S.D.M.

Jain matt Trust®

A.G.M RURAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, VARUR, HUBLI
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

NOTES

Subject with code: Intelligent Systems and Machine Learning Algorithms (BEC515A)

Module 4

Prepared By
Prof. ASIF IQBAL MULLA
Department of Electronics and Communication

Syllabus : Introduction: Machine learning Landscape: what is ML?, Why, Types of ML, main
challenges of ML Concept learning and Learning Problems – Designing Learning systems,
Perspectives and Issues – Concept Learning – Find S-Version Spaces and Candidate Elimination
Algorithm – Remarks on VS- Inductive bias.

Text book 3: Chapter 1, Textbook 4:Chapter 1 and 2

1. Tom M. Mitchell, Machine Learning, McGraw-Hill Education, 2013

2. Aurelien Geron, Hands-on Machine Learning with Scikit-Learn &Tensor Flow , O’Reilly,
Shroff Publishers and Distributors Pvt. Ltd 2019.
Intelligent Systems and Machine Learning Algorithms (BEC515A)

WHAT IS MACHINE LEARNING?

Why Use Machine Learning?

Consider how you would write a spam filter using traditional programming techniques (Figure 1-1):

1. First you would look at what spam typically looks like. You might notice that some words or phrases
(such as “4U,” “credit card,” “free,” and “amazing”) tend to come up a lot in the subject. Perhaps you
would also notice a few other patterns in the sender’s name, the email’s body, and so on.
2. You would write a detection algorithm for each of the patterns that you noticed, and your program
would flag emails as spam if a number of these patterns are detected.
3. You would test your program, and repeat steps 1 and 2 until it is good enough.

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Types of Machine Learning Systems

Supervised/Unsupervised Learning
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There are four major categories: supervised learning, unsupervised learning, semi supervised learning,
and Reinforcement Learning.

Supervised learning

Here are some of the most important supervised learning algorithms (covered in this book):
• k-Nearest Neighbors
• Linear Regression
• Logistic Regression
• Support Vector Machines (SVMs)
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• Decision Trees and Random Forests

• Neural networks2

Unsupervised learning

Clustering Algorithms
For example, say you have a lot of data about your blog’s visitors. You may want to\ run a clustering
algorithm to try to detect groups of similar visitors (Figure 1-8).
If you use a hierarchical clustering algorithm, it may also subdivide each group into smaller groups.

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Visualization algorithms
Visualization algorithms are also good examples of unsupervised learning algorithms: you feed them a
lot of complex and unlabeled data, and they output a 2D or 3D representation of your data that can easily
be plotted (Figure 1-9).

Anomaly detection Algorithm

Yet another important unsupervised task is anomaly detection—for example, detecting unusual
credit card transactions to prevent fraud, catching manufacturing defects, or automatically removing
outliers from a dataset before feeding it to another learning algorithm. when it sees a new instance it can
tell whether it looks like a normal one or whether it is likely an anomaly (see Figure 1-10).

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Association rule learning

Finally, another common unsupervised task is, in which the goal is to dig into large amounts of
data and discover interesting relations between attributes. For example, suppose you own a supermarket.
Running an association rule on your sales logs may reveal that people who purchase barbecue sauce and
potato chips also tend to buy steak. Thus, you may want to place these items close to each other.

Semisupervised learning

Reinforcement Learning
Reinforcement Learning is a very different beast. The learning system, called an agent in this context,
can observe the environment, select and perform actions, and get rewards in return (or penalties in the
form of negative rewards, as in Figure 1-12). It must then learn by itself what is the best strategy, called
a policy, to get the most reward over time. A policy defines what action the agent should choose when it
is in a given situation.

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Batch and Online Learning

Another criterion used to classify Machine Learning systems is whether or not the system can learn
incrementally from a stream of incoming data.

Batch learning

In batch learning, the system is incapable of learning incrementally: it must be trained using all the
available data. This will generally take a lot of time and computing resources, so it is typically done
offline. First the system is trained, and then it is launched into production and runs without learning
anymore; it just applies what it has learned. This is called offline learning.

Online learning

Online learning is great for systems that receive data as a continuous flow (e.g., stock prices) and need to
adapt to change rapidly or autonomously. It is also a good option if you have limited computing
resources.

