THE DESIGN

PROCESS
TRAINING
MANUAL
VISION

Quality life long education which is accessible to all, inclusive and relevant to an
individual, national, global needs and value systems.

COPYRIGHT STATEMENT
All rights reserved. No parts of this publication may be produced, stored in a retrieval or transmitted
in any form by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying recording or otherwise without the
prior permission of the copyright holder.
© CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT CENTRE, 2014.
This open source material is exclusively produced for use in the Zambian Schools and Education
Resource Centers.

PREFACE
You are welcome to the Design and Technology Design process. This module is designed to take you
through some essential steps that are vital in Design and Technology process and production of the
design portfolio. Once you have understood the principles related to design process and portfolio
making , you will be able to successfully make your own artifact with easy, and also you will be able to
guide your learners on how to make a good portfolio that will meet an acceptable standard. All steps are
designed in such a way that they are interactive and are easy to follow.

The design portfolio in this document has sufficient clues that will guide you on how to correctly and
easily present information for others to read.

We look forward to your good interaction with the module materials that you are going to find helpful in
you day-to-day teaching of the design process and portfolio making.

If you have any questions, don’t hesitate to contact the curriculum department of the Ministry of
Education, Lusaka
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

PROGRAMME OBJECTIVES
When you have completed this module, it is hoped that you will be able to:

• Apply Design Principles in a Design Process Circle.

• Identify and Distinguish different stages in the design process.
• Effectively use different modes of communication in portfolio production.
• Produce a Design Portfolio.

UNIT OUTCOME
When you have completed this module, it is hoped that you should:
• Define the design process terms.
• Apply design principles in designing.
• Identify and distinguish different stages in the design process.
• Effectively use different modes of communication in portfolio production.
• Produce a Design Portfolio.
 DURATION
It is hoped that the learners and the teacher should take a total of 140 hours to make the
portfolios and the artifacts. The following table can be a useful guide for monitoring the
teaching and learning activities that are outlined below. The estimated time serves as a guide
only, therefore if the learners require more time, you will do well to consider that. Please note
that some of the learners’ activities such as researching can be done as part of homework.

ACTIVITY TEACHER’S LEARNERS’

ACTIVITY ACTIVITY
(TIME) (TIME)
General Detailed
1 Theme Definitions 1 period 1 period
2 Theme analysis General Analysis 1 period 2 periods
Specific Analysis 1 period 3 periods
Narrowing down the ½ period 1 period
theme
5 Situation ½ period ½ period
6 Problem Identification ½ period ½ period
7 Design Brief ½ period 1½ periods
8 Research 1 period 3 periods
9 Specifications 2 periods 8 periods
10 Possible Solutions 2 periods 3 periods
11 Chosen Idea ½ period 1 period
12 Development of Chosen Idea 3½ periods 6 period
13 Presentation Drawing 1 period 2 periods
14 Working Drawing 1 period 3 periods
15 Production Plan 1 period 5 periods
16 Realization 40 periods 40 periods
17 Assembly 1 period 2 periods
18 Testing and Evaluation 1 period 2 periods
TOTAL 59 periods 84 periods

You should give much time to prepare for the lesson during your free time before you go into
class. The estimated time for the teacher’s activities refers to the time you will spend with the
class during normal teaching time.
It is however important to note that the teacher is expected to take approximately 6 weeks to go
through this training manual, and during this period, you will be expected to produce a portfolio
that will be used as a sample so that the learners can refer to it whenever necessary.
TEACHING METHODOLOGY
• Individual work,
• Working in pairs,
• Group work,
• Field trips,
• Make projects
• Discussion,
• Guest speaker
• Demonstration
• Team teaching

KEY SKILLS
• communication of design ideas in artifact portifolio
• Application of the design process in artifact making.
• Interpretation of design details in artifact making.
• Application of critical thinking to come up with possibilities to tackle a need and choose a
preferred solution.
• Research methods
• Analysis.
INTRODUCTION

