

Ha^_^_PdbT
<PS[Th7T[[
:TaaP[7T[[
D^[Pa7T[[

B^acWD^[T RB RB 9`dPc^a

>TcGcaTP\7^]RT]caPcTSQP]Sb^UaP_XSPXa\^eT\T]c

<XVWP[cXcdST]TPacWT G_TTSePaXTbUa^\Z\_WX]
c^_ÛcWTca^_^b_WTaT cWTbd\\TabTPb^]c^Z\_W
X]cWTfX]cTabTPb^]
GWP_TXbRXaRd[PaP]ScWT
b_TTSXbbca^]VTbcX]cWT 7XaRd[PcX^]_PcWXbfPehP]S
RT]caT \TP]STaX]VZ]^f]PbF^bbQh
fPeTb
:^[[^fcWTP__PaT]c
\êT\T]cÛbd]

\_W
\_W
D^[Pa>Tc
\_W
GdQca^_XRP[
\_W >Tc

>TcbcaTP\

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳ͵
I__Ta5Xa7XaRd[PcX^] >TcGcaTP\

Hh_T
D^[PaUa^]cYTcbcaTP\ STVaTTBGX]Q^cWWT\Xb_WTaT
GdQca^_XRP[YTcbcaTP\STVaTTbBGX]Q^cWcWTWT\Xb_WTaTb
9PbcTa]Ha^_XRP[>TcGcaTP\6TcfTT]T`dPc^aP]SSTVaTTb]^acWX]
b^dcWTPbc5bXP=]SXPP]S5UaXRP

:TPcdaTb
CaXVX]SdTc^cT\_TaPcdaTSXŇTaT]RTAâT\TP]STaX]V_PcWcWP]cWTGdQ
Ha^_XRP[>TcGcaTP\GfX]Vbc^fPaSb_^[TbX]bd\\TabP]Sc^fPaSbT`dPcâ
X]fX]cTa
6[^fbR^]bcP]c[hb_TTSXbR^\_PaPcXeT[h[^fTacWP]_^[PaYTcGfX]Vbc^cWT
]âcWÛ<X\P[PhPbX]bd\\TaX]BâcW=]SXP
GTPb^]P[X]]PcdaT9PbcTa]SXaTRcX^]fWXRWXb^__^bXcTc^cWPcÛ^cWTacf^
YTcbcaTP\b[^RPcTSR^\_PaPcXeT[hPcWXVWTaWTXVWc

7^]bT`dT]RTb^UYTcbcaTP\

5ŇTRcfTPcWTaR^]SXcX^]b
7^]caXQdcTc^^aXVX]PcX]VRhR[^]TbP]cXRhR[^]Tbbc^a\bP]SST_aTbbX^]b

6dabcX]V^U\^]b^^]X]=]SXPFT[PcTSc^9PbcTa]Ha^_XRP[>Tc

G_TTSP]SR^]bXSTaPQ[hbPeTUdT[c^PTa^_[P]TbXUō^fX]VX]bP\TSXaTRcX^]
GcX[[ePaX^dbd]Z]^f]Pb_TRcb

GdQca^_XRP[ =]cTaHa^_XRP[ GdQca^_XRP[

<XVWDaTbbdaT HaPSTKX]Sb 7^]eTaVT]RT <XVWDaTbbdaT
N^]T N^]T N^]T
GdQca^_XRb 9`dPc^a GdQca^_XRb

)25'(7$,/('(148,5<3/($6(&$//
ͳͶ
9LVLRQ,$6
ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ *8:$+$7,
2024
SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE

Financial Environmental Social

Sustainability Sustainability Sustainability

QUICK REVISION MODULE ( UPSC PRELIMS 2024)

SUSTAINABLE
AGRICULTURE
SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
Sustainable agriculture: an integrated system of plant and animal production practices
having a site-specific application that will over the long-term
Satisfy human food and fiber needs.
Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the
agriculture economy depends.
Make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and
integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls.
Sustain the economic viability of farm operations.
Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole.

[email protected]
www.visionias.in
/C/VISIIONIASDELHI /VISION_IAS
Vision IAS
VISION_IAS WWW.VISIONIAS.IN /VISIONIAS_UPSC
1
Soil
Rejuvenation

Seed Collection,
Preservation, Water
utilisation conservation
and Sharing Importance of
Sustainable
Agriculture

Agricultural
methods Pest control

NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL

PRACTICES
Currently, many countries face the challenge of wasted resources due to inefficient of
practices. Here is how...

14% of global greenhouse gas emissions

Conversion of 50% of the world’s habitable land into farming land

Increased pesticide usage by 26 times over the past 50 years

Polluted 48% of stream and river water

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

Unsustainable agricultural practices lead to loss of 12 million hectare of land
each year to decertification

At this rate by 2050, another 120 million hectares of natural habitates will
be lost to farmland

This further strengthens the need for using available resources in the best possible
way to minimize the adverse impact on our environment and improve the agricultural
productivity by deploying high yielding, water efficient and pesticide resistant seeds.

PRINCIPLES OF SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) has established
five basic principles for the global agricultural sector to become increasingly
productive and sustainable.

Improve the
efficiency in
the use of the Protect and
resources improve the
rural lifestyle
and the social
welfare.

Responsible and
effective governance
mechanism.
Promote
direct activities Strengthen the
to preserve, resilience of people,
protect and improve communities and
the natural ecosystems.
resources.

With these five principles, FAO aims to create national, regional and global systems
that promote sustainability at the social, economic and ambiental levels.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

SUSTAINABLE PRODUCTION PRACTICES
Diversification of crops and culture practice

Management of soil quality

Plant
Production
Practices
Efficient and human use of inputs

Consideration of farmer’s goals lifestyle

choices

Management Planning when including

livestock in farming

Animal Selection, considering the form

capabilities and constraints.
Animal
Production
Practices Animal Nutrition including feed quality and
monitoring animal health periodically

Use of good genetic stock and quality

germplasm to improve herd performance.

A herd health program is critical to

sustainable livestock production.

SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES

1. Mulching
Mulch is simply a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the soil.
Mulches can either be organic -- such as grass clippings, straw, bark chips, and
similar materials -- or inorganic -- such as stones, brick chips, and plastic. Mulching
enriches and protects soil, helping provide a better growing environment.

Signicance of Mulching
Protects the soil from erosion

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

Reduces compaction from the impact of heavy rains

Conserves moisture, reducing the need for frequent waterings

Maintains a more even soil temperature

Prevents weed growth

2. Zero Tillage
Zero tillage is the process where the crop seed will be sown through drillers without
prior land preparation and disturbing the soil where previous crop stubbles are
present. Zero tillage not only reduce the cost of cultivation it also reduces the soil
erosion, crop duration and irrigation requirement and weed effect which is better
than tillage. Zero Tillage (ZT) also called No Tillage or Nil Tillage.

3. Agro-Ecology
Agroecology is an integrated approach that simultaneously applies ecological
and social concepts and principles to the design and management of food and
agricultural systems. It seeks to optimize the interactions between plants, animals,
humans and the environment while taking into consideration the social aspects
that need to be addressed for a sustainable and fair food system.

POSITIVE RECYCLING
ECOLOGICAL
INTEGR-
ATION

ECONOMIC INPUT
DIVESIFICATION REDUCTION

COCREATION PRINCIPLES OF ANIMAL

OF AGRO - ECOLOGY HEALTH
KNOWLEDGE

FOOD SYSTEM BIO-DIVESITY

BASED ON
CULTURE

SOCIAL LAND AND

PARTICIPATION NATURAL
DECENTRALISED RESOURCE
GOVER- GOVER-
NANCE NANCE

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 5

4. Organic Farming
A system of farm design and management to create an eco-system of agriculture
production without the use of synthetic external inputs such as chemicals,
fertilisers, pesticides and synthetic hormones or genetically modified organisms.

Maintain Biological Diversity

Maintain long term soil fertility

Recycle materials and resources

Principles of
Organic
Production Promotes sound health of livestock
and optimise biological productivity

Prepare organic products through

methods maintaining vital qualities
of products

Rely on renewable resources

Mandatory labeling of Organic food: It should convey full and accurate information
on the organic status of the product. There will be penalties on non-compliance of
regulation.

Approval authority: Organic food products should carry a certification mark or a quality
assurance mark given by
National Programme for Organic Production (NPOP)
Participatory Guarantee System for India (PGS-India)
Voluntary logo from the FSSAI that marked its produce as 'organic.

5. Zero Budget Natural Farming (ZBNF)

It is a natural farming technique in which farming is done without use of chemicals
and without using any credits or spending any money on purchased inputs. ZBNF
reduces the cost of production down to zero due to utilisation of all the natural
resources available in and around the crops. Farmers use earthworms, cow dung,
urine, plants, human excreta and other biological fertilizers for crop protection.
It has been developed by Subhash Palekar.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 6

CORE PRINCIPLE OF ZBNF

1. DEEJAMRUTHAM: Microbial seed 2. JEEVAMRUTHAM: enhance soil

coating through cow urine and dung microbiome through application of cow
based formulations. dung, cow urine and other local
ingredients

3. COVER CROPS AND MULCHING: 4. WAAPHASA

Ground to be keept covered with crops Fast build up of soil humus through ZBNF
and also crop residues leads soil aeration

6. Intensive Agricultural Practices

Intensive farming practices which are thought to be sustainable have been
developed to slow the deterioration of agricultural land and even regenerate
soil health and ecosystem services. These developments may fall in the category
of organic farming, or the integration of organic and conventional agriculture.
Pasture cropping involves planting grain crops directly into grassland without first
applying herbicides. The perennial grasses form a living mulch understory to the
grain crop, eliminating the need to plant cover crops after harvest. The pasture is
intensively grazed both before and after grain production. This intensive system yields
equivalent farmer profits (partly from increased livestock forage) while building new
topsoil and sequestering up to 33 tons of CO 2/ha/year.

Biointensive agriculture focuses on maximizing efficiency such as per unit area,

energy input and water input.

Agroforestry combines agriculture and orchard/forestry technologies to create more

integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land-use systems.

Intercropping can increase yields or reduce inputs and thus represents

(potentially sustainable) agricultural intensification. However, while total yield per
acre is often increased, yields of any single crop often diminish. There are also
challenges to farmers relying on farming equipment optimized for monoculture,
often resulting in increased labor inputs.

Vertical farming is intensive crop production on a large scale in urban centers, in

multi-story, artificially-lit structures, for the production of low-calorie foods like
herbs, microgreens, and lettuce.

7. Permaculture
Permaculture is an innovative framework for creating harmonious integration
of landscape and people- providing their food, energy, shelter, and other material
and non-material needs in a sustainable way. The term was coined by Bill
Mollison in 1978.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 7

Signicance of Permaculture
Environment friendly: It discourages uses of chemical and pesticide and promotes
the uses of eco-friendly means to maintain soil health and increase productivity.
Decrease Global warming: Increasing area under permaculture from current 108
million acres to 1 billion acres by 2050 could result in a total reduction of 23.2
gigatons of CO2, from both sequestration and reduced emissions.
Promotion of Traditional practice: It incorporates traditional farming practices with
modern technological and scientific knowledge to create efficient systems. It can
also reduce the dependency of farmers on multi-national companies for genetically
modified seeds.
Improve income: Instead of monoculture, permaculture uses polyculture where a
diverse range of vegetation and animals are utilised to support each other to
create a self sustaining system.

8. Vertical Farming Systems

Vertical farming is cultivating and producing crops/ plants in vertically stacked layers
and vertically inclined surfaces. In 1915, Gilbert Ellis Bailey coined the term
“vertical farming”.