Instance-Based Versus Model-Based Learning

Instance-based learning

This is called instance-based learning: the system learns the examples by heart, then generalizes to new
cases by comparing them to the learned examples (or a subset of them), using a similarity measure. For
example, in Figure 1-15 the new instance would be classified as a triangle because the majority of the
most similar instances belong to that class.

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Model-based learning

Main Challenges of Machine Learning

1. Insufficient Quantity of Training Data

Machine Learning is not quite there yet; it takes a lot of data for most Machine Learning algorithms
to work properly. Even for very simple problems you typically need thousands of examples, and for
complex problems such as image or speech recognition you may need millions of examples (unless
you can reuse parts of an existing model).

2. Nonrepresentative Training Data

In order to generalize well, it is crucial that your training data be representative of the new cases you
want to generalize to. This is true whether you use instance-based learning or model-based learning.
This is often harder than it sounds: if the sample is too small, you will have sampling noise (i.e., non
representative data as a result of chance), but even very large samples can be non representative if
the sampling method is flawed. This is called sampling bias.

3. Poor-Quality Data
Obviously, if your training data is full of errors, outliers, and noise (e.g., due to poor quality
measurements), it will make it harder for the system to detect the underlying patterns, so your system
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is less likely to perform well. It is often well worth the effort to spend time cleaning up your training
data.

4.Irrelevant Features
As the saying goes: garbage in, garbage out. Your system will only be capable of learning if the
training data contains enough relevant features and not too many irrelevant ones. A critical part of the
success of a Machine Learning project is coming up with a good set of features to train on. This
process, called feature engineering, involves:

5. Overfitting the Training Data

6. Underfitting the Training Data

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MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
Ever since computers were invented, we have wondered whether they might be made to learn.
If we could understand how to program them to learn-to improve automatically with
experience-the impact would be dramatic.
 Imagine computers learning from medical records which treatments are most effective
for new diseases
 Houses learning from experience to optimize energy costs based on the particular usage
patterns of their occupants.
 Personal software assistants learning the evolving interests of their users in order to
highlight especially relevant stories from the online morning newspaper

A successful understanding of how to make computers learn would open up many new uses
of computers and new levels of competence and customization

Some successful applications of machine learning

 Learning to recognize spoken words
 Learning to drive an autonomous vehicle
 Learning to classify new astronomical structures
 Learning to play world-class backgammon

Why is Machine Learning Important?

 Some tasks cannot be defined well, except by examples (e.g., recognizing people).
 Relationships and correlations can be hidden within large amounts of data. Machine
Learning/Data Mining may be able to find these relationships.
 Human designers often produce machines that do not work as well as desired in the
environments in which they are used.
 The amount of knowledge available about certain tasks might be too large for explicit
encoding by humans (e.g., medical diagnostic).
 Environments change over time.
 New knowledge about tasks is constantly being discovered by humans. It may be
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difficult to continuously re-design systems “by hand”.

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WELL-POSED LEARNING PROBLEMS

Definition: A computer program is said to learn from experience E with respect to some class
of tasks T and performance measure P, if its performance at tasks in T, as measured by P,
improves with experience E.

To have a well-defined learning problem, three features needs to be identified:

1. The class of tasks
2. The measure of performance to be improved
3. The source of experience

Examples
1. Checkers game: A computer program that learns to play checkers might improve its
performance as measured by its ability to win at the class of tasks involving playing
checkers games, through experience obtained by playing games against itself.

Fig: Checker game board

A checkers learning problem:
 Task T: playing checkers
 Performance measure P: percent of games won against opponents
 Training experience E: playing practice games against itself

2. A handwriting recognition learning problem:

 Task T: recognizing and classifying handwritten words within images
 Performance measure P: percent of words correctly classified
 Training experience E: a database of handwritten words with given
classifications
3. A robot driving learning problem:
 Task T: driving on public four-lane highways using vision sensors
 Performance measure P: average distance travelled before an error (as judged
by human overseer)
 Training experience E: a sequence of images and steering commands recorded
while observing a human driver

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DESIGNING A LEARNING SYSTEM

The basic design issues and approaches to machine learning are illustrated by designing a
program to learn to play checkers, with the goal of entering it in the world checkers
tournament
1. Choosing the Training Experience
2. Choosing the Target Function
3. Choosing a Representation for the Target Function
4. Choosing a Function Approximation Algorithm
1. Estimating training values
2. Adjusting the weights
5. The Final Design

1. Choosing the Training Experience

 The first design choice is to choose the type of training experience from which the
system will learn.
 The type of training experience available can have a significant impact on success or
failure of the learner.