This unit deals with the design process cycle. An attempt has been made to assist you understand
the key stages of the design process starting from the theme up to the testing and evaluation of the
artifact. In your own research, you will realize that there are different approaches to the design
process. The common approach adopted by many designers is by first identifying a problem in a
given environment or a situation. We hope that, once you have correctly identified a problem in a
given situation, you will aim at coming up with a lasting solution to the problem. However, if the
problem is not adequately addressed, you will be able to take a new course to re-address yourself
to solving the problem. This attempt to see if the problem is solved is called Testing and evaluation.
Evaluation is done when the product is being tested. If you realize that certain issues are not
addressed at any stage, you can change course and address that particular issue. Therefore, the
design process cycle is not expected to be totally rigid but rather it should be flexible enough to
accommodate the inclusion of new information that may be gathered as you continuously search
for solutions to the problem.
This module will therefore, guide you on how to identify a problem when given a theme or a
situation. However, every stage of the design process cycle will be analyzed so that you can be
competent enough to assist your learners as you interact with them during the production of the
design portfolio. The learners will continuously work on their portfolios and you must ensure that
their work is constantly checked and the pages filled in a folder for future binding
BACKGROUND INFORMATION
1.0 The Design Process – Portfolio Making
A design process is a step by step process of product design, with series of activities at different design
stages which will help the artisan in producing a solution in the form of a product to address an
identified problem. The design process has a very important place in Craft, Design and Technology. It is
sometime called ‘product design’ Important aspects to consider in the activities include; material,
construction, size, safety, function, various ideas to mention but a few. This information must be well
presented and well laid out so that people can look at and understand

1.1 Design Folio

A design folio is a folder or a where you keep all your design process work. It should be large enough to
easily accommodate the largest paper that you have. There are different types of portfolios. It can be a
simple file, a ring binder, slide binder or a more elaborate artist’s portfolio, with flaps and tying tapes.
You should get into the habit of filling your work as soon as you finish it or if you are not going to work
on it for a while, so that it does not get damaged.

1.2. Theme
A theme is a topic or a word that can be analyzed. A theme should have a wide range of characteristics
that give a designer room to generate interest and consider what can be made without tracking off from
the area of interest.

Examples of themes that can be analyzed are shown below;

Safety Literacy
Recreation Storage
Leisure Household
These words are usually nouns that can be analyzed and learners can come up with different designs
that may vary in size and shape. Your job as a teacher is to guide the learners so that the meanings they
derive from the theme are related to the theme and must enable them to design artifacts that relate to
the theme.
Let us now analyze the word ‘safety,’ which we have chosen from the themes that are listed above. The
first page therefore will exclusively show the theme as shown below.

THEME

Safety
Please note that learners have a tendency of spending a lot of time decorating their work. Therefore, put
emphasis on the learners to produce clear and legible work while at the same time keeping an eye on
neatness. Note that at this stage, the pages don’t have to be numbered because the table of content
page will be inserted in after all the work is done.

Activity 1
1. Design and make a folder where you will keep your work.
2. Other than the theme ‘safety,’ we have adopted in this module, design a Theme Page from the
given themes.
1.2.1 Theme Definitions.
The definitions can be obtained from various sources such as dictionaries, encyclopedias, magazines,
journals , individuals and one of them must be of your own opinion or understanding. A minimum of four
definitions will be required for you to demonstrate that you have a correct understanding of the theme.
Definitions must be clearly referenced as shown on the sample page shown below.

DEFINITIONS
Definition One: The condition of being safe.

Reference: The Concise Oxford English Dictionary (Eleventh Edition).

Definition Two: A state in which or a place where you are safe and not in danger or at risk

Reference: Cambridge Advanced Learners Dictionary (Third Edition.)

Definition Three: A device designed to prevent injury or accident.

Reference: Advanced English Dictionary (Mobile Version).

Working Definition: Creating and upholding measures that reduce risk on people and their
environment.

As you ask the learners to do the same, the advance learners studying at a higher levels especially
at the senior secondary school, they will be required to give references that meet ABA Referencing
System where they will be required to state the reference as follows;

Editors (Authors, Surname, initials), Book Title, Year of Publication, Place of Publication and publisher

Activity 2
1. Write three definitions from different sources and clearly show the references.
2. Write a working definition that is derived from the definitions.
1.2.2 General Analysis
When you complete the task of working on your definitions, you will be expected to make a general
analysis of the theme.
• Brainstorm the theme. Come up with a lot of ideas. This can be done by you as an
individual or best in a group.
• Brainstorming can be done in form of bubble charts, flow charts, frames, spider webs and
other methods.
• State or give areas of concern in relation with the theme.
• Your general analysis can be done with the help of the following aspects: Where?
Who? What? When? Why?
• Enhance your analysis with paste-ups and sketches. With colour, sketches look attractive.
• Choose at least two areas of interest from the general analysis

A sample of a general analysis is shown below with the help of bubble charts.
A general analysis of where “safety” takes place

A general analysis of who maintains safety.

A general analysis of what safety is

A general analysis of when safety is observe

A general analysis of why safety must be observed

• Choose an areas of interest from the general analysis

Activity 3
1. Make a General Analysis of the theme that you chose in Activity 1, Question 1.
Detailed Analysis of the Chosen Area

Sittingroom
Yard

Kitchen
HOME

Storing clothes
Bathroom

Bedroom
Studying
Resting

Sleeping
Bed Floor

Reed mat

• This is an example of a detailed analysis and can be expanded beyond this. After the detailed
analysis, choose one area of interest, from where the situation will be derived.