Advantages of vertical farming

High productivity per unit area i.e. almost 80% more harvest per unit of area.
Production throughout the year without the risk of vagaries of nature
Reduces the transport cost
70 to 95 % less water utilisation compared to traditional farming
90%less or no soil is needed and thus no pest and disease
Infestations so organic food is produced.
Fresh produce with all its original nutrient qualities.
Help in greening of the urban areas and help to reduce the rising temperatures
and mainly the air pollution in cities.

Disadvantages of vertical farming Initial high cost

High energy cost as growing plant is entirely with artificial lights.
The excess nutrients used in vertical farming may interfere and contaminate the
main urban water system if not taken care of.
LED lighting systems emit heat though small amount will create problem of
maintaining the temperatures especially in summer months and may overload the
air conditioning systems which will again incur high energy cost
Lot of garbage, plant residues, etc. will be generated around the buildings with
vertical farming which needs to be dispose off properly.
Skilled workforce is needed

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

Systems of Vertical farming
1. Hydroponics:
It is a method of growing food in water using mineral nutrient solutions without
soil. The basic ges of this method is that it reduces soil-related cultivation
problems like soil borne insects, pest and diseases.
2. Aeroponics
In aeroponics, there is no growing medium and hence, no containers for growing
crops. In aeroponics, mist or nutrient solutions are used instead of water. As the
plants are tied to a support and roots are sprayed with nutrient solution,
it requires very less space, very less water and no soil.
3. Aquaponics
It is a bio-system that integrates recirculated aquaculture (fish farming) with
hydroponic vegetable, flower, and herb production to create symbiotic
relationships between the plants and the fish.
It achieves this symbiosis through using the nutrient-rich waste from fish tanks to
“fertigate hydroponic production beds. In turn, the hydroponic beds also function
as bio-filters that remove gases, acids, and chemicals, such as ammonia, nitrates,
and phosphates, from the water.
Simultaneously, the gravel beds provide habitats for nitrifying bacteria, which
augment the nutrient cycling and filter water. Consequently, the freshly cleansed
water can be recirculated into the fish tanks.

Aquaponics

Hydroponics
Biofilter

Subsetract
Air Hydroponic tank
pump

Nutrient container

Water Sediment Fish tank

Pump tank
Aeroponics

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

9. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
IPM is an ecosystem-based strategy that focuses on long-term prevention of pests or
their damage through a combination of techniques such as biological control,
habitat manipulation, modification of cultural practices, and use of resistant
varieties.

Components of IPM

Pest identification.

Monitoring and assessing pest numbers and damage.

Preventing pest problems.

Using acombination of biological, cultural, physical/mechanical and chemical

management tools.

After action is taken, assessing the effect of pest management.

Approaches for managing pests are often grouped in the following categories.

Biological control: It is the use of natural enemies— predators, parasites,

pathogens,and competitors —to control pests and their damage.
Cultural controls: These are practices that reduce pest establishment,
reproduction, dispersal, and survival. For example, changing irrigation practices
can reduce pest problems, since too much water can increase root disease and
weeds.
Mechanical and physical controls: It kills a pest directly, block pests out, or
make the environment unsuitable for it. Traps for rodents are examples of
mechanical control. Physical controls include mulches for weed management,
etc.
Chemical control: It is the use of pesticides. In IPM, pesticides are use only when
needed and in combination with other approaches for more effective, long- term
control. Pesticides are selected and applied in a way that minimizes their possible
harm to people, non-target organisms, and the environment.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

Sustainable Development

Sustainable Agriculture

Integrated crop Management

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

Basic Components Technologies and Service IPM Implementation

Prevention Improved Crop vanities Education and Training

Crop rotation through genetic enginnering Multi-stakeholder
Cropping pattern Disease control through partnership including
Seed Selection biopesticides private sector, scientists
Fertilisation and Insect control through etc
Irrigation pheromones Technology transfer and
Inter-cropping Erosion control through cover capacity building of
Harvesting and storage crop management no tillage framers.
etc.

Observation
Crop monitoring
Decision support
Systems
Area Wide Management

Interventions
Cultural and Physical
Control
Biological Control
Chemical Control

All rights are reserved. No part of this document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 11

1
10. Integrated Farming System (IFS)
Integrated Farming System is the integrated crop production with livestock
management which in a way complements each other with a nice symbiotic
relationship which at the time is economically viable and profitable, environmentally
suitable, and benefit giver of diversification of production.

ORGANISATION
&
PLANNING
COMMUNNITY SOIL
ENGAGEMENT MANAGEMENT
& FERTILITY

CROP HEALTH &

LANDSCAPE PROTECTION
& NATURE Integrated
CONSERVATION
Farming
System
POLLUTION
CONTROL & BY-
PRODUCT
WATER MANAGEMENT
MANAGEMENT
ENERGY
EFFICIENCY ANIMAL
HUSBANDRY

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 12

1
Fixed
nitrogen Harvest
Feed sold
Storage
Crops Volatile
loss

Volatile loss Grazing

Deposition Soil Purchased
Puprchased feed,
fertilizer
Animal animals,
Manure dedding,
Runoff & etc.
leaching loss
Milk &
Exported manure animals sold
Volatile loss

Process of Integrated Farming system

GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
1. National Mission on Sustainable Agriculture
It aims at making agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and
climate resilient by promoting location specific integrated /composite farming
systems; soil and moisture conservation measures; comprehensive soil health
management; efficient water management practices and mainstreaming rainfed
technologies.

NMSA will have following objectives:

To make agriculture more productive, sustainable, remunerative and climate
resilient by promoting location specific Integrated/Composite Farming Systems;
To conserve natural resources through appropriate soil and moisture conservation
measures;
To adopt comprehensive soil health management practices based on soil fertility
maps, soil test based application of macro & micro nutrients, judicious use of
fertilizers etc.;
To optimize utilization of water resources through efficient water management to
expand coverage for achieving 'more crop per drop';

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 13

1
To develop capacity of farmers & stakeholders, in conjunction with other ongoing
Missions e.g. National Mission on Agriculture Extension & Technology, National Food
Security Mission, National Initiative for Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) etc., in
the domain of climate change adaptation and mitigation measures;
To pilot models in select blocks for improving productivity of rainfed farming by
mainstreaming rainfed technologies refined through NICRA and by leveraging
resources from other schemes/Missions like Mahatma Gandhi National Rural
Employment Guarantee Scheme (MGNREGS), Integrated Watershed Management
Programme (IWMP), RKVY etc.; and
To establish an effective inter and intra Departmental/Ministerial co-ordination for
accomplishing key deliverables of National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture under
the aegis of NAPCC.

Different strategies for implementation of National Mission for Sustainable

Agriculture includes Integrated farming system, technology adoption, water resources
management, agronomic practices, involvement of professionals and creation of
database etc.

Mission Interventions
Rainfed Area Development (RAD): RAD will adopt an area based approach for
development and conservation of natural resources along with farming systems.
On Farm Water Management (OFWM): OFWM will focus primarily on
enhancing water use efficiency by promoting efficient on-farm water management
technologies and equipment.

Soil Health Management (SHM): SHM will aim at promoting location as well as
crop specific sustainable soil health management including residue management,
organic farming practices by way of creating and linking soil fertility maps with
macro-micro nutrient management, appropriate land use based on land capability,
judicious application of fertilizers and minimizing the soil erosion/degradation.

Climate Change and Sustainable Agriculture Monitoring, Modeling and

Networking (CCSAMMN): CCSAMMN will provide creation and bidirectional
(land/farmers toresearch/scientific establishments and vice versa) dissemination
of climate change related information and knowledge by way of piloting
climate change adaptation/mitigation research/model projects in the domain of
climate smart sustainable management practices and integrated farming system
suitable to local agro-climatic conditions.

2. Climate Smart Agriculture

FAO defines CSA as “agriculture that sustainably increases productivity, enhances
resilience (adaptation), reduces/removes GHGs (mitigation) where possible, and
enhances achievement of national food security and development goals”.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 14

1
Food Production

E.g. expansion of agricultural

land, increased use of
mechanisation, fertilizer and other
inputs

E.g., improved E.g., use of

irrigation high-yielding
infrastructure varieties
and weather Practices that
forecasting benefit food
production, adaptation
and mitigation. E.g.,
restoration of degraded
E.g., land, improvement
diversification of macro-and E.g.,
of crop, livestock, micronutrients reforestation,
and fisheries in soils decreased livestock
varieties; production,
improved on-farm agroforestry
and off-farm food E.g., on-farm options that have
strage production low food benefits
and use of
biofuels
Adaptation Mitigation

3. Soil Health Card Scheme

Soil Health Card (SHC) is a printed report that a farmer will be handed over for
each of his holdings. It will contain the status of his soil with respect to 12
parameters, namely N,P,K (Macro-nutrients); S (Secondary nutrient); Zn, Fe, Cu,
Mn, Bo (Micro-nutrients); and pH, EC, OC (Physical parameters). Based on this, the
SHC will also indicate fertilisers recommendations and soil amendment required for
the farm.

Objectives of Soil Health Card Scheme

To issue soil health cards to farmers every two years and provide a basis to
address nutrient deficiencies in fertilization practices

To develop and promote soil test based nutrient managements

To develop and cultivation cost by application of right quality of fertilizer

To ensure additional income to farmers by increase in yields

To improve soil health for Sustainable Farming

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 15

1
SHC is provided to all farmers in the country at an interval of 2 years to enable the
farmers to apply recommended doses of nutrients based on soil test values to realize
improved and sustainable soil health and fertility, low costs and higher profits. Farmers
can track their soil samples and also obtain their Soil Health Card report. It is a field-
specific detailed report of soil fertility status and other important soil parameters that
affect crop productivity.

Other Miscellaneous Steps

Mandatory neem coating of urea since 2015 to reduce nitrous oxide emissions.
Creating sustainable and climate-resilient agricultural systems is part of India's plan
to meet pledge to the UNFCCC to reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by up to
35% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.
India has installed 200,000 solar water pumps and another 2.5 million are planned
to reduce emissions from energy use in agriculture.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 16

1
QUICK REVISION MODULE
(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) GEOGRAPHY

CLIMATE AND GLOBAL

CLIMATE ZONES
FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE

Ocean Local
Latitude Altitude Continentality Current Winds

Relief & Natural Slope, Shelter Human

Topography Vegetation & Aspect El Nino Inﬂuence

FACTS ABOUT FACTORS AFFECTING CLIMATE:

A fall of 6.5°C occurs with an ascent of 1000 meters or 1.0°C per 165 meters.
It takes less energy to raise the temperature of a given volume of land by 1.0°C as compared to same
volume of water body.
Mountains receive more rainfall than low lying areas because as air is forced over the higher ground it
cools, causing moist air to condense and fall out as rainfall.
Dry soils like sands are very sensitive to temperature changes, whereas wet soils, like clay, retain much
moisture and warm up or cool down more slowly.
Mountain ranges that have an east-west alignment like the Alps show a higher temperature on the south-
facing 'sunny slope' than the north facing 'sheltered slope’.
The warmer water pumps energy and moisture into the atmosphere, altering global wind and rainfall
patterns.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

Heat Zones Classiﬁcations

THESE RAYS ALWAYS HORIZONTAL

N.
FR
NO IG
ID
RT
H T
EM
23 PE
S U N ‘ S ¹ /2 N RA S U N ‘ S
TRO OR TE
EQ PIC TH
UA
TO O F L AT
CA IT
R NC UDE
R A Y S ER R A Y S
PERPENDICULAR RAY TO PERPENDICULAR RAY
RR
ID
23
ABOUT T R O ¹/2 S O ABOUT
PIC UTH
OF L
SO
UT C A AT I T U
PR
D E C E M B E R
H T I CO D E J U N E
EM RN
PE
RA
S.
FR TE
21st I GI
D
21st

THESE RAYS ALWAYS HORIZONTAL

SOME FACTS ABOUT HEAT ZONES CLASSIFICATION:

Tropical or Torrid Zone: The sunrays are almost vertical throughout the year. The temperature always
remains high. There is no winter season in this zone.
Frigid Zones: The sunrays in these two zones in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere fall in slanting
form throughout the year. Therefore these zones experience very low temperature and high degree of
coldness.