There are three attributes which impact on success or failure of the learner

1. Whether the training experience provides direct or indirect feedback regarding the
choices made by the performance system.

For example, in checkers game:

In learning to play checkers, the system might learn from direct training examples
consisting of individual checkers board states and the correct move for each.

Indirect training examples consisting of the move sequences and final outcomes of
various games played. The information about the correctness of specific moves early in
the game must be inferred indirectly from the fact that the game was eventually won or
lost.

Here the learner faces an additional problem of credit assignment, or determining the
degree to which each move in the sequence deserves credit or blame for the final
outcome. Credit assignment can be a particularly difficult problem because the game
can be lost even when early moves are optimal, if these are followed later by poor
moves.
Hence, learning from direct training feedback is typically easier than learning from
indirect feedback.

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2. The degree to which the learner controls the sequence of training examples

For example, in checkers game:

The learner might depends on the teacher to select informative board states and to
provide the correct move for each.

Alternatively, the learner might itself propose board states that it finds particularly
confusing and ask the teacher for the correct move.

The learner may have complete control over both the board states and (indirect) training
classifications, as it does when it learns by playing against itself with no teacher present.

3. How well it represents the distribution of examples over which the final system
performance P must be measured

For example, in checkers game:

In checkers learning scenario, the performance metric P is the percent of games the
system wins in the world tournament.

If its training experience E consists only of games played against itself, there is a danger
that this training experience might not be fully representative of the distribution of
situations over which it will later be tested.
It is necessary to learn from a distribution of examples that is different from those on
which the final system will be evaluated.

2. Choosing the Target Function

The next design choice is to determine exactly what type of knowledge will be learned and
how this will be used by the performance program.

Let’s consider a checkers-playing program that can generate the legal moves from any board
state.
The program needs only to learn how to choose the best move from among these legal moves.
We must learn to choose among the legal moves, the most obvious choice for the type of
information to be learned is a program, or function, that chooses the best move for any given
board state.

1. Let ChooseMove be the target function and the notation is

ChooseMove : B→ M
which indicate that this function accepts as input any board from the set of legal board
states B and produces as output some move from the set of legal moves M.

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ChooseMove is a choice for the target function in checkers example, but this function
will turn out to be very difficult to learn given the kind of indirect training experience
available to our system

2. An alternative target function is an evaluation function that assigns a numerical score

to any given board state
Let the target function V and the notation
V:B →R

which denote that V maps any legal board state from the set B to some real value.
Intend for this target function V to assign higher scores to better board states. If the
system can successfully learn such a target function V, then it can easily use it to select
the best move from any current board position.

Let us define the target value V(b) for an arbitrary board state b in B, as follows:
 If b is a final board state that is won, then V(b) = 100
 If b is a final board state that is lost, then V(b) = -100
 If b is a final board state that is drawn, then V(b) = 0
 If b is a not a final state in the game, then V(b) = V(b' ),

Where b' is the best final board state that can be achieved starting from b and playing optimally
until the end of the game

3. Choosing a Representation for the Target Function

Let’s choose a simple representation - for any given board state, the function c will be
calculated as a linear combination of the following board features:

 xl: the number of black pieces on the board

 x2: the number of red pieces on the board
 x3: the number of black kings on the board
 x4: the number of red kings on the board
 x5: the number of black pieces threatened by red (i.e., which can be captured on red's
next turn)
 x6: the number of red pieces threatened by black

Thus, learning program will represent as a linear function of the form

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Where,
 w0 through w6 are numerical coefficients, or weights, to be chosen by the learning
algorithm.
 Learned values for the weights w1 through w6 will determine the relative importance
of the various board features in determining the value of the board
 The weight w0 will provide an additive constant to the board value

4. Choosing a Function Approximation Algorithm

In order to learn the target function f we require a set of training examples, each describing a
specific board state b and the training value Vtrain(b) for b.

Each training example is an ordered pair of the form (b, Vtrain(b)).

For instance, the following training example describes a board state b in which black has won
the game (note x2 = 0 indicates that red has no remaining pieces) and for which the target
function value Vtrain(b) is therefore +100.