1.2.3 Specific Analysis

After completing your general analysis, you now need to make some analysis of specific activities
that will focus on safety according to our theme. In this case, the specific analysis will require you
to identify activities that will show actions that are related to the theme. The activity can be
explained and analyzed. In explaining the activities, you need to show what is happening and who
is playing the roles. The analysis requires you to give advantages and disadvantages. These
activities can be presented using paste-ups and cartoons. Paste-ups are copies of pictures that can
be obtained from newspapers, magazines or any source. Below is an example of an analysis of
specific activities

Chosen Analysis

Bedroom

Sleeping

Bed Floor Reedmat

Activity 4
1. Analyze at least four activities that are related to your theme.
 1.2.4 Narrowing Down the Theme
This is an area where you need to consider what specific area you might need to concentrate on
so that you can precisely write the design brief. It is simply a narrow down of the theme that we
have been analyzing so that we can have a situation that is linked to the theme. For instance, let
us look at how we have narrowed our theme.

Example
Most domestic accidents affect children under five years and many of them grow up with
permanent scars that make them look unattractive when they grow up. It is therefore,
important to consider the safety of children in the homes so that they grow up well. I will
therefore, consider looking at safety of children in homes. See the picture below.

Activity 5
Generate a narrowing down statement that will enable you to confine yourself to a specific area of
concentration.
 1.3 Situation
A situation can be a statement or a picture that depicts the condition in which people live in, or a
state in which things are found or seen. For easy analysis, a situation can be broken into three
parts such as activity, concern and place.
Let us look at the following situation and analyze it so that we can identify the three aspects.

Example
My young brother, who is aged three years, falls from his bed at times when he is asleep
in his bedroom, and usually he sustains injures.

To make it easy to understand, you can identify the following parts from the situation stated
above.
Activity: The activity is sleeping
Concern: The concern is that the boy falls off from his bed.
Place: The place is in the bedroom.
When you closely look at this situation, you will understand that it addresses the interest shown
when the theme was narrowed down because it pays attention to domestic accidents and
particular attention is paid to a three year boy.

Activity 5
1. Write a Situation.

1.4 Problem Identification

A problem is always derived from a situation. Failure to correctly identify the problem may lead to
failure to address the condition that affects the people. There are possibilities that more than one
problem can be identified in a given situation. Our task would be to address ourselves to a
particular problem even if they are many problems that might be identified, so great caution must
be exercised so that we don’t stray from our key area of concentration.

Example
The bed is not secure enough to prevent the child falling from the bed.
 Activity 6
2. Identify a problem from the situation you have drawn.

1.5 Design Brief

A Design Brief can be defined as a clear and short statement that clearly shows what you intend to
do. A good design brief should not specify names of products to be made such as design and make
a bed. Having mentioned a bed, it limits the need to make any attempt to design since a bed has
already been proposed to be made. The brief like in the situation should include three
components namely user, function and place.

Example of a Design Brief

Design and Make an artifact that will prevent my brother from falling when he is asleep in bed in
his bedroom.

NOTE: If you are required to only design the product so that other people can make it, then your
design brief will read, ‘Design an artifact that my brother will use …… ‘

Activity 7
1. Write a Design Brief that will solve the identified problem.

1.6 Research
According to the Advanced English Dictionary, the word research simply means a systematic
investigation to establish facts. You may realize that research activities are not restricted to this
section alone as we make the design portfolio, but the research activities started when we defined
the theme. Therefore, the research activities are on-going up to the time the artifact is made.
This section will therefore, look at some areas that demand you to research on and that you
must show evidence that attempt has been made to gather information that will guide you in
making decision on what materials you shall finally use, what type of construction methods you
shall use, how you shall arrive at the right measurements for the artifact. Other areas of research
should include existing ideas, finishes, function, cost and safety.

NOTE: After research has been completed make recommendations that will lead to the formulation of
specifications.
Research Methods • Desk/internet
• Questionnaire • Observation
• Interviews
 IMPORTANT: You must always remember that the there is a lot of information available but you
must confine your research to key areas.