North Pole
90°N
66.5° Frigid zone
66.5°

23.5° Temperat e Zone 23.5°

Tro p i c s
Torrid Zone Tro p i c s
0° Equator 0°
Tro p i c s
Tro p i c s Torrid Zone

23.5° Temperat e Zone 23.5°

Frigid zone
66.5° 66.5°
90°S
South Pole

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE:
Koeppen classiﬁcation
Based on annual averages of temperature and precipitation. 5 main climate types + Highland type climate

S.N. Chief Climatic Groups Climatic Types

Tropical Climate (Average temperature of the coldest 1. Tropical rain forest type climate
A month is 18 C or higher) 2. Savannah type climate
3. Monsoon type climate

Dry Climate ( potential evaporation ) exceeds precipitation 4. Desert climate

B 5. Steppe (Semi-desert) climate

Temperate Climate (The average temperature of the 6. Mediterranean climate

C coldest month is higher than minus 3° C but below 18° C) 7. China type climate
8. West European type climate
Continental Climate (The average temperature of the 9. Taiga climate
D coldest month is minus 3° C or below) 10. Easter costal cold climate
11. Continental climate

E Polar Climate (Average temperature for all month is below 12. Tundra climate
10° C) 13. Snow-capped region type climate
H Highland Climate (Cold due to elevation)

Thornthwaite Classification
5 humidity region based on Precipitation effectiveness and Temperature efficiency

S.N. Humidity Region Special type of Vegetation

A Very Humid Rain Forest
B Humid Forest
C Semi Humid Grassland
D Semi Dry Steppe

E Dry Desert

On the basis of distribution of seasonal rainfall the above types of humidity regions were further divided
into following subdivisions:
Y = Heavy rainfall in all seasons
s = Scarcity of rainfall in summer season
w = Scarcity of rainfall in winter season
d = Scarcity of rainfall in all seasons
After linking precipitation eﬀectiveness and seasonal distribution of rainfall to temperature anomalies,
the climates could be of 120 diﬀerent types.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

1. The Hot, Wet Equatorial Climate

Location
Found in the lowlands of the Amazon, the Congo, Malaysia and the East Indies

Bogota Kuala
Lumpur

hot, wet equatorial regions

Climatic Conditions
5-10 degrees North and South of the equator.
Great uniformity of temperature throughout the year (around 27°C).
No winter. Cloudiness and heavy precipitation moderates the daily temperature.

Vegetation
Multitude of evergreen trees that yield tropical hardwood.
Lianas, epiphytic and parasitic plants are also found.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

2. The Tropical Monsoon and Tropical Marine Climates

Location
Tropical Monsoon Climate:
They are best developed in the Indian sub-continent, Burma, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, parts of Vietnam
and south China and northern Australia.
Tropical Marine Climate:
It is experienced in Central America. West Indies, north-eastern Australia, the Philippines, parts of East
Africa, Madagascar, the Guinea Coast and eastern Brazil.

Cairns

Tropical marine
Tropical monsoon

Climatic Conditions
Found in the zones between 5° and 30° latitudes on either side of the equator.
The basic cause of monsoon climates is the diﬀerence in the rate of heating and cooling of land and sea.
Tropical Monsoon Climate: In regions like the Indian sub-continent which have a true Tropical Monsoon
Climate, three distinct seasons are distinguishable - The cool, dry season (October to February), the hot
dry season (March to mid-June) and the rainy season (mid-June to September).
Tropical Marine Climate: This type of climate is experienced along the eastern coasts of tropical lands,
receiving steady rainfall from the Trade Winds all the time.

Vegetation
Trees are normally deciduous because of the marked dry period, during which they shed their leaves to
withstand the drought.
Where the rainfall is heavy, e.g. in Southern Burma, peninsular India, northern Australia and coastal
regions with a tropical marine climate, the resultant vegetation is forest.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 5

3. The Savannah or Sudan Climate

Location
The Savannah or Sudan Climate is a transitional type of climate found between the equatorial forest and
the trade wind hot deserts
It is conﬁned within the tropics and is best developed in the Sudan where the dry and wet seasons are
most distinct, hence its name the Sudan Climate.
The belt includes West African Sudan, and then curves southwards into East Africa and southern Africa
north of the Tropic of Capricorn.
In South America, there are two distinct regions of savannah north and south of the equator, namely the
llanos of the Orinoco basin and the Campos of the Brazilian Highlands.

Tropic of Cancer
Kang
Lianos
Equator
Salisbury
Tropic of Capricorn Campos

Savanna

Climatic Conditions
It is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons.
The extreme diurnal range of temperature is also a characteristic of Sudan type of climate.
The prevailing winds of the region are the Trade Winds which bring rain to the coastal districts.
The savannah, particularly in Africa, is the home of wild animals. It is known as the 'big game country’.

Vegetation
Tall grass and short trees. The terms 'parkland' or 'bush-veld’ is also used.
The trees are deciduous and show adaptation to withstand drought.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 6

4. The Hot Desert and Mid-latitude Desert Climates

Location
They include the Sahara Desert, the Great Australian Desert , the Arabian Desert, Iranian Desert, Thar
Desert, Kalahari and Namib Deserts.
In North America, the desert extends from Mexico to USA and is called by diﬀerent names at diﬀerent
places, e.g. the Mohave Sonoran, Californian and Mexican Deserts.
In South America, the Atacama or Peruvian Desert (driest). The Patagonian Desert is more due to its rain-
shadow position on the leeward side of the lofty Andes than to continentality

Turkestan
Gobi
Mohave

ian
Canaries Kasngar

n
Cal urre

Ira
Current Thar
Sahara
C
ifo nt

Ara
rni

bia
Massawa n
an

Atacama Kalahari
Benguela
Current Namib Australian
Peruv nt

W. Australian
Curre

Current
Patagonian
ain

Hot Desert
Mid Latitude deserts
cold ocean currents

Climatic Conditions
The major hot deserts of the world are located on the western coasts of continents between latitudes 15
and 30 degrees N and S.
The hot deserts lie astride the Horse Latitudes or the Sub Tropical High Pressure Belts where the air is
descending (least favourable for precipitation)
There is no cold season in the hot deserts and the average summer temperature is around 30°C.

Vegetation
Vegetation include grass, scrub, herbs, weeds, roots or bulbs.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 7

5. The Warm Temperate Western Margin (Mediterranean) Climate

Location
The basic cause of this type of climate is the shifting of the wind belts.
Though the area around the Mediterranean Sea has the greatest extent of this type of 'winter rain
climate', and gives rise to the more popular name Mediterranean Climate.
Other Mediterranean regions include California (around San Francisco), the south-western tip of Africa
(around Cape Town), southern Australia (in southern Victoria and around Adelaide, bordering the St.
Vincent and Spencer Gulfs), and south-west Australia (Swanland).

Mistral

Sirocco

Cape Town

Mediterranean regions

Climatic Conditions
They are entirely conﬁned to the western portion of continental masses, between 30° and 45° north and
south of the equator.
The Mediterranean type of climate is characterized by very distinctive climatic features - a warm summer
with oﬀ-shore trades, a concentration of rainfall in winter with onshore westerlies, bright, sunny
weather with hot dry summers and wet, mild winters and the prominence of local winds around the
Mediterranean Sea (Sirocco, Mistral).
Growth is slow in the cooler and wetter season, even though more rain comes in winter. The warm, bright
summers and cool, moist winters enable a wide range of crops to be cultivated Some 85 per cent of
grapes produced, go into wine. The long, sunny summer allows the grapes to ripen and then they are
handpicked. Economy: The area is important for fruit cultivation, cereal growing, wine-making and
agricultural industries as well as engineering and mining.

Vegetation

The Mediterranean lands are also known as the world's orchard lands. A wide range of citrus fruits such as
oranges, lemons, limes, citrons and grapefruit are grown. Wine production is another specialty.
The absence of shade is a distinct feature of Mediterranean lands.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

6. The Temperate Continental (Steppe) Climate

Location
In Eurasia: Steppes. Stretch eastwards from the Black Sea to the Altai Mountains.
In North America: Prairies. They lie between the Rockies and the Great Lakes.
In South America: Pampas of Argentina and Uruguay. Extend right to the sea and enjoy much maritime
inﬂuence.
In South Africa: Tropical Bushveld in North and High Veld in the South. They lie between the Drakensberg
and the Kalahari Desert.

Manchuria
Winnipeg Grassland
Pustaz
Prairies
Steppes
k
noo
Chi nds
wi

Pretoria Downs

Veld
Pampas

Temperate Grasslands Canterbury

Grassland
Warm ocean currents

Climatic Conditions
Summers are very warm and winters are very cold in the continental steppes of Eurasia because of the
enormous distances from the nearest sea.
In contrast, the steppe type of climate in the southern hemisphere is never severe. The winters are mild.
Temperatures below freezing point are exceptional.
Temperate grasslands are found bordering the deserts, away from the Mediterranean regions and in the
interiors continents.
Their greatest diﬀerence from the tropical savannah is that they are practically treeless and the grasses
are much shorter.

Vegetation
Trees are very scarce in the steppes, because of the scanty rainfall, long droughts and severe winters.
Tall, fresh and nutritious prairie grass are found. Granaries of the world.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

7. The Warm Temperate Eastern Margin (China Type) Climate

Location
It can be sub-divided into three main types:
The China type: Central and North China including southern Japan (temperate monsoonal).
The Gulf type: South-eastern United States bordering Gulf of Mexico (slight monsoonal).
The Natal type: The entire warm temperate eastern margin (non-monsoonal areas) of the southern
hemisphere including Natal, eastern Australia and southern Brazil-Paraguay-Uruguay and northern
Argentina.
do
Torna

Hurricane
Track Nanking
Ty
Miami ph
oo
n Tra
ck

Pampero Berg Wind Sydney

rly
t he r
u e
Warm temperate eastern margin regions So urst
B
Local winds

Climatic Conditions
Warm moist summer and a cool, dry winter.
Fairly uniform distribution of rainfall throughout the year.
It has comparatively more rainfall than the Mediterranean climate.
The eastern margins of warm temperate latitudes have a much heavier rainfall than either the western
margins or the continental interiors and thus have luxuriant vegetation.

Vegetation
Lowlands: Evergreen broad-leaved forests and deciduous trees.
Highlands: Conifers such as pines and cypresses that are important softwood.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

8. The Cool Temperate Western Margin (British Type) Climate

Location
Permanent inﬂuence of Westerlies through out the year.
They are also regions of much cyclonic activity, typical of Britain.
Climatic belt stretches from Britain to North-West Europe.
In the southern hemisphere, the climate is experienced in southern Chile, Tasmania and most parts of
New Zealand, particularly in South Island.

London

rt
ba
Ho

British Type of climate

Climatic Conditions
Summers are never very warm.
Adequate rainfall throughout the year with a tendency towards a slight winter or autumn maximum
from cyclonic sources.
The rain-bearing winds come from the west, the western margins have the heaviest rainfall.

Vegetation
Deciduous forests used for Lumbering
Trees shed their leaves in winter as a protection mechanism.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 11

9. The Cool Temperate Continental (Siberian) Climate

Location
Experienced only in the northern hemisphere where the continents within the high latitudes have a
broad east-west spread.
The Siberian Climate is conspicuously absent in the southern hemisphere because of the narrowness of
the southern continents in the high latitudes.