((x1=3, x2=0, x3=1, x4=0, x5=0, x6=0), +100)

Function Approximation Procedure

1. Derive training examples from the indirect training experience available to the learner
2. Adjusts the weights wi to best fit these training examples

1. Estimating training values

A simple approach for estimating training values for intermediate board states is to
assign the training value of Vtrain(b) for any intermediate board state b to be
V̂ (Successor(b))

Where ,
 V̂ is the learner's current approximation to V
 Successor(b) denotes the next board state following b for which it is again the
program's turn to move

Rule for estimating training values

Vtrain(b) ← V̂ (Successor(b))

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2. Adjusting the weights

Specify the learning algorithm for choosing the weights wi to best fit the set of training
examples {(b, Vtrain(b))}
A first step is to define what we mean by the bestfit to the training data.
One common approach is to define the best hypothesis, or set of weights, as that which
minimizes the squared error E between the training values and the values predicted by
the hypothesis.

Several algorithms are known for finding weights of a linear function that minimize E.
One such algorithm is called the least mean squares, or LMS training rule. For each
observed training example it adjusts the weights a small amount in the direction that
reduces the error on this training example

LMS weight update rule :- For each training example (b, Vtrain(b))
Use the current weights to calculate V̂ (b)
For each weight wi, update it as

wi ← wi + ƞ (Vtrain (b) - V̂ (b)) xi

Here ƞ is a small constant (e.g., 0.1) that moderates the size of the weight update.

Working of weight update rule

 When the error (Vtrain(b)- V̂ (b)) is zero, no weights are changed.

 When (Vtrain(b) - V̂ (b)) is positive (i.e., when V̂ (b) is too low), then each weight
is increased in proportion to the value of its corresponding feature. This will raise
the value of V̂ (b), reducing the error.
 If the value of some feature xi is zero, then its weight is not altered regardless of
the error, so that the only weights updated are those whose features actually occur
on the training example board.

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5. The Final Design

The final design of checkers learning system can be described by four distinct program modules
that represent the central components in many learning systems

1. The Performance System is the module that must solve the given performance task by
using the learned target function(s). It takes an instance of a new problem (new game)
as input and produces a trace of its solution (game history) as output.

2. The Critic takes as input the history or trace of the game and produces as output a set
of training examples of the target function

3. The Generalizer takes as input the training examples and produces an output
hypothesis that is its estimate of the target function. It generalizes from the specific
training examples, hypothesizing a general function that covers these examples and
other cases beyond the training examples.

4. The Experiment Generator takes as input the current hypothesis and outputs a new
problem (i.e., initial board state) for the Performance System to explore. Its role is to
pick new practice problems that will maximize the learning rate of the overall system.

The sequence of design choices made for the checkers program is summarized in below figure

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PERSPECTIVES AND ISSUES IN MACHINE LEARNING

Issues in Machine Learning

The field of machine learning, and much of this book, is concerned with answering questions
such as the following
 What algorithms exist for learning general target functions from specific training
examples? In what settings will particular algorithms converge to the desired function,
given sufficient training data? Which algorithms perform best for which types of
problems and representations?
 How much training data is sufficient? What general bounds can be found to relate the
confidence in learned hypotheses to the amount of training experience and the character
of the learner's hypothesis space?

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 When and how can prior knowledge held by the learner guide the process of generalizing
from examples? Can prior knowledge be helpful even when it is only approximately
correct?
 What is the best strategy for choosing a useful next training experience, and how does
the choice of this strategy alter the complexity of the learning problem?
 What is the best way to reduce the learning task to one or more function approximation
problems? Put another way, what specific functions should the system attempt to learn?
Can this process itself be automated?
 How can the learner automatically alter its representation to improve its ability to
represent and learn the target function?

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CONCEPT LEARNING

 Learning involves acquiring general concepts from specific training examples. Example:
People continually learn general concepts or categories such as "bird," "car," "situations in
which I should study more in order to pass the exam," etc.
 Each such concept can be viewed as describing some subset of objects or events defined
over a larger set
 Alternatively, each concept can be thought of as a Boolean-valued function defined over this
larger set. (Example: A function defined over all animals, whose value is true for birds and
false for other animals).

Definition: Concept learning - Inferring a Boolean-valued function from training examples of

its input and output

A CONCEPT LEARNING TASK

Consider the example task of learning the target concept "Days on which Aldo enjoys
his favorite water sport”

Example Sky AirTemp Humidity Wind Water Forecast EnjoySport

1 Sunny Warm Normal Strong Warm Same Yes

2 Sunny Warm High Strong Warm Same Yes

3 Rainy Cold High Strong Warm Change No

4 Sunny Warm High Strong Cool Change Yes

Table: Positive and negative training examples for the target concept EnjoySport.

