PSYC 1030 Chapter 8

Memory
DR. RONG HUANG
Agenda
How Memory Functions
◦ Discuss the three basic processes of memory
◦ Describe the three stages of memory storage
◦ Describe and distinguish between procedural and declarative memory and semantic and episodic
memory

Ways to enhance memory

o Recognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies
o Recognize and apply effective study techniques
 I will show you some random words.
Try to remember as many words as you can during the
process.
You can use any memory strategies you know.
Warm-Up You can not write down or take pictures.
Activity

Ready?
Backorder
Energetic
Manipulation
Committee
Investigate
Speaker
Electricity
Grinder
Wristwatch
Affection
 Now take a deep breath.

Here is the end Put down the words you remember

2 mins
 Backorder
Energetic
Manipulation
Committee
Investigate

Result (10 Speaker

words in total) Electricity

Grinder
Wristwatch
Affection
 How you feel about this activity? Hard or easy? In what ways?

Questions
Which words are easier to remember: the first few items or
the last few items? Why do you think this happens?
HOW MEMORY FUNCTIONS

The ability to mentally save information,

that includes a set of processes, including:
1. Encoding: get information into our brains
through coding/modifying the input of
information in some ways.
2. Storage is putting the encoded information
into memory.
3. Retrieval is recalling the information that
previoulsy stored into memory.
 ENCODING
● Automatic processing – encoding of Semantic encoding – encoding of words and their
details like time, space, frequency, and meanings.
the meaning of words. ● Most effective form of encoding. Attaching
○ Usually done without conscious meaning to information makes it easier to recall
awareness. later.
● Effortful processing – encoding of
Visual encoding – encoding of images.
details that takes time and effort.
○ E.g. WHAT you last studied, ● Words that create a mental image, such as car,
learning new skills. dog and book (concrete words) are easier to
recall than words such as level, truth and value
(abstract words).
Acoustic encoding – encoding of sounds.
STORAGE
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory: Information passes through three distinct stages
in order for it to be stored in long-term memory.
SENSORY MEMORY

● Stimuli from the environment are processed

first in sensory memory.
● Stored for up to a couple of seconds, in an
unencoded form.
● Only those information that we pay attention
to, will be moved into short-term memory.
● E.g., If you're walking through a noisy street, your
sensory memory may register advertising
boards/posters, honking cars, footsteps, an snippets
of conversations. Most of these things are irrelevant
and quickly discarded unless you pay special
attention to them.
 SHORT-TERM MEMORY (STM)
Example:
● Temporary storage system that PROCESSES
information from sensory memory ● Memorizing someone’s phone number
● Working memory: Manipulate and assemble
information ● Doing a math problem in your head (13 + 9 = ??)
○ Limited Capacity: Can hold the “magic ○ Keep actual numbers involved in STM (13, 9)
number 7 ± 2” piece of information – George ○ Keep procedure for performing a addition problem
Miller (retrieved from long-term memory) in STM
○ Short duration (10-30 sec) ○ As you’re doing steps of the problem, store results
○ Rehearsal – repeatedly verbalizing or thinking of each step (e.g. carrying) in STM
about information, helps increase duration ○ When completed, all this information will fade
from STM

● Understanding a sentence
○ Keep the beginning of the sentence in STM while
taking in later words and phrases
 Without going back to check your notes
Recall what words are included in the memory
test we did at the beginning
Recall
How many words can you recall?
How many words has been forgot?
LONG-TERM MEMORY (LTM)

Stores information for longer periods of time.

Capacity of LTM is essentially unlimited.

Examples:

● Conversations from 10 mins ago

● Events from our childhood
● The capital of Tennesse
● Knowledge that the earth revolves around
the sun
 LTM- EXPLICIT MEMORY (Facts and Events)
● Declarative memory
● Memories of facts and events we can consciously
remember and recall/declare.
Episodic Memory – memories for particular life events
(episodes).
● E.g., You can describe when and how your cat
pounced on your face last night
Semantic memory – general knowledge about the world
(facts, rules, concepts)
● E.g., You can describe the CONCEPT of a “cat” (small,
furry, etc)

Ballesteros et al. (2009). European Journal of Cognitive

Psychology, 21, 161-175.
LTM: IMPLICIT MEMORIES (Skills and Actions)
● Non-declarative memory
● Retention independent of any conscious
recollection or awareness
● Procedural – stores information about
how to do things.
○ Skills and actions.
○ E.g. how to ride a bike, tie your shoes, drive.