Churchill
Moscow

coniferous forest

Climatic Conditions
Characterized by a bitterly cold winter of long duration, and a cool brief summer. Spring and autumn are
merely brief transitional periods.
The extremes of temperature are so great in Siberia that it is often referred to as the 'cold pole of the
earth’.
Some of the lowest temperatures in the world are recorded in Verkhoyansk.

Vegetation
Coniferous forests (Softwood)
There are four major species in the coniferous forests – a) Pine, e.g. white pine, red pine b) Fir, e.g.,
Douglas ﬁr and balsam ﬁr, c) Spruce and d) Larch.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 12

10. The Cool, Temperate Eastern Margin Climate

Location

This climate is found only in two regions.

North American Region: north-eastern North America, including eastern Canada, north-east U.S.A. and
Newfoundland.
Asiatic Region: The eastern coastlands of Asia, including eastern Siberia, North China, Manchuria, Korea
and northern Japan.
In the southern hemisphere, this climatic type is absent because only a small section of the southern
continents extends south of the latitude of 40° S.

Climatic Conditions
This climate has cold, dry winters and warm, wet summers
It has features of both the maritime and the continental climates.
It is an intermediate type of climate between the British and the Siberian type of climate.

Vegetation
The predominant vegetation of the Laurentian type of climate is cool temperate forest.
Oak, beech, maple and birch are the principal trees.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 13

11. The Polar Climate

Location
Two subtypes:
Tundra Climate
Ice-Cap Climate

Climatic Conditions
Exists poleward beyond 70° latitude.
Tundra-Climate [ET] is found in regions with permafrost. Short growing season i.e. summer with very
long duration of day light. Drainage in the tundra is usually poor as the sub-soil is permanently frozen.
The ice cap climate (EF) occurs over interior Greenland and Antarctica. Even in summer, the temperature
is below freezing point.

Vegetation
Tundra vegetation i.e. Mosses, Lichens and ﬂowering plants.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 14

The Global climatic conditions can be studied under the following twelve classiﬁcations.

Latitude Rainfall Regime Natural

Climatic Zone Climatic Type
(Approachmate ) (with approx. total) Vegetation

1. Hot wet Rainfall all year Equatorial rain

Equatorial Zone 0°-10°N and S equatorial round: 80 inches forests

Heavy summer
2. a) Tropical
rain: 80 inches Monsoon
Hot Zone 10°-30°N and S Monsoon
b) Tropical Marine Much summer forests
rain: 70 inches

3. Sudan Type Rain mainly in Savanna (tropical

summer: 30 inches grassland)

4. Desert: a)
Saharan type Desert vegetation
Little rain: 5 inches
b) Mid-latitide type and scrub

5. Western Margin Mediterranean

Warm Temperate Winter rain: 35
10°-40°N and S (Mediterranean forests and
Zone type) inches shrub
6. Central Steppe or
Light summer rain: temperate
Continental
(Steppe type ) 20 inches grassland

7. Eastern Margin:
a) China type Light summer rain: Warm, wet forests
b) Gulf type 20 inches and bamboo
c) Natal type

Cool Temperate 8. Western Margin More rain in autuma

45°-65°N and S (British type) Deciduous forests
Zone & winter: 30 inches

9. Cental Continental Light summer rain: Evergreen

(Siberian type) 25 inches coniferous
forests

10. Eastern Margin Moderate summer Mixed forests

(Laurentian type ) rain: 40 inches (coniferous and
deciduous)

Cool Zone Very light summer Tundra, mosses,

65°-90°N and S 11. Arctic or Polar
rain: 10 inches lichens

Alpine Zone 65°-90°N and S 12. Mountain Heavy rainfall Alpine pastures,
climate (variable) conifers, fern, show

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 15

QUICK REVISION MODULE
(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) ENVIRONMENT

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 1

MAMMALS

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION
World’s smallest Undisturbed tall Loss and
PGMY HOG wild pig, ‘terai’ grasslands, degradation of
EN captive-breeding Manas Wildlife grasslands,
programme was Sanctuary and its dry-season
initiated in 1996 buffer burning,
WPA, 1972 in Assam and reserves. livestock
Schedule I
reintroduction in grazing and
Sonai Rupai area afforestation of
in 2009. grasslands,
Hunting.
NAMDAPHA Arboreal species Namdapha Degradation
that is likely most National Park, the of forests,
FLYING
SQUIRREL CR active at dusk. largest protected hunting.
area in the
WPA, 1972
Eastern Himalaya
Schedule I biodiversity
hotspot

MALABAR Small, dog like Declared possibly Habitat loss

CIVET
CR carnivore. extinct in 1978
but was
and hunting.

rediscovered nine
WPA, 1972 years later in
Schedule I
western
ghats

ASIAN WILD Asian wild dogs, Key populations Ongoing

DOG (DHOLE) plays an found in three habitat loss,
EN important role as
apex predators in
landscapes-
Western Ghats,
Depletion of
prey base,
forest ecosystems. Central India and Persecution
WPA, 1972
Northeast India. due to livestock
Schedule I First dhole predation and
conservation disease
breeding centre transfer from
at the Indira domestic and
Gandhi feral dogs.
Zoological Park
(IGZP) in
Visakhapatnam

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 2

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

ASIAN Active during In India, Habitat loss

ELEPHANT twilight hours, Uttarakhand, and hunting.
EN adult females and Uttar Pradesh,
calves move West Bengal,
together as Assam, Arunachal
WPA, 1972 groups while Pradesh, Odisha,
Schedule I
males disperse on Jharkhand,
their own when Southern part of
reaching West Bengal,
adolescence. Karnataka, Tamil
subspecies of the Nadu, Kerala.
Asian Elephant. Some of the
They are as largest elephant
follows: Sri reserves in India
Lankan Elephant, are located in
Indian Elephant Periyar and
and Sumatran Nilambur in
Elephant. Kerala and the
Shivalik in
Uttarakhand.

BENGAL National animal Chooses the Climate

of India, also lowlands and is change, habitat
TIGER
EN national animal of frequently seen in loss and
Bangladesh, grasslands, hunting.
South Korea, swamps, and
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
Vietnam, and mangroves. The
Malaysia, largest Bengal mangrove
specimen in the ecosystem is a
cat family, Project rich habitat.
Tiger started by
government in
1973.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 3

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

CLOUDED State animal of Grassland, shrubs, Habitat loss

LEOPARD Meghalaya. subtropical and due to
VU dense tropical deforestation,
forest up to a changing
height of 7,000 rainfall
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
feet occurring from patterns,
the Himalayan human-animal
foothills through conflict,
mainland development
Southeast Asia into projects
China, In India, it
occurs in Sikkim,
northern West
Bengal, Meghalaya
subtropical forests,
Tripura, Mizoram,
Manipur, Assam,
Nagaland and
Arunachal Pradesh.

SANGAI State animal of Endemic and rare Climate

DEER Manipur, sub species of change, habitat
popularly called brow antlered deer loss and
EN as ‘dancing deer’ found only in hunting.
of Manipur. Manipur, habitat of
the sangai is now
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
protected as the
Keibul Lamjao
National Park (only
floating national
park in India)

GOLDEN Old World found in a small electrocution,

LANGUR
EN monkey, exhibits
sexual
region of western road accidents,
Assam and in the retaliatory
dimorphism. neighbouring killing, illegal
foothills of the pet keeping
WPA, 1972
Schedule I Black Mountains of and
Bhutan. inbreeding.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 4

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

GAUR Tallest species of Native to South Food Scarcity,

wild cattle found and Southeast Poaching,
VU in India and Asia. In India, they Habitat Loss,
largest extant are found in Human-Animal
bovine. Recently, Nagarhole, Conflict.
WPA, 1972 the first Bandipur,
Schedule I
population Masinagudi
estimation National Parks and
exercise of the BR Hills.
Indian Gaur
(Bison) was
carried out in the
Nilgiris Forest
Division, Tamil
Nadu.
Conservation
breeding of Gaur
was started at
Mysuru zoo.

HIMALAYAN Goes into Prefers open Habitat loss,

BROWN BEAR LC hibernation
around October
valleys and
pastures.
climate
change, human
and emerges fragmented alpine animal conflict.
WPA, 1972
around April and and subalpine
Schedule I May, Omnivores, habitats.
least arboreal Himalayan brown
bear and is bears live in
largely terrestrial. remote parts of the
western
Himalayas.
Already speculated
to have become
extinct in Bhutan.
Sanctuary for
Himalayan Brown
Bears is in
Himachal Pradesh
in the tribal
Chumba region.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 5

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

MUSK DEER Adapted for high Inhabits high Habitat loss,

altitudes, waxy alpine poaching, live
EN substance called environments stock grazing,
musk that the above altitudes of natural
male secretes from 2,500 m in predation.
WPA, 1972
Schedule I a gland in the Himalayas of
abdomen used to Nepal, Bhutan,
mark territories India, Pakistan and
and attract China. Kedarnath
females, but the Musk Deer
musk is also used Sanctuary
in the manufacture
of perfumes and
medicines.

HOOLOCK Western only ape found in Western hoolock Habitat

GIBBON hoolock India, two types: gibbon (all the destruction,
gibbon: Western hoolock states of the habitat
gibbon and north-east, fragmentation,
VU Eastern hoolock restricted between habitat
gibbon. the south of the degradation
Brahmaputra river and hunting.
and Eastern
hoolock and east of the
gibbon: Dibang river) and
Eastern hoolock
gibbon(specific
EN pockets of
Arunachal Pradesh
WPA, 1972
Schedule I and Assam).

BLACK BUCK Indian Antelope, Inhabits grassy habitat loss

sole extant plains and lightly due to devel-
LC member of the forested areas with opmental work
genus Antilope. perennial water and human
sources. Once encroachment
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
widespread of grassland
throughout the area and
Indian hunting
subcontinent, it has
become extinct in
Pakistan and
Bangladesh.

www Vision IAS 6

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

INDIAN WILD One of the fastest Live in the deserts Disease

ASS (KHUR) of Indian animals, and other arid outbreak,
NT with speeds areas of Little habitat
clocked at about Rann of Kutch degradation
70 – 80 km. per and its due to salt
WPA, 1972 hour, live surrounding areas activities, the
Schedule I either solitarily, or of the Great Rann invasion of the
in small groups. of Kutch in the Prosopis
Gujarat. juliflora shrub,
and
encroachment
and grazing by
the Maldhari.

LION TAILED Diurnal in nature, Rainforest Habitat loss

EN
MACAQUE life expectancy for environments as it due to
a wild lion-tailed is a good climber, anthropogenic
macaque is 20 spends most of its activities and
years while it is time in the upper hunting.
WPA, 1972
Schedule I 30 years reaches of a
in captivity. tropical rainforest
regions of
Karnataka, Kerala
and Tamil Nadu.
Silent Valley
National Park in
Kerala has the
largest population
of lion-tailed
macaques in
South India.

RED PANDA Territorial and Temperate forest habitat loss

solitary except of the Himalayas and
EN during mating and ranges from degradation,
season, excellent the foothills of human
climbers and western Nepal to interference,
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
forage from trees, China in the east. illegal trading
omnivores. and poaching.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 7

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

SLOTH BEAR Adult sloth bears Areas with forest Habitat loss
travel in pairs, cover, low hills and poaching.
VU excellent in bordering the
climbing trees outer range of the
and running Himalayas from
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
faster than Punjab to
humans. Arunachal
Pradesh. Sloth
Bear Welfare
Project, Agra Bear
Rescue Facility.