The task is to learn to predict the value of EnjoySport for an arbitrary day, based on the
values of its other attributes?

What hypothesis representation is provided to the learner?

 Let’s consider a simple representation in which each hypothesis consists of a

conjunction of constraints on the instance attributes.
 Let each hypothesis be a vector of six constraints, specifying the values of the six
attributes Sky, AirTemp, Humidity, Wind, Water, and Forecast.

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For each attribute, the hypothesis will either

 Indicate by a "?' that any value is acceptable for this attribute,
 Specify a single required value (e.g., Warm) for the attribute, or
 Indicate by a "Φ" that no value is acceptable

If some instance x satisfies all the constraints of hypothesis h, then h classifies x as a positive
example (h(x) = 1).

The hypothesis that PERSON enjoys his favorite sport only on cold days with high humidity
is represented by the expression
(?, Cold, High, ?, ?, ?)

The most general hypothesis-that every day is a positive example-is represented by

(?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?)

The most specific possible hypothesis-that no day is a positive example-is represented by

(Φ, Φ, Φ, Φ, Φ, Φ)

Notation

 The set of items over which the concept is defined is called the set of instances, which is
denoted by X.

Example: X is the set of all possible days, each represented by the attributes: Sky, AirTemp,
Humidity, Wind, Water, and Forecast

 The concept or function to be learned is called the target concept, which is denoted by c.
c can be any Boolean valued function defined over the instances X

c: X→ {O, 1}

Example: The target concept corresponds to the value of the attribute EnjoySport
(i.e., c(x) = 1 if EnjoySport = Yes, and c(x) = 0 if EnjoySport = No).

 Instances for which c(x) = 1 are called positive examples, or members of the target concept.
 Instances for which c(x) = 0 are called negative examples, or non-members of the target
concept.
 The ordered pair (x, c(x)) to describe the training example consisting of the instance x and
its target concept value c(x).
 D to denote the set of available training examples

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 The symbol H to denote the set of all possible hypotheses that the learner may consider
regarding the identity of the target concept. Each hypothesis h in H represents a Boolean-
valued function defined over X
h: X→{O, 1}

The goal of the learner is to find a hypothesis h such that h(x) = c(x) for all x in X.

 Given:
 Instances X: Possible days, each described by the attributes
 Sky (with possible values Sunny, Cloudy, and Rainy),
 AirTemp (with values Warm and Cold),
 Humidity (with values Normal and High),
 Wind (with values Strong and Weak),
 Water (with values Warm and Cool),
 Forecast (with values Same and Change).

 Hypotheses H: Each hypothesis is described by a conjunction of constraints on the

attributes Sky, AirTemp, Humidity, Wind, Water, and Forecast. The constraints may be
"?" (any value is acceptable), “Φ” (no value is acceptable), or a specific value.

 Target concept c: EnjoySport : X → {0, l}

 Training examples D: Positive and negative examples of the target function

 Determine:
 A hypothesis h in H such that h(x) = c(x) for all x in X.

Table: The EnjoySport concept learning task.

The inductive learning hypothesis

Any hypothesis found to approximate the target function well over a sufficiently large set of
training examples will also approximate the target function well over other unobserved
examples.

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CONCEPT LEARNING AS SEARCH

 Concept learning can be viewed as the task of searching through a large space of
hypotheses implicitly defined by the hypothesis representation.
 The goal of this search is to find the hypothesis that best fits the training examples.

Example:
Consider the instances X and hypotheses H in the EnjoySport learning task. The attribute Sky
has three possible values, and AirTemp, Humidity, Wind, Water, Forecast each have two
possible values, the instance space X contains exactly
3.2.2.2.2.2 = 96 distinct instances
5.4.4.4.4.4 = 5120 syntactically distinct hypotheses within H.

Every hypothesis containing one or more "Φ" symbols represents the empty set of instances;
that is, it classifies every instance as negative.
1 + (4.3.3.3.3.3) = 973. Semantically distinct hypotheses

General-to-Specific Ordering of Hypotheses

Consider the two hypotheses

h1 = (Sunny, ?, ?, Strong, ?, ?)
h2 = (Sunny, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?)

