CE-316_HYDRAULICS

FINALTERM-SY 2024-2025 LECTURE NOTES

CHAPTER 5
“ FUNDAMENTALS OF FLUID FLOW ”
Fundamentals of fluid flow are the basic principles that govern the
behaviour of fluids in motion. These principles are essential for
understanding various phenomena in fields like engineering, physics,
and environmental science.
a.) Principle of Conservation of Mass: - This principle is based on the
idea that mass cannot be created or destroyed. For a fluid in motion,
this means that the amount of fluid entering a system (like a pipe)
must equal the amount exiting (assuming no leaks or accumulation).
This is also known as the continuity equation. - In mathematical
terms, for incompressible fluids (fluids whose density doesn't
change), the product of the cross-sectional area and velocity of flow
at different points along a pipe remains constant.

b.) Energy Principle (Kinetic and Potential Energy): - This refers to

the conservation of energy, specifically in terms of how energy in a
moving fluid is distributed between its kinetic energy (due to its
velocity) and potential energy (due to its position or pressure). -
Bernoulli’s equation is often used to describe this principle, where
the total mechanical energy (sum of kinetic energy, potential energy,
and pressure energy) in a fluid remains constant along a streamline,
assuming no energy losses.

c.) Principle of Momentum: - This principle is tied to Newton’s

second law of motion, which states that the force exerted on a fluid
mass equals the rate of change of its momentum. This helps describe
how the motion of fluids changes when forces are applied, such as
how fluids react when flowing around obstacles or changing
direction in a pipe. - It’s important for understanding how fluids exert
forces on objects (like the drag force on an airplane wing or the force
in a water jet).
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TOPIC 1 - DISCHARGE OR FLOW RATE

TOPIC 2 - TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

TYPES OF FLUID FLOW

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1.) Steady Flow – this occurs when the

discharge Q passing a given cross
section is constant with time. If the
flow Q at the cross-section varies with
time, the flow is Unsteady.

2.) Uniform Flow – this occurs if, with

steady flow for a given length, or
reach, of a stream, the average
velocity of flow is the same at every
cross-section. This usually occurs
when an incompressible fluid flows
through a stream with uniform cross-
section

3.) Continuous Flow – this occurs

when at any time, the discharge Q at
every section of the stream is the
same (principle of conservation of
mass).

4.) Continuity Equation – The continuity equation ensures that the

mass flow rate is constant from one point to another in a fluid system.
It means that if fluid flows through a pipe or channel, the product of
the area and velocity must remain constant. So, if the pipe narrows,
the fluid must speed up to maintain the same flow rate.

For Incompressible Fluids:

For Compressible Fluids:

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5.) Laminar Flow – the flow is said to

be laminar when the path of individual
fluid particles do not cross or
intersect. The flow is always laminar
when the Reynolds number Re is less
than (approximately) 2,100.

6.) Turbulent Flow – the flow is said to

be turbulent when the path of
individual particles are irregular and
continuously cross each other.
Turbulent flow normally occurs when
the Re exceed 2,100, (although the
most common situation is when it
exceeds 4000.)

7.) One-Dimensional Flow – refers to fluid motion where variations in

flow properties (such as velocity, pressure, and density) are assumed
to occur only in one direction, while being uniform in the other two
directions.

8.) Two-Dimensional Flow – refers to fluid motion where the flow

properties (such as velocity, pressure, and density) vary in two spatial
dimensions, typically in the plane of a surface. In this model, the flow
characteristics change in both the x and y directions, while the
properties can be considered uniform in the direction perpendicular
to that plane (z-direction).

9.) Three-Dimensional Flow – refers to a fluid flow where the velocity

and other properties of the fluid (such as pressure, temperature, and
density) vary in all three spatial directions—x, y, and z. In 3D flow, the
motion of the fluid is more complex, and its characteristics can
change in length, width, and height simultaneously.

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Streamlines - are lines that represent
the flow of a fluid in a flow field. They
provide a visual way to illustrate the
direction and pattern of fluid motion at
a given instant.