TIBETIAN considered to be Lives at a Poaching for

ANTELOPE
(CHIRU)
NT close to goat
family, underfur is
3,250-5,500
metre elevation in
wool.

renowned for its high altitude plains

WPA, 1972
quality which is and montane
Schedule I traditionally valleys comprising
woven into an of alpine and
extremely fine desert steppe and
fabric to make pasture,
Shahtoosh distinguished by
shawls. low vegetation
cover and
productivity.
Karakorma
Wildlife Sanctuary
and Changthang
Cold Desert
Wildlife Sanctuary.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 8

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

YAK Belong to the Endemic to the Climate

Bovine tribe, Tibetan Plateau change and
VU adapted for living and the adjacent Inbreeding.
at high altitudes, high-altitude
highly valued by regions, most
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
Himalayan comfortable
peoples, lifeline above 14,000
of pastoral feet.
nomads in high
altitudes of the
Indian Himalayan
region.

HIMALAYAN Resembles a cross Found at altitudes Poaching and

SEROW VU between a goat, a between 2,000 the destruction
donkey, a cow, metres and 4,000 of their
and a pig. Several metres. Found in forested
WPA, 1972
species of serows, eastern, central, mountain
Schedule I and all of them and western habitats.
are found in Asia. Himalayas, but
not in the Trans
Himalayan
region.

Only mammal There are 8 Hunting and

EN
wholly covered species of poaching for
in scales. If under pangolins of local
PANGOLIN threat, will which 2 are found consumptive
immediately curl in India: Indian use (e.g. as a
WPA, 1972
Schedule I into a tight ball. Pangolin protein source
(Endangered) & and traditional
Chinese Pangolin medicine) and
(Critically international
Endangered). trade, for its
Indian Pangolin is meat and
widely distributed scales in East
in India, except and South East
the arid region, Asian
high Himalayas countries.
and North East.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 9

BIRDS

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

JERDON’S Nocturnal bird, Undisturbed scrub Clearing of

considered extinct jungles in open scrub jungle,
COURSER
CR but rediscovered areas, creation of new
in 1986 SriLankamaleshw pastures,
ara Wildlife growing of
WPA, 1972
Schedule I Sanctuary in dryland crops,
Andra Pradesh. plantations of
exotic trees,
quarrying and
the
constructions,
Illegal trapping
of birds.

WHITE Also known as the Rivers with sand Loss and

BELLIED imperial heron, or gravel bars or degradation of
HERON CR mostly found inland lakes, lowland forest
solitary. found in five or and wetlands
six sites in Assam through direct
WPA, 1972
Schedule I and Arunachal exploitation
Pradesh, one or and
two sites in disturbance.
Bhutan, and a
few in Myanmar.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 10

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

SIBERIAN Also known as the Shallow wetlands Hunting and

CRANE Siberian white in Tundra and habitat loss.
CR crane or the snow plains. Three
crane. groups: the
eastern group,
WPA, 1972
Schedule I which migrates
from eastern
Siberia to China,
the central group,
which migrates
from western
Siberia to India,
and the western
group, which
migrate from
western Russia to
Iran. Keoladeo
(Ghana) National
Park (KNP) was the
last consistently
confirmed
wintering area for
the species in
India.

GREAT One of the Resides in dry Habitat loss

INDIAN
BUSTARD
CR heaviest flying grasslands and
birds in the world. scrublands on the
and hunting.
90% of its
Indian population has
WPA, 1972 subcontinent; its been reduced
Schedule I
largest within 50 years
populations are (six
found in the Indian generations)
state of Rajasthan. majorly due to
poaching

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 11

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

BENGAL Inhabits lowland Loss of its

FLORICAN dry, or seasonally grassland
CR inundated, habitat and
natural and hunting.
semi-natural
WPA, 1972
Schedule I grasslands, often
interspersed with
scattered scrub or
patchy open
forest. Indian
Subcontinent
mainly in India
(Uttar Pradesh,
Assam and
Arunachal
Pradesh.) and
terai region of
Nepal.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 12

REPTILES

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

GHARIAL Most uniquely Clean rivers with Construction

evolved sand banks. Only activities like
CR crocodilian in the viable population dam,
world, a in the National barrages,
WPA, 1972
specialized Chambal pollution,
Schedule I river-dwelling Sanctuary, spread sand mining,
fisheater. across three States riparian
of Uttar Pradesh, agriculture.
Rajasthan and
Madhya Pradesh.
Small
non-breeding
populations exist in
Son, Gandak,
Hoogly and
Ghagra rivers.
Extinct in
Myanmar,
Pakistan, Bhutan
and Bangladesh.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 13

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

LEATHERBACK Largest of living Tropical and High sea

TURTLES sea turtles subtropical fishing
CR weighing as much oceans, Found in operations,
as 900 kg, tropical and harvesting of
excellent temperate waters eggs,
WPA, 1972
Schedule I swimmers, Jelly of the destruction of
fish are Atlantic, Pacific, nests, Artificial
their primary prey. and Indian lighting
Oceans. disorients
hatchlings and
adult and
causes them to
migrate inland
rather than
back to the
sea. Threats to
habitat include
construction,
mining and
plantation of
exotics.

OLIVE RIDLEY Smallest and most Distributed in the Face serious

abundant of all tropical and threats across
TURTLES
VU sea turtles found warm-temperate their migratory
in the world, regions of the route, habitat
unique mass South Atlantic, and nesting
WPA, 1972
Schedule I
nesting called Pacific, and Indian beaches, due
Arribada. Oceans. In India, to human
Gahirmatha coast activities such
(Bhitarkanika as unfriendly
National Park) of turtle fishing
the Odisha, practices,
Rushikulya development,
rookery coast in and
Ganjam district of exploitation of
Odisha etc. nesting
beaches for
ports, and
tourist centers.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 14

FISH

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

LARGETOOTH Long rostrums, Tropical and Accidentally

tolerate a range subtropical waters getting caught
SAWFISH
CR of salinities, or around the in fishing nets.
salt levels. world-anywhere
the waters are
WPA, 1972
Schedule I warm.

HUMPBACK Large freshwater Freshwater of the Overfishing,

MASHEER fish also called Cauvery river basin habitat loss,
CR the tiger of the including Kerala’s pollution, dam
water. Pambar, Kabini construction
and Bhavani etc.
rivers.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 15

CORALS

HABITAT/
NAME STATUS FEATURES THREATS
DISTRIBUTION

FIRE CORALS Colonial marine Found on reefs in Overfishing,

(MILLEPORA organisms that the Indian, Pacific, habitat loss
BOSCHMAI) CR exhibit physical and Atlantic due to poor
characteristics Oceans and the land
similar to that of Caribbean Sea. management
coral. Not true They form practices
corals but are extensive outcrops releasing
instead more on projecting parts more
closely related to of the reef where sediment,
Hydra and other the tidal currents nutrients, and
hydrozoans, are strong. pollutants into
making them the oceans.
hydrocorals.

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 16

STATE ANIMAL OF
VARIOUS STATES IN INDIA

Musk Deer
Uttarakhand
Red Panda
Sikkim
Hangul
erstwhile
Jammu & Snow Leopard
Kashmir Himachal Pradesh and Ladakh
Nilgai Mithun
Delhi, Arunachal
Pradesh,
Nagaland
Black Buck
One-horned
Punjab, Haryana rhinoceros
Swamp Deer Assam
Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh
Camel
Rajasthan
Clouded
Leopard
Ox Meghalaya
Bihar
Sangai
Manipur
Sambar
Odisha Serow
Mizoram

Phayre’s Langur
Giant Squirrel Tripura
Maharashtra Deer
Asiatic Lion
Gujarat Telangana Wild Buffalo
Chhattisgarh
Gaur Blackbuck
Goa Andhra Pradesh,
Haryana, Punjab
Fishing Cat
Elephant West Bengal
Jharkhand,
Karnataka, Squirrel
Kerala Puduchery

Nilgiri Tahr
Tamil Nadu

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 17

STATE BIRDS OF
VARIOUS STATES IN INDIA
Northern goshawk
Punjab

Himalayan Monal
Uttarakhand
Black Necked
Crane Blood
erstwhile Jammu Pheasant
& Kashmir Western Tragopan Sikkim
Himachal Pradesh
Black Francolin
Haryana White Winged Great
Wood Duck Hornbill
Assam Arunachal
Pradesh, Kerala

Sarus Crane House Sparrow

Uttar Pradesh Delhi, Bihar
Great Indian
Bustard
Rajasthan
Great Flamingo
Gujarat
Hill Myna
Meghalaya
Asian Paradise
Flycatcher Koel
Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand Mrs. Hume’s
Pheasant
Manipur, Mizoram

Yellow-footed Hill Myna

green pigeon Chhattisgarh,
Maharashtra Meghalaya
White-Breasted
Kingfisher
West Bengal
Indian Roller
Andhra Pradesh, Blyth’s
Odisha, Telangana, tragopan
Black Crested Karnataka Nagaland
Bulbul
Goa
Asian Koel
Puduchery
Green
Imperial
Pigeon
Emerald Dove Tripura
Tamil Nadu

www.visionias.in Vision IAS 18

QUICK REVISION MODULE
(UPSC PRELIMS 2024) GEOGRAPHY
INDIAN CLIMATE
INDIAN CLIMATE

THE TROPICAL MONSOON TYPE CLIMATE

GP[XT]c:TPcdaTb^U=]SXP]7[X\PcT

I]Xch^U=]SXP]7[X\PcT

<X\P[PhPPRcPbPR[X\PcXRSXeXSTDaTeT]cbR^[SfX]SUa^\7T]caP[5bXP9eT]
_PacbBâcWÛHa^_XRÛ7P]RTaTg_TaXT]RTbHa^_XRP[7[X\PcT

FTeTabP[^UKX]S

=]KX]cTa8ahfX]SQ[^fbUa^\B^acW9Pbcc^G^dcWKTbc
=]Gd\\TaKX]SaTeTabTbXcbSXaTRcX^]R^\_[TcT[hP]SQ[^fbUa^\G^dcW
KTbcc^B^acW9Pbc

5[cTa]PcXeT<XVWP]S@^fDaTbbdaTb

=]KX]cTa<XVWDaTbbdaTSdTc^R^[SR^]SXcX^]bX]BâcW=]SXP
=]Gd\\TaHWTa\P[[hX]SdRTS[^fDaTbbdaTRT[[bêTaBâcWKTbcTa]=]SXP

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳ
GTPb^]P[P]SJPaXPQ[TFPX]UP[[

^UP]]dP[aPX]UP[[X][PccTa_Pac^Ubd\\Ta \^]cWb

D[daP[Xch^UGTPb^]b

KX]cTa:P[[G_aX]VGd\\TaFPX]5dcd\]

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ʹ
FACTORS DETERMINING CLIMATE OF INDIA

:PRc^abFT[PcTSc^5XaDaTbbdaTP]SKX]S

DISTRIBUTION OF PRESSURE AND SURFACE WINDS

K=BH9F

8ahR^]cX]T]cP[PXa\Pbb\^eX]VUa^\7T]caP[P]SKTbc5bXPc^fPaSb=]SXP
7^\TbX]R^]cPRcfXcWHaPSTfX]Sb B^acWKTbcTa[h

GXQTaXP]<XVW
b
X]SK
[S
7^

G^dcW
^]
^] 9

7WX]P
b^
B

GTP
A

9`dTc^a

KX]cTaA^]b^^]GdaUPRTKX]Sb

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͵
GIAA9F

>I@M

>5BI5FM

9EI5HCF

DCG=H=CBC:=BH9FHFCD=75@NCB9 =H7N =BH<9ACBH<C:>5BI5FM5B8>I@M

B^acWfPaSbWXUc^U=H7N @^fDaTbbdaT APaXcX\THa^_XRP[ \H PXa\PbbRa^bbTb

T`dPc^aQTcfTT]STVaTTb9c^STVaTTb9[^]VXcdST G^dcWKTbcA^]b^^]