 Consider the sets of instances that are classified positive by hl and by h2.
 h2 imposes fewer constraints on the instance, it classifies more instances as positive. So,
any instance classified positive by hl will also be classified positive by h2. Therefore, h2
is more general than hl.

Given hypotheses hj and hk, hj is more-general-than or- equal do hk if and only if any instance
that satisfies hk also satisfies hi

Definition: Let hj and hk be Boolean-valued functions defined over X. Then hj is more general-
than-or-equal-to hk (written hj ≥ hk) if and only if

( xX ) [(hk (x) = 1) → (hj (x) = 1)]

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 In the figure, the box on the left represents the set X of all instances, the box on the right
the set H of all hypotheses.
 Each hypothesis corresponds to some subset of X-the subset of instances that it classifies
positive.
 The arrows connecting hypotheses represent the more - general -than relation, with the
arrow pointing toward the less general hypothesis.
 Note the subset of instances characterized by h2 subsumes the subset characterized by
hl , hence h2 is more - general– than h1

FIND-S: FINDING A MAXIMALLY SPECIFIC HYPOTHESIS

FIND-S Algorithm

1. Initialize h to the most specific hypothesis in H

2. For each positive training instance x
For each attribute constraint ai in h
If the constraint ai is satisfied by x
Then do nothing
Else replace ai in h by the next more general constraint that is satisfied by x
3. Output hypothesis h

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To illustrate this algorithm, assume the learner is given the sequence of training examples
from the EnjoySport task

Example Sky AirTemp Humidity Wind Water Forecast EnjoySport

1 Sunny Warm Normal Strong Warm Same Yes
2 Sunny Warm High Strong Warm Same Yes
3 Rainy Cold High Strong Warm Change No
4 Sunny Warm High Strong Cool Change Yes

 The first step of FIND-S is to initialize h to the most specific hypothesis in H

h - (Ø, Ø, Ø, Ø, Ø, Ø)

 Consider the first training example

x1 = <Sunny Warm Normal Strong Warm Same>, +

Observing the first training example, it is clear that hypothesis h is too specific. None
of the "Ø" constraints in h are satisfied by this example, so each is replaced by the next
more general constraint that fits the example
h1 = <Sunny Warm Normal Strong Warm Same>

 Consider the second training example

x2 = <Sunny, Warm, High, Strong, Warm, Same>, +

The second training example forces the algorithm to further generalize h, this time
substituting a "?" in place of any attribute value in h that is not satisfied by the new
example
h2 = <Sunny Warm ? Strong Warm Same>

 Consider the third training example

x3 = <Rainy, Cold, High, Strong, Warm, Change>, -

Upon encountering the third training the algorithm makes no change to h. The FIND-S
algorithm simply ignores every negative example.
h3 = < Sunny Warm ? Strong Warm Same>

 Consider the fourth training example

x4 = <Sunny Warm High Strong Cool Change>, +

The fourth example leads to a further generalization of h

h4 = < Sunny Warm ? Strong ? ? >

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The key property of the FIND-S algorithm

 FIND-S is guaranteed to output the most specific hypothesis within H that is consistent
with the positive training examples
 FIND-S algorithm’s final hypothesis will also be consistent with the negative examples
provided the correct target concept is contained in H, and provided the training examples
are correct.

Unanswered by FIND-S

1. Has the learner converged to the correct target concept?

2. Why prefer the most specific hypothesis?
3. Are the training examples consistent?
4. What if there are several maximally specific consistent hypotheses?

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VERSION SPACES AND THE CANDIDATE-ELIMINATION ALGORITHM

The key idea in the CANDIDATE-ELIMINATION algorithm is to output a description of the

set of all hypotheses consistent with the training examples

Representation

Definition: consistent- A hypothesis h is consistent with a set of training examples D if and

only if h(x) = c(x) for each example (x, c(x)) in D.

Consistent (h, D)  ( x, c(x)  D) h(x) = c(x))

Note difference between definitions of consistent and satisfies

 An example x is said to satisfy hypothesis h when h(x) = 1, regardless of whether x is
a positive or negative example of the target concept.
 An example x is said to consistent with hypothesis h iff h(x) = c(x)

Definition: version space- The version space, denoted V S with respect to hypothesis space
H, D
H and training examples D, is the subset of hypotheses from H consistent with the training
examples in D
V S {h  H | Consistent (h, D)}
H, D

The LIST-THEN-ELIMINATION algorithm

The LIST-THEN-ELIMINATE algorithm first initializes the version space to contain all
hypotheses in H and then eliminates any hypothesis found inconsistent with any training
example.

