Electricity

Glass Rod/Plastic Rod

▪ A glass rod rubbed with silk gets a positive charge.
▪ A plastic rod rubbed with fur gets a negative
charge.
▪ Suspend a charged glass rod from a thread, and
another charged glass rod repels it.
▪ A charged plastic rod, however, attracts it.
▪ This mysterious force is called the electric force.
▪ Many similar experiments of all kinds led Benjamin
Franklin (around 1750) to the conclusion that there
are two types of charge, which he called positive
and negative.
▪ He also discovered that charge was not created by
rubbing, but rather the charge is transferred from
the rubbing material to the rubbed object, or vice
versa.
Forces Between Charges
▪ We observe that

Like charges repel each other

Opposite charges attract each other

Electroscope
▪ This is a device that can visually show
whether it is charged with static ------
electricity.
▪ Here is an example charged positive.
▪ Notice that the charges collect near the
ends, and since like charges repel, they
exert a force sideways.

▪ You can make the deflection arm

move by adding either positive or
negative charge.
▪ BUT, we seem to be able to make it
move without touching it.
▪ What is happening?

Electrostatic Induction
The Atom
▪ We now know that all atoms are made of positive charges in the
nucleus, surrounded by a cloud of tiny electrons.
❑ Atoms are normally neutral,
meaning that they have
Electron exactly the same number of
protons as they do electrons.
Proton ❑ The charges balance, and the
atom has no net charge.

Neutron Which type of charge is

easiest to remove
from an atom?
Proton charge +e, electron charge −e A. Proton
where e = 1.60210−19 C
B. Electron
 The Atom
▪ Protons are VASTLY more difficult to remove, and for all practical purposes it
NEVER happens except in radioactive materials. In this course, we will
ignore this case. Only electrons can be removed.

If we remove an
electron, what is the
net charge on the
atom?
A. Positive
B. Negative
If we cannot remove a proton, how do
we ever make something charged
Proton charge +e, electron charge −e negatively? By adding an “extra”
where e = 1.60210−19 C electron.
 Glass Rod/Plastic Rod Again
▪ We can now interpret what is happening with the
glass/plastic rod experiments.
▪ Glass happens to lose electrons easily, and silk grabs them
away from the glass atoms, so after rubbing the glass
becomes positively charged and the silk becomes
negatively charged.
▪ Plastic has the opposite tendency. It easily grabs electrons
from the fur, so that it becomes positively charged while
the fur becomes negatively charged.

The ability to gain or lose electrons through rubbing

is called Triboelectricity.

Tribo means rubbing

Triboelectric Series
Most Positive asbestos
(items on this end lose electrons) rabbit fur
glass
hair
nylon
wool
silk
paper
cotton
hard rubber
synthetic rubber
polyester
styrofoam
orlon
saran
polyurethane
polyethylene
polypropylene
polyvinyl chloride (PVC pipe)
Most Negative teflon
(items on this end steal electrons) silicone rubber
Insulators and Conductors

▪ Both insulators and conductors can be charged.

▪ The difference is that
• On an insulator charges are not able to move from place to
place. If you charge an insulator, you are typically
depositing (or removing) charges only from the surface,
and they will stay where you put them.
• On a conductor, charges can freely move. If you try to
place charge on a conductor, it will quickly spread over the
entire conductor.
Insulators and Conductors
Which of the following is a good conductor of electricity?
A. A plastic rod.
B. A glass rod.
C. A rock.
D. A wooden stick.
E. A metal rod.
Metals and Conduction
▪ Notice that metals are not only good electrical conductors, but they are also
good heat conductors, tend to be shiny (if polished), and are malleable (can be
bent or shaped).
▪ These are all properties that come from the ability of electrons to move easily.
This iron atom (26 protons, 26 electrons) has
two electrons in its outer shell, which can
move from one iron atom to the next in a
metal.