HXQTc
<X\P[PhP
@^fDaTbbdaTHa^dVW

G^dcW DPRXŋRCRTP]
7WX]P
GTP
G^\P[X>Tc

9`dPc^a
=]SXP]CRTP]

APaXcX\THa^_XRP[5Xa\Pbb AH 8PafX]

<XVW HPWXcX
DaTbbdaT
<XVW G^dcWTa]
DaTbbdaT CbRX[[PcX^]
<XVW
DaTbbdaT

Gd\\Ta\^]b^^]fX]SbGdaUPRTRXaRd[PcX^]

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 Ͷ
JET STREAM AND UPPER AIR CIRCULATION:
WINTER VS SUMMER

Zc Zc
KTbcTa[h>Tc
GcaTP\
Zc
Zc

8XaTRcX^]^UKX]SbX]
Zc =]SXPX]KX]cTaPccWT
<TXVWc^UZ\
Zc

HWT8XaTRcX^]^UKX]Sb
Pcd__TaPc\^b_WTaTX]
Zc 9PbcTa[h>Tc bd\\TabTPb^]
GcaTP\

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͷ
WESTERN CYCLONIC DISTURBANCES
AND TROPICAL CYCLONE

K=BH9F

KTbcTa]7hR[^]XRSXbcdaQP]RTbfWXRWâXVX]PcTX]ATSXcTaaP]TP]PaT
Qa^dVWcc^KTbcP]SBâcWKTbc=]SXPQhKTbcTa[h>TcGcaTP\Ha^_XRP[
RhR[^]TbâXVX]PcX]VêTa6PhÛ6T]VP[WXcHP\X[BPSd5]SWaP
P]SCSXbWPR^Pbc

GIAA9F

HWTTPbcTa[hYTcbcaTP\bcTTabcWTca^_XRP[ST_aTbbX^]bX]c^=]SXPHaPRZ
^UcWTbTST_aTbbX^]bPaTcWTPaTPb^UWXVWTbcaPX]UP[[X]=]SXP

FACTORS RELATED TO LOCATION AND RELIEF

@PcXcdSTHa^_XRÛ7P]RTa
BâcWÛXc GdQca^_XRP[P]SHT\_TaPcTi^]T 9gcaT\T7[X\PcT^QbTaeTS
G^dcWÛXc ca^_XRP[i^]T cT\_TaPcdaTaT\PX]b<XVWcWa^dVW^dccWThTPa
<X\P[PhP5RcbPb7[X\PcXR8XeXST
CQbcadRccWTR^[SP]SRWX[[hfX]SâXVX]PcX]VUa^\5aRcXR
8XbcaXQdcX^]Û@P]SP]SKPcTa
8XŇTaT]cXP[WTPcX]VRaTPcTbSXŇTaT]cPXa_aTbbdaTi^]TbX]SXŇTaT]c
bTPb^]b
8XbcP]RTUa^\cWTGTP=]cTaXâPaTPbUPaPfPhUa^\bTPTg_TaXT]RT
TgcaT\TR[X\PcTb
5[cXcdSTA^d]cPX]aTVX^]bPaTR^^[TacWP]_[PX]b
FT[XTUDWhbX^VaP_WhX\_PRcbcT\_TaPcdaTPXa_aTbbdaTSXaTRcX^]P]S
b_TTSÛfX]SP]SP\^d]cP]SSXbcaXQdcX^]ÛaPX]UP[[
9gP\_[TKX]SfPaSbXSTÛKTbcTa];WPcbaTRTXeTWXVWTaaPX]UP[[fWTaTPb
G^dcWTa]D[PcTPd^]cWT[TTfPaSbXSTÛKTbcTa];WPcbaT\PX]Sah

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͸
ORIGIN OF INDIAN MONSOON: FACTORS RESPONSIBLE
F^[T^U<X\P[PhPbP]SHXQTcP]D[PcTPd

KTbcTa[h>TcGcaTP\Gd\\Ta

HXQTcP]
D[PcTPd

KTbcTa[h>TcGcaTP\X]KX]cTa

Ha^_XR^U7P]RTa

9PbcTa[h>TcGcaTP\

9`dPc^a

Ha^_XR^U7P_aXR^\

HXQTcP]cXRhR[^]TP]S9PbcTa[h>TcbcaTP\

8dT c^ Xcb WTXVWc cWT PaTP aTRTXeTb \^aT X]b^[PcX^] [TPSX]V c^ R[^RZ fXbT
RXaRd[PcX^]X]cWT\XSS[Tca^_^b_WTaTP]ST\TaVT]RT^Ucf^fX]SbcaTP\b
XTHa^_XRP[9PbcTa[h>TcGcaTP\P]SKTbcTa[h>TcGcaTP\

F^[T^U>TcGcaTP\b

HWT Ha^_XRP[ 9PbcTa[h >Tc bcaTP\b b^\TcX\Tb aTPRWTb Pc cWT cX_ Û =]SXP]
_T]X]bd[P HWXb YTc STbRT]Sb êTa cWT =]SXP] CRTP] P]S X]cT]bXŋTb Xcb WXVW
_aTbbdaTRT[[Z]^f]PbAPbRPaT]T<XVW<T]RT^]bWâTfX]SbbcPacQ[^fX]V
c^fPaSbcWTcWTa\P[[hX]SdRTS[^f_aTbbdaTPaTPSTeT[^_TSX]cWT]âcWTa]
_PacÛcWT=]SXP]bdQR^]cX]T]c

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͹
F^[T^U9BGC

9[BX]^5bb^RXPcTSfXcW_^^a\^]b^^]
G^dcWTa] CbRX[[PcX^]5 ]TVPcXeT GC= DaTbbdaT QTcfTT] HPWXcX P]S 8PafX]
X\_[XTb _^^a \^]b^^] G^\P[XP] 7daaT]c9eTah hTPab cWT [^f DaTbbdaT
PaTP X] KTbcTa] 5aPQXP] GTP QTR^\Tb <XVW DaTbbdaT [TPSX]V c^ fTPZTa
\^]b^^]X]=]SXP

F^[T^UKP[ZTa7T[[

9[BX]^âBTVPcXeTGC=5bRT]SX]VQaP]RWÛfP[ZTaRT[[bWXUcbc^fPaSbRT]caP[
aTVX^]bÛcWTDPRXŋRCRTP]5bPaTbd[c=]SXP]CRTP]7T[[bWXUcbc^fPaSb9Pbc
GK \^]b^^] fX]Sb fTPZT] @PBX]P MTPab =]SXP] CRTP] QaP]RW Û KP[ZTa
7T[[bcaT]VcWT]b=]cT]bT\^]b^^]fX]Sb

BCFH<
5G=5 5A9F=75

D57=:=7C795B
=B8=5

9EI5HCF

=B8=5BC795B
8PafX]
HPWXcX D9FI

5IGHF5@=5

B^a\P[MTPa
5Q]^a\P[MTPa

KP[ZTa7T[[P]S=]SXP]A^]b^^]

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͺ
F^[T^U=]SXP]CRTP]8X_^[T

8XŇTaT]RTX]GTPbdaUPRTcT\_TaPcdaTQTcfTT]KTbcP]S9Pbc=]SXP]CRTP]
D^bXcXeTDWPbT;^^S_aTRX_XcPcX^]X]KTbcTa]aTVX^]8aPdVWcR^]SXcX^]bX]
=]S^]TbXP P]S 5dbcaP[XP BTVPcXeT DWPbT KPa\Ta fPcTa P]S VaTPcTa
_aTRX_XcPcX^]X]cWT9Pbc=]SXP]CRTP]
D^bXcXeT=C8XbUPe^aPQ[TU^a=]SXP

INDIAN OCEAN DIPOLE

D^bXcXeTDWPbT

BTVPcXeTDWPbT

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͻ
F^[T^UAPSST]>d[XP]CbRX[[PcX^]

HWT A>C RP] QT RWPaPRcTaXiTS Pb P] TPbcfPaS \êX]V _d[bT Û R[^dS P]S
aPX]UP[[]TPacWTT`dPcâcWPcch_XRP[[haTRdabTeTahc^SPhbKWT]XcXb
êTa=]SXP]CRTP]SdaX]V\^]b^^]bTPb^]XcQaX]VbV^^SaPX]UP[[=]Xcb[^]VTa
RhR[TfWT]XcbcPhbêTaDPRXŋRCRTP]=]SXPaTRTXeTbPfTPZTa\^]b^^]

APSST]>d[XP]CbRX[[PcX^] 9PbcfPaSA^eT\T]c

NATURE OF INDIAN MONSOON

C]bTcP]S5SeP]RT^UA^]b^^]

@^f_aTbbdaTPc=H7N ^eTa]^acW=]SXP QTR^\Tbb^X]cT]bTX]APhcWPcXc

_d[[bcWTcaPSTfX]SbÛcWTb^dcWTa]WT\Xb_WTaT]âcWfPaSb=H7NbWXUcb
BâcWfPaSP]SP]9PbcTa[h>TcGcaTP\STeT[^_b

HWTb^dcWTPbccaPSTfX]SbRa^bbTbT`dPcâ QTR^\TbGK\^]b^^]fX]Sb
cPZTb\^XbcdaTUa^\cWTT`dPcâXP[fPa\RdaaT]cbP]ST]cTacWT6PhÛ
6T]VP[P]ScWT5aPQXP]GTP
ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͲ
HWXb bdSST] ^]bTc Û cWT \^XbcdaT[PST] fX]Sb Pbb^RXPcTS fXcW eX^[T]c
cWd]STa P]S [XVWc]X]V Xb ÛcT] cTa\TS Pb cWT vQaTPZw â vQdabcw Û cWT
\^]b^^]b

G^dcWfTbc\^]b^^]ŋabcÛP[[aTPRWTbX]5]SP\P]BXR^QPa=b[P]Sb^]cW
APh ?TaP[P R^Pbc aTRTXeTb Xc ^] bc >d]T =c aTPRWTb Ad\QPX P]S ?^[ZPcP
QTcfTT] cW P]S cW >d]T 6h cW Û >d[h G^dcWfTbc \^]b^^] RêTab
fW^[TÛ=]SXP

FPX]6TPaX]VGhbcT\bP]S8XbcaXQdcX^]^UFPX]UP[[

Hf^ QaP]RWTb 5aPQXP] GTP QaP]RW aPX]UP[[ êTa KTbc 7^Pbc P]S 6Ph Û
6T]VP[6aP]RW aPX]UP[[êTa_[PX]bÛBâcW=]SXP

5aPQXP] bTP QaP]RW Xb cWaTT cX\Tb bca^]VTa cWP] 6Ph ^U 6T]VP[ QaP]RW P]S
TgcT]SbcX[[HWPaSTbTac

5aPQXP]GTP6aP]RWG_[Xcbd_X]c^\âTQaP]RWTb:XabcQaP]RW^QbcadRcTS
QhKTbcTa];WPcbVXeTbCa^VaP_WXRaPX]UP[[X]cWTfX]SfPaSbXSTP]SRPdbTb
aPX]bWPS^fPaTPX]cWT9PbcTa]bXSTÛKTbcTa];WPcbGTR^]SQaP]RWWXcb
Ad\QPXR^PbcP]SP[^]VBPa\PSPP]SHP_XRêTab7T]caP[=]SXPHWThT]cTa
;P]VP _[PX] P]S \X]V[Tb fXcW 6Ph Û 6T]VP[ 6aP]RW 5 cWXaS QaP]RW bcaXZTb
GPdaPbWcaP_T]X]bd[PP]S?dcRW