1. VersionSpace c a list containing every hypothesis in H

2. For each training example, (x, c(x))
remove from VersionSpace any hypothesis h for which h(x) ≠ c(x)
3. Output the list of hypotheses in VersionSpace

The LIST-THEN-ELIMINATE Algorithm

 List-Then-Eliminate works in principle, so long as version space is finite.

 However, since it requires exhaustive enumeration of all hypotheses in practice it is not
feasible.

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A More Compact Representation for Version Spaces

The version space is represented by its most general and least general members. These
members form general and specific boundary sets that delimit the version space within the
partially ordered hypothesis space.

Definition: The general boundary G, with respect to hypothesis space H and training data D,
is the set of maximally general members of H consistent with D

G {g  H | Consistent (g, D)(g'  H)[(g'  g)  Consistent(g', D)]}

g

Definition: The specific boundary S, with respect to hypothesis space H and training data D,
is the set of minimally general (i.e., maximally specific) members of H consistent with D.

S {s  H | Consistent (s, D)(s'  H)[(s  s')  Consistent(s', D)]}

g

Theorem: Version Space representation theorem

Theorem: Let X be an arbitrary set of instances and Let H be a set of Boolean-valued

hypotheses defined over X. Let c: X →{O, 1} be an arbitrary target concept defined over X,
and let D be an arbitrary set of training examples {(x, c(x))). For all X, H, c, and D such that S
and G are well defined,
VS ={ h  H | (s  S ) (g  G ) ( g  h  s )}
H,D g g

To Prove:
1. Every h satisfying the right hand side of the above expression is in VS
H, D
2. Every member of VS satisfies the right-hand side of the expression
H, D

Sketch of proof:
1. let g, h, s be arbitrary members of G, H, S respectively with g g h g s
 By the definition of S, s must be satisfied by all positive examples in D. Because h g s,
h must also be satisfied by all positive examples in D.
 By the definition of G, g cannot be satisfied by any negative example in D, and because
g g h h cannot be satisfied by any negative example in D. Because h is satisfied by all
positive examples in D and by no negative examples in D, h is consistent with D, and
therefore h is a member of VSH,D.
2. It can be proven by assuming some h in VSH,D,that does not satisfy the right-hand side
of the expression, then showing that this leads to an inconsistency

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CANDIDATE-ELIMINATION Learning Algorithm

The CANDIDATE-ELIMINTION algorithm computes the version space containing all

hypotheses from H that are consistent with an observed sequence of training examples.

Initialize G to the set of maximally general hypotheses in H

Initialize S to the set of maximally specific hypotheses in H
For each training example d, do
• If d is a positive example
• Remove from G any hypothesis inconsistent with d
• For each hypothesis s in S that is not consistent with d
• Remove s from S
• Add to S all minimal generalizations h of s such that
• h is consistent with d, and some member of G is more general than h
• Remove from S any hypothesis that is more general than another hypothesis in S

• If d is a negative example
• Remove from S any hypothesis inconsistent with d
• For each hypothesis g in G that is not consistent with d
• Remove g from G
• Add to G all minimal specializations h of g such that
• h is consistent with d, and some member of S is more specific than h
• Remove from G any hypothesis that is less general than another hypothesis in G

CANDIDATE- ELIMINTION algorithm using version spaces

An Illustrative Example

Example Sky AirTemp Humidity Wind Water Forecast EnjoySport

1 Sunny Warm Normal Strong Warm Same Yes
2 Sunny Warm High Strong Warm Same Yes
3 Rainy Cold High Strong Warm Change No
4 Sunny Warm High Strong Cool Change Yes

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CANDIDATE-ELIMINTION algorithm begins by initializing the version space to the set of

all hypotheses in H;

Initializing the G boundary set to contain the most general hypothesis in H

G0 ?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?