Path of electron
in a metal
Electric Force and Coulomb’s Law
▪ We can measure the force of attraction or repulsion between charges, call them q1
and q2 (we will use the symbol q or Q for charge).

q1 q2
r

▪ When we do that, we find that the force is proportional to the each of the charges,
is inversely proportional to the distance between them, and is directed along the
line between them (along r).

q1 q2

𝑞1 𝑞2
𝐹=𝑘
▪ In symbols, the magnitude of the force is 𝑟2 where k is some constant
of proportionality.
▪ This force law was first studied by Coulomb in 1785, and is called Coulomb’s Law.
The constant k = 8.98755109 N m2/C2 is the Coulomb constant.
Electric Force and Coulomb’s Law
▪ Although we can write down a vector form for the force, it is easier to
simply use the equation for the magnitude, and just use the “like charges
repel, opposites attract” rule to figure out the direction of the force.
▪ Note that the form for Coulomb’s Law is exactly the same as for
gravitational force between two masses
Note BIG difference,
𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹=𝐺 𝐺⇒𝑘 There is only one “sign”
𝑟2 𝑚⇒𝑞
of mass, only attraction.
▪ Note also that the mass is an intrinsic property of matter. Likewise, charge
is also an intrinsic property. We only know it exists, and can learn its
properties, because of the force it exerts.
▪ Because it makes other equations easier to write, Coulomb’s constant is
actually written 1 1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑘= 𝐹=
4𝜋𝜀0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟2

where 0 = 8.8510−12 C2/N-m2 is called the permittivity constant.

Insulators and Conductors
Two small spheres are charged with equal and opposite charges, and are
placed 30 cm apart. Then the charge on sphere 1 is doubled.
Which diagram could be considered to show the correct forces?

2q −q

A.

B.

C.

D.

E.
Case of Multiple Charges
▪ You can determine the force on a particular charge by adding up all
of the forces from each charge.

Forces on one charge due to a number

of other charges
Charges in a Line
Where do I have to place the + charge in order for
the force to balance, in the figure at right?
−q
A. Cannot tell, because + charge value is not given.
B. Exactly in the middle between the two negative
charges.
C. On the line between the two negative charges,
but closer to the −2q charge.
D. On the line between the two negative charges, −q
but closer to the −q charge.
E. There is no location that will give force balance.
Calculate the Exact Location
▪ Force is attractive toward both negative charges, hence could balance.
▪ Need a coordinate system, so choose total distance as L, and position of +
charge from −q charge as x.
▪ Force is sum of the two force vectors, and has to be zero, so
−q
2𝑞𝑄 𝑞𝑄
𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 𝑘 − 𝑘 =0
(𝐿 − 𝑥)2 𝑥2

▪ A lot of things cancel, including Q, so our answer does not depend on

knowing the + charge value. We end up with L

2 1 (𝐿 − 𝑥)2 𝐿−𝑥
= = 2 ⇒ = 2 x
(𝐿 − 𝑥)2 𝑥 2 𝑥2 𝑥

−q
▪ Solving for x,𝑥 = 𝐿
= 0.412𝐿, so slightly less than half-way between.
1+ 2
Electric Force and Field Force

▪ What? -- Action on a
distance
▪ How? – Electric Field
▪ Why? – Field Force
▪ Where? – in the space
surrounding charges
Fields
▪ Scalar Fields:
• Temperature – T(r)
• Pressure – P(r)
• Potential energy – U(r)
▪ Vector Fields:
• Velocity field – 𝑣( Ԧ 𝑟)Ԧ
• Gravitational field – 𝑔( Ԧ 𝑟)
Ԧ
• Electric field – 𝐸(𝑟)
Ԧ

• Magnetic field – 𝐵(𝑟) Ԧ

Vector Field Due to Gravity
▪ When you consider the force
of Earth’s gravity in space, it
points everywhere in the
direction of the center of the m

Earth. But remember that

the strength is:
M
𝑀𝑚
𝐹Ԧ = −𝐺 𝑟Ƹ
𝑟2

▪ This is an example of an
inverse-square force
(proportional to the inverse
square of the distance).
Idea of Test Mass
▪ Notice that the actual amount
of force depends on the mass,
m:
𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝐹Ԧ = − 𝑟Ƹ
𝑟2

▪ It is convenient to ask what is

the force per unit mass. The
idea is to imagine putting a
unit test mass near the Earth,
and observe the effect on it:
𝐹Ԧ 𝐺𝑀
= − 2 𝑟Ƹ = −𝑔(𝑟)𝑟Ƹ
𝑚 𝑟

▪ g(r) is the “gravitational field.”