Streamtubes - are a three-dimensional

concept related to streamlines in fluid
flow. A streamtube is defined as a
bundle of adjacent streamlines that
enclose a volume of fluid.

Flow Nets - Flow nets are graphical

representations used in hydrogeology
and fluid mechanics to visualize and
analyze fluid flow through porous
media, such as soil or rock.

TOPIC 3 - ENERGY AND HEAD

Energy and Head are
fundamental concepts in fluid
mechanics and hydraulic
engineering that help describe
the energy possessed by a fluid in
motion or at rest. The energy
possessed by a flowing fluid
consists of the kinetic and the
potential energy. Potential
energy may in turn be subdivided
into energy due to it’s position or
elevation above a given datum,
and energy due to pressure in the
fluid. The amount of energy per
pound or newton of fluid is called
the head. 36
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1.) Kinetic Energy - This is the energy a fluid particle possesses as a
result of its motion, directly dependent on its velocity. It represents
the fluid's capacity to perform work by virtue of its movement.

•For circular pipe of diameter D flowing full

2.) Potential Energy due to Elevation -

This energy is related to the position
of the fluid within a gravitational field,
with higher elevations corresponding
to greater potential energy. It is the
energy the fluid possesses due to its
elevation or position relative to a
reference datum.

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3.) Potential Energy due to Pressure - This

is the energy stored in a fluid due to its
pressure. It is the energy required to push
the fluid against surrounding pressure.

TOTAL FLOW ENERGY, E

The total energy or head in a fluid flow is the sum of the kinetic and
the potential energies. It can be summarized as:

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TOPIC 4 - POWER AND EFFICIENCY

POWER -is defined as the rate at which work is performed or energy is
transferred over a given period. In essence, it quantifies the speed at
which energy is utilized or transformed from one form to another.
Thus, power represents the rate of work done. Unit of power is
Joules/second or watts.

EFFICIENCY -is a measure of how effectively a system converts input

into useful output, typically expressed as a percentage. It indicates
the proportion of input energy or resources that is successfully
transformed into desired output, highlighting the effectiveness of a
process or machine.

TOPIC 5 - BERNOULLI’S ENERGY THEOREM

Daniel Bernoulli (1700–1782) - was a
prominent Swiss mathematician and
physicist best known for his work in fluid
dynamics and his formulation of
Bernoulli’s principle. Bernoulli’s Principle
states that the “total energy in a steadily
flowing fluid system is constant along
the flow path.” Therefore an increase in
the fluid’s speed must be matched by a
decrease in its pressure.

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•ENERGY EQUATION WITH HEAD LOST

Considering head lost, the values that we can attain are called actual
values

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•ENERGY EQUATION WITH PUMP

Pump is used basically to increase
the head. (Usually to raise water
from a lower to a higher elevation).
The input power (Pinput) of the
pump is electrical energy and its
output power (Poutput) is the flow
energy.

•ENERGY EQUATION WITH

TURBINE
Turbines or motors extract
flow energy to do mechanical
work which in turn converted
into electrical energy for
turbines.

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TOPIC 6 - ENERGY AND HYDRAULIC GRADE LINES

Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
Also known as pressure gradient, hydraulic grade line is the graphical
representation of the total potential energy of flow. It is the line that
connects the water levels in successive piezometer tubes placed at
intervals along the pipe. It’s distance from the datum plane is p/γ+z.

Characteristics of HGL
•HGL slopes downward in the direction of flow but it may rise or fall
due to changes in velocity or pressure.
•For uniform pipe cross-section, HGL is parallel to the EGL.
•For horizontal pipes with uniform diameter, the drop in pressure
heads between these points.

Energy Grade Line (EGL)

Energy grade line is a graphical representation of the total energy flow
(the sum of kinetic and potential energies). Its distance from the
datum plane is

Characteristics of EGL
•EGL always slope downward in the direction of flow, and it will only
rise with the presence of a pump.
•The drop of the EGL between any two points is the head lost between
those points.
•For uniform pipe cross-section, EGL is parallel to the HGL.
•EGL is always above the HGL by an amount equal to the velocity
head,

•Neglecting head loss, EGL is horizontal.

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