Initializing the S boundary set to contain the most specific (least general) hypothesis
S0 , , , , , 

 When the first training example is presented, the CANDIDATE-ELIMINTION algorithm
checks the S boundary and finds that it is overly specific and it fails to cover the positive
example.
 The boundary is therefore revised by moving it to the least more general hypothesis that
covers this new example
 No update of the G boundary is needed in response to this training example because G o
correctly covers this example

 When the second training example is observed, it has a similar effect of generalizing S
further to S2, leaving G again unchanged i.e., G2 = G1 = G0

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 Consider the third training example. This negative example reveals that the G boundary
of the version space is overly general, that is, the hypothesis in G incorrectly predicts
that this new example is a positive example.
 The hypothesis in the G boundary must therefore be specialized until it correctly
classifies this new negative example

Given that there are six attributes that could be specified to specialize G2, why are there only
three new hypotheses in G3?
For example, the hypothesis h = (?, ?, Normal, ?, ?, ?) is a minimal specialization of G 2
that correctly labels the new example as a negative example, but it is not included in G3.
The reason this hypothesis is excluded is that it is inconsistent with the previously
encountered positive examples

 Consider the fourth training example.

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 This positive example further generalizes the S boundary of the version space. It also
results in removing one member of the G boundary, because this member fails to
cover the new positive example

After processing these four examples, the boundary sets S4 and G4 delimit the version space
of all hypotheses consistent with the set of incrementally observed training examples.

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INDUCTIVE BIAS

The fundamental questions for inductive inference

1. What if the target concept is not contained in the hypothesis space?

2. Can we avoid this difficulty by using a hypothesis space that includes every possible
hypothesis?
3. How does the size of this hypothesis space influence the ability of the algorithm to
generalize to unobserved instances?
4. How does the size of the hypothesis space influence the number of training examples
that must be observed?

These fundamental questions are examined in the context of the CANDIDATE-

ELIMINTION algorithm

A Biased Hypothesis Space

 Suppose the target concept is not contained in the hypothesis space H, then obvious
solution is to enrich the hypothesis space to include every possible hypothesis.
 Consider the EnjoySport example in which the hypothesis space is restricted to include
only conjunctions of attribute values. Because of this restriction, the hypothesis space is
unable to represent even simple disjunctive target concepts such as
"Sky = Sunny or Sky = Cloudy."
 The following three training examples of disjunctive hypothesis, the algorithm would
find that there are zero hypotheses in the version space

Sunny Warm Normal Strong Cool Change Y

Cloudy Warm Normal Strong Cool Change Y
Rainy Warm Normal Strong Cool Change N

 If Candidate Elimination algorithm is applied, then it end up with empty Version Space.
After first two training example
S= ? Warm Normal Strong Cool Change

 This new hypothesis is overly general and it incorrectly covers the third negative
training example! So H does not include the appropriate c.
 In this case, a more expressive hypothesis space is required.

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An Unbiased Learner

 The solution to the problem of assuring that the target concept is in the hypothesis space H
is to provide a hypothesis space capable of representing every teachable concept that is
representing every possible subset of the instances X.
 The set of all subsets of a set X is called the power set of X

 In the EnjoySport learning task the size of the instance space X of days described by
the six attributes is 96 instances.
 Thus, there are 296 distinct target concepts that could be defined over this instance space
and learner might be called upon to learn.
 The conjunctive hypothesis space is able to represent only 973 of these - a biased
hypothesis space indeed

 Let us reformulate the EnjoySport learning task in an unbiased way by defining a new
hypothesis space H' that can represent every subset of instances
 The target concept "Sky = Sunny or Sky = Cloudy" could then be described as

(Sunny, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?) v (Cloudy, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?)

The Futility of Bias-Free Learning

Inductive learning requires some form of prior assumptions, or inductive bias

Definition:
Consider a concept learning algorithm L for the set of instances X.
 Let c be an arbitrary concept defined over X
 Let D = {(x , c(x))} be an arbitrary set of training examples of c.
c
 Let L (x , D ) denote the classification assigned to the instance x by L after training on
i c i
the data D .
c
 The inductive bias of L is any minimal set of assertions B such that for any target concept
c and corresponding training examples D
c

 ( xi  X ) [(B  Dc  xi) ├ L (xi, Dc )]

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The below figure explains

 Modelling inductive systems by equivalent deductive systems.
 The input-output behavior of the CANDIDATE-ELIMINATION algorithm using a
hypothesis space H is identical to that of a deductive theorem prover utilizing the
assertion "H contains the target concept." This assertion is therefore called the inductive
bias of the CANDIDATE-ELIMINATION algorithm.
 Characterizing inductive systems by their inductive bias allows modelling them by their
equivalent deductive systems. This provides a way to compare inductive systems
according to their policies for generalizing beyond the observed training data.

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