Gravitational Field
0 s, v1 = 0 m/s

1 s, v2 = 9.8 m/s

2 s, v3 = 19.6 m/s

3 s, v4 = 29.4 m/s

𝐹 𝐺𝑚
=𝑎= 2
𝑚 𝑅
2
4 s, v5 = 39.2 m/s
𝑔 = −9.8 m/s
Electric Field
▪ Electric field is said to exist in the
region of space around a charged
object: the source charge.
▪ Concept of test charge:
• Small and positive
• Does not affect charge distribution + +
+ +

▪ Electric field: 𝐹Ԧ
+
+
+
+ +
𝐸=
𝑞0

• Existence of an electric field is a property

of its source;
• Presence of test charge is not necessary
for the field to exist;
Electric Field
A test charge of +3 µC is at a point P where an external electric field is
directed to the right and has a magnitude of 4×106 N/C. If the test
charge is replaced with another test charge of –3 µC, what happens to
the external electric field at P ?

A. It is unaffected.
B. It reverses direction.
C. It changes in a way that cannot be determined.
Electric Field
𝐹Ԧ
❑ Magnitude: E=F/q0
𝐸=
𝑞0 ❑ Direction: is that of the force that acts on the
positive test charge
❑ SI unit: N/C

Situation Value
Inside a copper wire of household circuits 10-2 N/C
Near a charged comb 103 N/C
Inside a TV picture tube 105 N/C
Near the charged drum of a photocopier 105 N/C
Electric breakdown across an air gap 3×106 N/C
At the electron’s orbit in a hydrogen atom 5×1011 N/C
On the suface of a Uranium nucleus 3×1021 N/C
 Which diagram could be considered to show the correct electric
force on a positive test charge due to a point charge?

A. B.

C. D. E.
Electric Field due to a Point Charge Q

1 𝑄𝑞0
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑟Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
B
𝐹Ԧ 1 𝑄
𝐸= = 𝑟Ƹ
𝑞0 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 Q A

𝑟Ԧ
❑ Direction is radial: outward for +|Q| q0
inward for -|Q|
❑ Magnitude: constant on any spherical
shell
Electric Field due to a group of individual charge
𝐹Ԧ0 = 𝐹Ԧ01 + 𝐹Ԧ02 +. . . +𝐹Ԧ0𝑛

𝐹Ԧ0 𝐹Ԧ01 𝐹Ԧ02 𝐹Ԧ0𝑛

𝐸= = + +. . . +
𝑞0 𝑞0 𝑞0 𝑞0
= 𝐸1 + 𝐸2 +. . . +𝐸𝑛

1 𝑞𝑖
𝐸= ෍ 2 𝑟𝑖Ƹ
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟𝑖
𝑖
 Electric Field Lines
▪ The lines must begin on a positive
charge and terminate on a negative
charge. In the case of an excess of
one type of charge, some lines will
begin or end infinitely far away.

▪ The number of lines drawn leaving

a positive charge or approaching a
negative charge is proportional to
the magnitude of the charge.

▪ No two field lines can cross.

Electric Field
Rank the magnitudes E of the .B
electric field at points A, B,
and C shown in the figure.

A) EC>EB>EA
B) EB>EC>EA
.C
C) EA>EC>EB
D) EB>EA>EC .A
E) EA>EB>EC
Motion of a Charged Particle in a Uniform Electric Field
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸
❑ If the electric field E is uniform
(magnitude and direction), the electric
𝐹Ԧ = 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
force F on the particle is constant.
𝑞𝐸
𝑎Ԧ =
𝑚
❑ If the particle has a positive charge, its
acceleration a and electric force F are in
the direction of the electric field E.