6Ph Û 6T]VP[ QaP]RW GcaXZTb cWT R^Pbc Û AhP]\Pa P]S VTcb STōTRcTS
c^fPaSb=]SXP]bdQR^]cX]T]cQh5aPZP]<X[[b<T]RTXcT]cTabKTbc6T]VP[P]S
6P]V[PSTbW Ua^\ b^dcW P]S b^dcWTPbcTa[h SXaTRcX^] P]S ]^c G^dcWKTbc
HWTQaP]RWb_[XcbX]c^cf^

C]TQaP]RW\êTbfTbcfPaSc^fPaSb;P]VP_[PX]b
GTR^]SQaP]RW\êTbc^fPaSb6aPW\P_dcaPeP[[ThX]cWTBâcWP]S
BâcW9Pbc

HWTHP\X[BPSdR^Pbc[XTbX]aPX]bWPS^fPaTPÛ5aPQXP]GTPQaP]RWÛcWT
b^dcWfTbc \^]b^^] P]S [XTb _PaP[[T[ c^ cWT 6Ph Û 6T]VP[ QaP]RW Û
b^dcWfTbc\^]b^^]HWTaTUâTXcXbSahSdaX]V\^]b^^]

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͳ
6aTPZX]cWTA^]b^^]8ahb_T[[bSdaX]Vb^dcWfTbc\^]b^^]_TaX^S

=]]âcWTa]=]SXPaPX]bPaT[XZT[hcÛPX[XUcWTaPX]QTPaX]Vbcâ\bPaT]^ceTah
UaT`dT]cP[^]VcWT\^]b^^]ca^dVWâcWT=H7NêTacWXbaTVX^]

CeTacWTfTbcR^PbccWTSahb_T[[bPaTPbb^RXPcTSfXcWSPhbfWT]fX]SbQ[^f
_PaP[[T[c^cWT R^Pbc
FTcaTPc^UA^]b^^]

A^]b^^]bcPacbaTcaTPcX]VX]GT_cT\QTaC]cWTŋabcÛGT_cT\QTaXcbcPacb
aTcaTPcX]VUa^\]âcWfTbcTa]_PacÛ=]SXPHWXbSPhXbcWT[PbcSPhÛaPX]h
bTPb^]X]>PXbP[\Ta P]S6Pa\TaX]FPYPbcWP]6hcWGT_cT\QTa\^]b^^]
[TPeTbDd]YPQ<PahP]PFPYPbcWP]P]S;dYPaPc

HWT PaTP d]STa cWT \^]b^^] X]ōdT]RT bWaX]Zb b[^f[h P]S cWT \^]b^^]
aTcaTPcbUa^\P[[_Pacb^U=]SXPTgRT_ccWTb^dcWTa]_T]X]bd[PaaTVX^]

A^]b^^] fX]Sb X] \^bc _Pacb Û cWT R^d]cah PaT aT_[PRTS Qh cWT
]âcWTPbcTa[hcaPSTfX]SbHWTbTfX]SbQ[^fX]VêTacWT6PhÛ6T]VP[_XRZ
d_\^XbcdaTUa^\cWTaTP]SRPdbTaPX]UP[[X]HP\X[BPSd

FEATURES OF MONSOON RAIN

GTPb^]P[X]RWPaPRcTa^RRdabQTcfTT]>d]TP]SGT_cT\QTa

G_PcXP[SXbcaXQdcX^]ÛaPX]UP[[Xb[PaVT[hVêTa]TSQhaT[XTUâc^_^VaP_Wh

HWT\^]b^^]aPX]UP[[WPbPSTR[X]X]VcaT]SfXcWX]RaTPbX]VSXbcP]RTUa^\
cWTbTPFPX]UP[[STRaTPbTbUa^\TPbcc^fTbcX]_[PX]bPb^]TQaP]RW^U
\^]b^^]T]cTabUa^\TPbcTa]bXST

HWTaPX]SXb_[PhbPSTR[X]X]VcaT]SUa^\fTbcc^TPbcêTacWTfTbcR^Pbc
P]SUa^\cWTb^dcWTPbcc^fPaSbcWT]âcWfTbcêTacWTBâcW=]SXP]D[PX]
P]ScWT]âcWTa]_PacÛcWTDT]X]bd[P

FPYPbcWP]STbTacaTRTXeTb[^faPX]UP[[QTRPdbT5aPQXP]GTPQaP]RWQ[^fb
_PaP[[T[c^5aPeP[Xb\^d]cPX]RWPX]fXcW^dc^QbcadRcX^]P]ScWdbS^Tb]^c
aT[TPbT\^XbcdaTWTaT

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳʹ
6aTPZbX]aPX]UP[[PaTaT[PcTSc^cWTRhR[^]XRST_aTbbX^]b\PX][hUâ\TSPc
cWTWTPSÛcWT6PhÛ6T]VP[P]ScWTXaRa^bbX]VX]c^cWT\PX][P]S6TbXSTb
cWTUaT`dT]RhP]SX]cT]bXchÛcWTbTST_aTbbX^]bcWT_PbbPVTU^[[^fTSQh
cWT\STcTa\X]TbcWTb_PcXP[SXbcaXQdcX^]ÛaPX]UP[[

DISTRIBUTION AND VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL IN INDIA

INDIA
AVERAGE ANNUAL RAINFALL

6Ph^U6T]VP[
5aPQXP]
GTP

FPX]UP[[X]R\b
A^aTcWP]

5]SP\P

@PZbWPSfTT_
]
P]SBXR

=]SXP
^QPa=b[P

=B8=5B C795B
]Sb

=]SXP5]]dP[FPX]UP[[

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳ͵
INDIA
Variability of average
Average Annual Rainfall

6Ph^U6T]VP[
5aPQXP]
GTP

JPaXPQX[Xch^U5]]dP[
FPX]UP[[X]_TaTRT]cPVT
A^aTcWP]
5]SP\P

c^
@PZbWPSfTT_ c^
]P]SBXR

@TbbcWP]
=]SXP
^QPa=b[P

C795B
=B8=5B
]Sb

=]SXPJPaXPQX[Xch^U5]]dP[FPX]UP[[

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͶ
CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA

INDIA
CLIMATE REGIONS
ACCORDING TO KOEPPENS SCHEME

9
D^[PaHh_T
6GWf 8UR
GcT__T 7^[S<d\XSKX]cTa
fXcWGW^acGd\\Tab
6KWf
<^c8TbTac

7fV
A^]b^^]Hh_TfXcW
8ahKX]cTa

5f
6GWf Ha^_XRP[GPeP]]P[Hh_T
GcT__T7[X\PcT
5]SP\P

5b
5\f A^]b^^]fXcW8ah
A^]b^^]Hh_TfXcW
]P]SBXR

GTPb^]X]Gd\\Ta
GW^ac8ahGTPb^]
^QPa=b[P
]Sb

=]SXP7[X\PcXRFTVX^]b5RR^aSX]Vc^?^T__T]GRWT\T

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͷ

>P\\dP]S
@PSPZW INDIA
?PbW\Xa AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES
(PLANNING COMMISSION)
<X\PRWP[DaPSTbW
Dd]YPQ
7WP]SXVPaW
IccPaPZWP]S
<PahP]P
5ad]PRWP[DaPSTbW
8T[WX
GXZZX\
IccPaDaPSTbW
FPYPbcWP] 5bbP\
BPVP[P]S
6XWPa ATVWP[PhP

HaX_daP AP]X_da
>WPaZWP]S
;dYPaPc APSWhPDaPSTbW
aW KTbc AXi^aP\

VP
6T]VP[
b
ccX
WP

CSXbWP
7W

8PSaPBPVPa APWPaPbWcaP
<PeT[XP]S
8P\P]8Xd 5]SP\P]P]SBXR^QPa=b[P]Sb
HT[P]VP]P

;^P 5]SWaPDaPSTbW
F9:9F9B79G
?Pa]PcPZP
<<5FM5B5

@PZbWPSfTT_ DdSdRWTaah GG=??=A

BB5;5@5B8

AA=NCF5A
HP\X[BPSd
?TaP[P
HHFDIF5

A9A9;<5@5M5

KTbcTa]<X\P[PhP]FTVX^] KTbcTa]D[PcTPd<X[[bFTVX^]
9PbcTa]<X\P[PhP]FTVX^] G^dcWTa]D[PhTPd<X[[bFTVX^]
@^fTa;P]VTcXRD[PX]bFTVX^] 9Pbc7^PbcD[PX]b<X[[bFTVX^]
AXSS[T;P]VTcXRD[PX]bFTVX^] KTbc7^PbcD[PX]b;WPcbFTVX^]
I__Ta;P]VTcXRD[PX]bFTVX^] ;dYPaPcD[PX]b<X[[bFTVX^]
HaP]b;P]VTcXRD[PX]bFTVX^] KTbcTa]8ahFTVX^]
9PbcTa]D[PcTPd<X[[bFTVX^] HWT=b[P]SbFTVX^]
7T]caP[D[PcTPd<X[[bFTVX^]

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6
ͳ
INDIAN SEASONS

A^]cWb5RR^aSX]V A^]cWb5RR^aSX]V
GTPb^]
H^=]SXP]7P[T]SPa H^9]V[XbW7P[T]SPa

JPbP]cP 7WPXcPJPXbPZWP APaRW5_aX[

;aXbW\P >hPXbcWP5bPSWP APh>d]T

JPabWP GaPeP]P6WPSaP >d[h5dVdbc

GWPaPSP 5beX]P?PacXZP GT_cT\QTaCRc^QTa

<T\P]cP APaVPbWXabPDPdbP B^eT\QTa8TRT\QTa

GWXbWXaP APVWPDWP[Vd]P >P]dPah:TQadPah

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳ͹
DIFFERENT SEASONS OF INDIA WITH THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS

SEASON DURATION

KX]cTaGTPb^] AXSB^eT\QTac^:TQdPah

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
7[TPabZXTbŋ]TfTPcWTa[^fWd\XSXch

TEMPERATURE

ATP]SPX[hcT\_TaPcdaTQT[^f7X]B^acW=]SXPG^\T_PacTg_TaXT]RT
HT\_TaPcdaTQT[^fUaTTiX]V_^X]cHT\_TaPcdaTX]RaTPbTbUa^\]^acWc^b^dcW

WIND DISTURBANCES
<XVW_aTbbdaTêTa]âcWfTbcTa]=]SXPKX]SbQ[^fUa^\]âcWfTbcc^b^dcW
TPbc5a^d]SU^daâŋeTfTbcTa[hSXbcdaQP]RTbPaTRPaaXTSQhfTbcTa[hYTc
bcaTP\

RAINFALL
KTbcTa[hSXbcdaQP]RTbRPdbTaPX]UP[[X]]âcWTa]_[PX]bFPX]UP[[STRaTPbTbUa^\
fTbcc^TPbcX]_[PX]bQdcX]RaTPbTbX]]âcWTPbcPVPX]PbXcRPcRWfPcTaUa^\
6PhÛ6P]VP[BâcWTPbc\^]b^^]RPdbTbfX]cTaaPX]UP[[X]b^dcWTa]5]SWaP
DaPSTbWHP\X[BPSdTcR

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͺ
SEASON
Gd\\TaGTPb^]

DURATION
5_aX[APh>d]T

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
9gRTbbXeTWTPcW^c[^^Sdbcbc^a\bP]SSah]Tbb

TEMPERATURE

HT\_TaPcdaTaXbTbd_c^7X]]^acW=]SXPHT\_TaPcdaTWPbX]RaTPbTSc^
7X];P]VP]PVPaTPa[XTaGd\\TaX]b^dcW=]SXPXb]^cb^TgcaT\T