● Implicit memory also includes behaviors

learned through emotional conditioning.
○ E.g., You might have a fear of spiders but
not consciously remember why or what
occurred to condition that fear.
RETRIEVAL -How do you get information out of storage?
Retrieval – the act of getting information out of Recall – being able to access information without cues.
memory storage and back into conscious
awareness. ● Used for an essay test.
Recognition – being able to identify information that you
Retrieval is needed for everyday functioning (e.g. have previously learned after encountering it again.
knowing how to drive to work, or how perform
your job once you get there). ● Used for a multiple choice test.
Relearning – Learning information that you previously
learned.
E.g., After learning Spanish in high school, you might
forget how to speak it if you do not use it. However, if
you try to relearn it, you will learn it quicker than the first
time.
Forgetting Memory decay

● Encoding failure - Never encode the

information
● Loss of information from short-term memory
and long-term memory
Memory errors
● Forgetting – information is not accessible, or no
attention was given
○ E.g., Forget events that occurred long ago

● Distortion – information is distorted by other

sources
○ E.g., False memories

● Intrusion – inability to forget traumatic events

In-Class Reflection

Why do you think some information, such as personal experiences or emotional

events, is easier to remember compared to other types of information, such as
course knowledge?

How to make certain memories from classes stick with you longer?
Reminder
Quiz 6 is available on D2L.
It covers contents from Chapter 8.
Due this Sunday midnight!
Ways to Enhance
Memory
oRecognize and apply memory-enhancing strategies
oRecognize and apply effective study techniques
 A. I will make flashcards of the key terms and try to retrieve
as many information as I can without checking the class
Ordering the materials and notes.
strategies: B. I will repeat the definitions of the key terms on slides over
and over again until I can fully recall it.
make the
C. I will try to apply my own, personal definition to the key
memory last terms, and give it meaning that matters to me by relating the
the longest to information to my own experience in class.

the shortest D. I will set aside a time every week to go over my notes
about those key terms so that my memory about it always
kept fresh.
 • Elaboration: Interpreting the new information based on prior knowledge.
• Examples?
◦ “It remind me of …”; “This make me think…”
Meaningful ◦ Self-reference effect: the tendency for an individual to have better
memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to

Learning: material that has less personal relevance

• Internal organization: Making connections among several pieces of new

Understanding information.

is way more • Examples?

◦ Building structure of new information.

important than
memorizing. • Visual imagery: Forming mental image of the information.

• Examples?
◦ Concept maps, visual aids in class.
HOW TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY
Memory techniques can be useful when studying for class.
● Use elaboration/internal organization/visual image – link information to other
information/memories to make it more meaningful.
● Apply the self-reference effect – make information personally meaningful to YOU.
● Don’t forget the forgetting curve – keep regular studying to prevent storage decay.
● Active recall – quiz yourself, be a teacher to practice explaining concepts well.

● Be aware of interference – study without distractions.

● Keep moving – aerobic exercise promotes neurogenesis (growth of new brain cells in the
hippocampus).
● Get enough sleep – the brain consolidates memories while sleeping.
In-Class Reflection
1. Now we know how memory works. Do you have any
suggestions for memorizing things more efficiently? How might
those strategies relate to how memory works in the brain?

2. What strategies or techniques did you use to memorize

things that is not helpful?
Memory tricks:
Mnemonics
Mnemonics can help when relevant prior
knowledge is limited.
Mnemonic devices include special rhymes and poems,
acronyms, images, songs, outlines, and other tools.

Mnemonic (pronounced ni-mon-ik) is derived from the •For the inner solar system
Greek phrase mimnēskesthai meaning to “remember.”
•Mnemonic: "My Very Educated
Mother"
•For the outer solar system
•Mnemonic: "Just Served Us Nachos"
Improving Memory Span Through “Chunking”
● Chunking – organizing • Example:
information into larger, more It’s difficult to remember this
manageable and familiar units sequence of 12 letters:

● A “chunk” can be a word, FBINBCCIAIBM

phrase, sentence, or any other
information that we can put However, we can rearrange these
together to assign a single letters into 4 meaningful units:
meaning or idea.
FBI-NBC-CIA-IBM
How reliable is your memory?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PB2OegI6
wvI&t=1s
Elizabeth Loftus

How can understanding the fallibility of

memory help us in our daily lives, especially
in situations where we strongly believe in the
accuracy of our recollections?

How can we be more mindful of potential

distortions in our personal and professional
interactions?
Reminder
Quiz 6 is Due this Sunday midnight!
It covers contents from Chapter 8.

Read Chapter 9 Lifespan Development before the next class.