❑ If the particle has a negative charge, its

acceleration a and electric force F are in
the direction opposite the electric field E.
Determine the magnitude and direction of the electric force on the
electron of a hydrogen atom exerted by the single proton (Q= +e) that is
the atom's nucleus. Assume the average distance between the revolving
electron and the proton is r = 0.53 × 10^-10 m
▪Three charged particles are arranged in a line, as shown in
the figure below. Calculate the net electrostatic force on
particle 3
▪ A photocopy machine works by arranging
positive charges (in the pattern to be
copied) on the surface of a drum, then
gently sprinkling negatively charged dry
toner (ink) particles onto the drum. The
toner particles temporarily stick to the
pattern on the drum and are later
transferred to paper and "melted" to
produce the copy. Suppose each toner
particle has a mass of 9.0 x 10^-16 kg and
carries an average of 20 extra electrons to
provide an electric charge. Assuming that
the electric force on a toner particle must
exceed twice its weight in order to ensure
sufficient attration, compute the required
electric field strength near the surface of
the drum.
▪Suppose each toner particle has a mass
of 9.0 x 10^-16 kg and carries an
average of 20 extra electrons to provide
an electric charge. Assuming that the
electric force on a toner particle must
exceed twice its weight in order to
ensure sufficient attraction, compute
the required electric field strength near
the surface of the drum.
▪ Two point charges are separated by a distance of 10.0 cm. One has a
charge of -25 μC and the other +50 μC.
• (a) Determine the direction and magnitude of the electric field at a point P
between the two charges that is 2.0 cm from the negative charge
• (b) If an electron (mass = 9.11 x 103 kg) is placed at rest at P and then released,
what will be its initial acceleration (direction and magnitude)?
Flux of Electric Field
▪ Like the flow of water, or light energy, we can think of the
electric field as flowing through a surface (although in this
case nothing is actually moving).
▪ We represent the flux of electric field as  (greek letter
phi), so the flux of the electric field through an element of
area A is

Φ = 𝐸 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐸𝐴 cos 𝜃

▪ When   ˚, the flux is positive (out of the surface), and

when   ˚, the flux is negative.
▪ When we have a complicated surface, we can divide it up
into tiny elemental areas:

𝑑Φ = 𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 cos 𝜃
Flux of Electric Field
1. Which of the following figures correctly shows a positive
electric flux out of a surface element?
A. I.
I. II. E
B. II. A

C. III. 
A
E
D. IV.
`
E. I and III. III. IV.
E

A
A E

▪A flat circle of radius 18 cm is placed in a uniform electric
field of magnitude 5.8 × 10^2 N/C. What is the electric flux
through the circle when its face is
(a) perpendicular to the field lines,
(b) at 45° to the field lines, and
(c) parallel to the field lines?
Mathematical Statement of Gauss’ Law
▪ The constant of proportionality in Gauss’ Law is our old
friend .
𝜀0 Φ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐

▪ Recall that Coulomb’s constant is written

1
𝑘𝐸 =
4𝜋𝜀0

▪ We can see it now by integrating the electric flux of a point

charge over a spherical gaussian surface.

❑ Solving for E gives Coulomb’s Law.

1 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2
 Example of Gauss’ Law
▪ Consider a dipole with equal positive and negative
charges.
▪ Imagine four surfaces S1, S2, S3, S4, as shown.
▪ S1 encloses the positive charge. Note that the field is
everywhere outward, so the flux is positive.
▪ S2 encloses the negative charge. Note that the field is
everywhere inward, so the flux through the surface is
negative.
▪ S3 encloses no charge. The flux through the surface is
negative at the upper part, and positive at the lower
part, but these cancel, and there is no net flux through
the surface.
▪ S4 encloses both charges. Again there is no net charge
enclosed, so there is equal flux going out and coming
in—no net flux through the surface.
E Field of Charge In Conductor
Electric Flux Density
▪It represents the number of electric field
lines passing through a unit area
perpendicular to the direction of the
electric field.