WIND DISTURBANCES
@^f_aTbbdaTêTa]âcWfTbcTa]_PacÛ=]SXPP]SWXVW_aTbbdaTêTa
b^dcWTa]_PacbÛ6PhÛ6P]VP[=H7NbWXUcbc^;P]VTb_[PX]KX]SSXaTRcX^]
JPaXTbUa^\^]T_PacÛ=]SXPc^cWT^cWTa8dbcbcâ\bPaTUaT`dT]Rh
Tg_TaXT]RTSX]cWTPUcTa\^^]X]]^cWTa]_[PX]b

RAINFALL
7^\_[TcT[hSahbTPb^]8dbcbcâ\bP]ScWd]STabcâ\b_aêXSTb^\TaPX]UP[[
9PbcTa]aTVX^]baTRTeXTb\âTaPX]UP[[R^\_PaPcXeT[h

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ͳͻ
SEASON
G^dcWKTbc\^]b^^]

DURATION
>d]TGT_cT\QTa

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS
KW^[T^U=]SXPd]STab^dcWfTbc\^]b^^]=]SXPUPRTbbTeTaTRhR[^]T
cWd]STabc^a\bTcR

TEMPERATURE

>d]TXbcWTW^ccTbc\^]cWHT\_TaPcdaTaT\PX]b[^fSdaX]V>d[hP]S5dVdbc
fWXRWaXbTbWXVWX]GT_cT\QTafXcWSTRaTPbX]VP\^d]c^U_aTRX_XcPcX^]

WIND DISTURBANCES
KX]SbPaTb^dcWfTbcTa[h^eTa\PX][P]S=]SXP

RAINFALL
=]SXPaTRTXeTbXcb_aTRX_XcPcX^]X]cWXbbTPb^]HWTaTXbSTR[X]T^UaPX]UP[[
:a^\TPbcc^fTbcX]_[PX]b8TcPX[bPaTSXbdbbTSd]STa/A^]b^^]05Q^eT

ZZZYLVLRQLDVLQ 9LVLRQ,$6 ʹͲ

What If 2 Additional Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions 2nd Edition Munroe all chapter instant download
100% (2)
What If 2 Additional Serious Scientific Answers to Absurd Hypothetical Questions 2nd Edition Munroe all chapter instant download
50 pages
Cuadernillo de Ingles
No ratings yet
Cuadernillo de Ingles
70 pages
Geography Notes
No ratings yet
Geography Notes
24 pages
Totally Tourist Tour of Solar System 2
No ratings yet
Totally Tourist Tour of Solar System 2
3 pages
Intellectual Revolution Hand-Out
100% (1)
Intellectual Revolution Hand-Out
14 pages
PlanetsNature and Rulership
100% (2)
PlanetsNature and Rulership
9 pages
Geography Final Vision IAS
No ratings yet
Geography Final Vision IAS
212 pages
265962038700b4e Universe and Solar System
No ratings yet
265962038700b4e Universe and Solar System
12 pages
Universe and Solar System
No ratings yet
Universe and Solar System
12 pages
Week 2 Solar System Earth
No ratings yet
Week 2 Solar System Earth
83 pages
earth scie solar system handouts
No ratings yet
earth scie solar system handouts
6 pages
The Solar System
No ratings yet
The Solar System
26 pages
02 Geography
No ratings yet
02 Geography
28 pages
Geography Udaan
100% (2)
Geography Udaan
190 pages
Solar System: By, Manjunath D Nayak Viii B' Roll No. 17
No ratings yet
Solar System: By, Manjunath D Nayak Viii B' Roll No. 17
42 pages
Geography 2025
No ratings yet
Geography 2025
187 pages
GEOGRAPHY 01-01-2013
No ratings yet
GEOGRAPHY 01-01-2013
177 pages
India & World Geography
No ratings yet
India & World Geography
146 pages
Add A Little Bit of Body Text
No ratings yet
Add A Little Bit of Body Text
28 pages
The Planet Earth - Scanned
No ratings yet
The Planet Earth - Scanned
8 pages
Earth Science Notes
No ratings yet
Earth Science Notes
12 pages
SOLAR SYSTEM 1
No ratings yet
SOLAR SYSTEM 1
5 pages
ELS Lesson 1 Origins and Systems of The Earth Edited
No ratings yet
ELS Lesson 1 Origins and Systems of The Earth Edited
53 pages
2.Geography
No ratings yet
2.Geography
26 pages
1.-Universe-and-Solar-System-1
No ratings yet
1.-Universe-and-Solar-System-1
60 pages
Split_20250320_0928_2
No ratings yet
Split_20250320_0928_2
1 page
Lesson-2-The-solar-System
No ratings yet
Lesson-2-The-solar-System
32 pages
Earth Science Notes
No ratings yet
Earth Science Notes
21 pages
Earth Scienceppt. GRADE 11
No ratings yet
Earth Scienceppt. GRADE 11
47 pages
Earth Science: Irregular Galaxy
No ratings yet
Earth Science: Irregular Galaxy
17 pages
Chapter 27 Planets of The Solar System
No ratings yet
Chapter 27 Planets of The Solar System
4 pages
Neutron Star Core
From Everand
Neutron Star Core
Eleanor Hawking
No ratings yet
Geography Compilation
No ratings yet
Geography Compilation
35 pages
INNER and OUTER Planets
No ratings yet
INNER and OUTER Planets
32 pages
IGCSE Space Physics Revision Notes! (Ayesha)
No ratings yet
IGCSE Space Physics Revision Notes! (Ayesha)
7 pages
1st Midterm Reviewer 1 - 073713
No ratings yet
1st Midterm Reviewer 1 - 073713
32 pages
Universe Solar System Latitudes Longitudes1694255830223
No ratings yet
Universe Solar System Latitudes Longitudes1694255830223
41 pages
Reviewer in Elscie
No ratings yet
Reviewer in Elscie
10 pages
Geography Solar System
No ratings yet
Geography Solar System
10 pages
TSPSC GROUP 1 TG1DPT 0301 Explanation English Lyst3625
No ratings yet
TSPSC GROUP 1 TG1DPT 0301 Explanation English Lyst3625
14 pages
The Formation of The Universe and The Solar System
100% (1)
The Formation of The Universe and The Solar System
49 pages
Solar System
No ratings yet
Solar System
34 pages
d1 Life Science
No ratings yet
d1 Life Science
35 pages
Parmar SSC Notes
No ratings yet
Parmar SSC Notes
12 pages
EDITEDUniverse Solar System
No ratings yet
EDITEDUniverse Solar System
25 pages
La Excellence Ready Reckoner Indian Geography
No ratings yet
La Excellence Ready Reckoner Indian Geography
72 pages
General Geography
No ratings yet
General Geography
6 pages
L1.1 Universe and Solar System
No ratings yet
L1.1 Universe and Solar System
50 pages
Astro Final
No ratings yet
Astro Final
40 pages
2024 05 31 0.7512245528984471
No ratings yet
2024 05 31 0.7512245528984471
88 pages
Dalman Midterm
No ratings yet
Dalman Midterm
6 pages
Geo GS Part-1proved
No ratings yet
Geo GS Part-1proved
139 pages
INNER and OUTER Planets
No ratings yet
INNER and OUTER Planets
38 pages
Notes Universe and the Earth Historical Models of the Universe Geocentric Model Developed by Aristotle, Modified by Ptolemy. Earth-centered Universe. Heliocentric Model Developed by Copernicus, Su.pdf
No ratings yet
Notes Universe and the Earth Historical Models of the Universe Geocentric Model Developed by Aristotle, Modified by Ptolemy. Earth-centered Universe. Heliocentric Model Developed by Copernicus, Su.pdf
3 pages
SOLAR SYSTEM PPT - Iza
No ratings yet
SOLAR SYSTEM PPT - Iza
43 pages
Earth and Life - Week 1-2
No ratings yet
Earth and Life - Week 1-2
32 pages
Physical Geography Notes (1)
No ratings yet
Physical Geography Notes (1)
193 pages
The Birth of Astronomical Studies: - Astronomy - Study of All Matter and Energy in The Universe
100% (1)
The Birth of Astronomical Studies: - Astronomy - Study of All Matter and Energy in The Universe
65 pages
03 Fundamentals of Physical Geography XI
No ratings yet
03 Fundamentals of Physical Geography XI
58 pages
PhysicalGeography Unacademy2.0Notes KING R QUEEN P
No ratings yet
PhysicalGeography Unacademy2.0Notes KING R QUEEN P
186 pages
Planetary Science
No ratings yet
Planetary Science
18 pages
Class 11 Fundamentals of Physical Geographyenglish 21 128
No ratings yet
Class 11 Fundamentals of Physical Geographyenglish 21 128
54 pages
BHUGOL Geography English Medium For Nda
No ratings yet
BHUGOL Geography English Medium For Nda
73 pages
Geography SSC Nda Cds
No ratings yet
Geography SSC Nda Cds
24 pages
1ST-PRELIM-REVIEWER
No ratings yet
1ST-PRELIM-REVIEWER
3 pages
Astrological Herbs Gems 21 PDF Free
100% (1)
Astrological Herbs Gems 21 PDF Free
15 pages
Isha Forest Flower March 2016
No ratings yet
Isha Forest Flower March 2016
24 pages
Minimalist Business Slides XL by Slidesgo
No ratings yet
Minimalist Business Slides XL by Slidesgo
93 pages
Earth Science - M01 - L03 - WEEK 2
No ratings yet
Earth Science - M01 - L03 - WEEK 2
4 pages
Alvino Tictactoe Astronomy Project
No ratings yet
Alvino Tictactoe Astronomy Project
3 pages
Earth Is Spherical
100% (1)
Earth Is Spherical
2 pages
6.E.1.2 - Student Presentation
No ratings yet
6.E.1.2 - Student Presentation
61 pages
Use One of The 6 Elements For Each Blank
No ratings yet
Use One of The 6 Elements For Each Blank
2 pages
5000 Questions About Science. Handbook of Popular Science
No ratings yet
5000 Questions About Science. Handbook of Popular Science
260 pages
Important Questions On Class 6 Social Science Chapter 1 The Earth in The Solar System Free PDF Download.
No ratings yet
Important Questions On Class 6 Social Science Chapter 1 The Earth in The Solar System Free PDF Download.
7 pages
Life Coaching For Teens Center XL by Slidesgo
No ratings yet
Life Coaching For Teens Center XL by Slidesgo
86 pages
Jyotish - 2017 - RS Chillar - Principles and Techniques For Prediction - Houses
No ratings yet
Jyotish - 2017 - RS Chillar - Principles and Techniques For Prediction - Houses
373 pages
Check Point Questions Physics Paper 2
No ratings yet
Check Point Questions Physics Paper 2
46 pages
World War I - History - 10th Grade by Slidesgo
No ratings yet
World War I - History - 10th Grade by Slidesgo
24 pages
A History of Near-Earth Object Research Tagged
No ratings yet
A History of Near-Earth Object Research Tagged
407 pages
Script For Blue Planet
No ratings yet
Script For Blue Planet
4 pages
Neoplatonism and Alchemy
100% (4)
Neoplatonism and Alchemy
18 pages
H.G. Wells - A Short History of The World
No ratings yet
H.G. Wells - A Short History of The World
411 pages
The Planets & Our Solar System
No ratings yet
The Planets & Our Solar System
35 pages
Big Boy Columbus
No ratings yet
Big Boy Columbus
24 pages
GCSE Physics Specification
No ratings yet
GCSE Physics Specification
36 pages
A Guide to Astronomical Calculations
No ratings yet
A Guide to Astronomical Calculations
394 pages
Tiering System
No ratings yet
Tiering System
10 pages
Askep Kejang Neonatus
No ratings yet
Askep Kejang Neonatus
61 pages
CHAPTER I General Concepts and Historical Events in STS
No ratings yet
CHAPTER I General Concepts and Historical Events in STS
25 pages