𝐷 = 𝜀0 𝐸 = Φ/𝐴
Electric Flux Important Points
▪ Electric flux is the amount of electric field passing through a closed surface.
▪ Flux is positive when electric field is outward, and negative when electric
field is inward through the closed surface.
▪ Gauss’ Law states that the electric flux is proportional to the net charge
enclosed by the surface, and the constant of proportionality is . In symbols,
it is
𝜀0 Φ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐
𝜀0 ර𝐸 ⋅ 𝑑 𝐴Ԧ = 𝑞𝑒𝑛𝑐

▪ There are three geometries we typically deal with:

▪ The electric field is zero inside a conductor.
▪ The electric field is zero inside a cavity within a conductor, unless there is a
charge inside that is not in contact with the walls.
▪ The electric field at the surface of a conductor is always perpendicular to that
surface.
 What we know so far
Electrostatic Force (Coulomb Force):
• A fundamental force acting between electrically charged
particles.
• Described by Coulomb's Law: F = k q1 q2 / r^2, where:
• F is the force (Newtons)
• k is Coulomb's constant (8.988 x 10^9 Nm^2/C^2)
• q1 and q2 are the magnitudes of the charges (Coulombs)
• r is the distance between the charges (meters)
• Can be attractive (unlike charges) or repulsive (like charges).
What we know so far
Electric Field (E-field):
• A vector field that describes the force per unit charge exerted
on a stationary test charge (positive by convention).
• Measured in Newtons per Coulomb (N/C) or Volts per meter
(V/m).
• Represented by imaginary lines indicating the direction and
strength of the force.
• Denser lines indicate a stronger electric field.
What we know so far
Electric Flux (Φ):
• The measure of the total amount of electric field passing
through a specific area.
• Calculated as the surface integral of the electric field (E)
over the area (A): Φ = ∫ E • dA.
• Measured in Coulombs (C).
• Represents the number of electric field lines passing
through the area.
What we know so far
Electric Flux Density (D):
• It's a vector field that relates the electric field (E) to the
material properties through which the field exists.
• It's defined by the equation: D = ε * E, where:
• Units of electric flux density are Coulombs per square meter
(C/m²).
• It represents the number of electric field lines passing through
a unit area perpendicular to the direction of the electric field.
Electric Potential
❑ The scalar potential energy per unit charge at a specific point in an electric field.
❑ Measured in Volts (V).
❑ Represents the amount of work needed to move a unit positive charge from a
reference point (often infinity) to that specific point without any acceleration.
❑ Higher potential indicates a point with more potential energy for a charged particle.
❑ SI Unit of electric potential: Volt (V)
1 volt = 1 joule per coulomb
1 J = 1 VC and 1 J = 1 N m
❑ Electric field: 1 N/C = (1 N/C)(1 VC/J)(1 J/Nm) = 1 V/m
❑ Electric energy: 1 eV = e(1 V)
= (1.60×10-19 C)(1 J/C) = 1.60×10-19 J
Electric Potential Energy
❑ The potential energy of the system
Uf
U = U f − U i = −W
Ui
❑ The work done by the electrostatic
force is path independent.
❑ Work done by a electric force or “field”

Uf

   
W = F  r = q E  r Ui
 Equipotential Surface
❑ The name equipotential surface is given to any surface
consisting of a continuous distribution of points having the
same electric potential.

❑ Equipotential surfaces are always perpendicular to electric

field lines.

❑ No work is done by the electric field on a charged particle

while moving the particle along an equipotential surface.

Analogy to Gravity
❑ The equipotential surface is like the “height” lines on a
topographic map.

❑ Following such a line means that you remain at the same

height, neither going up nor going down—again, no work is
done.
Potential Due to a Point Charge

▪ We have
1q
E= E=
1 q
4 0 r 2
4 0 r 2

▪ So 1 q
V (r ) =
4 0 r

▪ A positively charged particle produces a

positive electric potential.
▪ A negatively charged particle produces a
negative electric potential
▪ Determine the voltage across A and B