For example, when researching on materials, you need to research on materials properties. This
approach should be extended to all aspects of your research so that your research will exclusively
be focused on only gathering relevant information that will be useful to your design process. Be
watchful on learners because they at times gather information that is not relevant. For example
learners tend to gather irrelevant data when researching on anthropometric data and ergonomics.
Here is an example, if the learners are gathering information on a product that is related to
footwear, then the measurements in diagram one will be necessary but those in diagram two will
be irrelevant despite that all this data is part of the available anthropometric data that is readily
available when designing

Diagram one Diagram two

Activity 8
1. Carry out a research on the following;
a) Type of materials that you are likely to use.
b) Different shapes employed in designing.
c) Safety considerations that are observed in designing.
d) Sizes which are likely to influence your design.
e) Types of joints that you are likely to use.
f) Cost of materials that you are likely going to use.
g) Conclusion of your research

1.6.1 Existing ideas

One of the research tasks is to look for information that will give the designer ideas that will be
useful as he or she generates thoughts of what he or she will design and make. By examining
products that were made by others, you will avoid ‘inventing a new wheel’. But remember this is
not intended to copy other peoples’ ideas and claim that these are your ideas. Copying other
peoples’ ideas without acknowledging their authority is tantamount to plagiarism.
The purpose of using other peoples’ ideas is simply to find ways of applying similar ideas to your
new product. When you have drawn or taken pictures of existing ideas, you will be expected to
analyze the product in terms of the shape, size, materials, function and use. Where you
appreciated any of the said aspects, you can acknowledge it, and then apply similar ideas on your
products if you desire so. Examples used must vary in terms of their construction. For example, if
you are analyzing how products which are supposed to be used to carry things, you can analyze
three different items that carry things by fork lifting, another one will be by lifting by hand and
the other will be carrying by placing on top of your head.
Your analysis should show the advantages and disadvantage of carrying things using three
different methods. Once you have finished making the analysis, you can choose to apply or use
the appropriate method. What do you think are the advantages and disadvantages of the methods
of carrying things by the chosen appropriate method?
Finally, our product will function by providing security so that my brother is not subjected to
dangers related to falling from his bed. Therefore, we shall consider designing any artifact that will
provide safety that is related to falling from bed when the boy is asleep.

We can borrow ideas from bottles prevented from falling in the fridge.
Existing Idea 1

Activity 10
1. Research on different products that function in different ways and consider how such
functions can be employed in your design.
1.7 Specifications
Specifications describe and state what a design ought to be. They spell out the requirements so
that the final design conform to the best standards which is able to solve the identified problem.
The following design specifications could be a good guide as you work out your specifications.

1.7.1 Function
This is one of the key specifications. The function specification should clearly states what the
product is required to do to solve the identified problem. It would be wrong to state that ‘the
artifact should have belts to tie the child while sleeping because the belts are so obvious.

Example
The artifact should prevent my brother from falling while asleep in bed.

Note that the key word ‘prevent my brother is able to accommodate different ideas of keeping the
boy in bed so that he doesn’t fall off.

1.7.2 Materials
When stating the materials, you must clearly state the properties of the materials rather than
naming the materials. Properties required are such as lightweight or heavy, buoyant, weather or
water proof. It is wrong to state that I will use wood, glass, metal, and plastic. However, if glass
could be used on the artifact, it would be correct to state that you will use transparent materials.

Example
The materials to be used must be light in weight so that the artifact is not heavy .
1.7.3 Safety
All products made must be user friendly so that they may not harm the user and the environment.

Example
The artifact must be made from non-toxic materials so it does not suffocate my brother
when he is asleep.

1.7.4 Size
When stating the size, it is important to state whether you are going to make a full-size project or
a scaled model. The size range must be clearly stated in dimensional terms or mass depending on
what is appropriate.

Example
The artifact must range between a length of 1000 mm and 1200 mm, width of 650 mm
and 700 mm and a height of 450 mm and 550 mm.

1.7.5 Method of Construction

The methods of construction simply means the techniques of joining the pieces of the project
together. It is wrong to state that the artifact will be constructed using mortise joints or rivets
because at this stage, one has not yet established what will be made.

Example
The artifact must be made using permanent joints so that my brother is not subjected to
the risk of the bed falling apart while the boy is sleeping.

1.7.6 Appearance
Appearance is one specification where harmony or contrast plays an important role. When
considering the finish of the product, appearance is very important. You can consider using a finish
that is rough, smooth, dull or bright. These can give an aesthetically appealing appearance.

Example
The artifact should be finished in bright colours that are aesthetically appealing.

1.7.7 Cost
The cost of the artifact must be reasonable; it should not be too high or too low and people should
be willing to buy it. The price range should be quoted using the cost price.
Example
The artifact should cost between K100 to K150 so that many people can afford

1.7.8 Environment
You need to consider if the artifact will be designed for indoors and outdoors purposes. You
should also consider all the factors that may be necessary to be put in place so that the artifact is
environmental friendly. The example shown below is inclusive of considerations of sound,
temperature, smoke or any other stuff that may be produced during construction and when the
artifact is put to use.

Example
The artifact must be environmental friendly.

1.7.9 Other Factors

Some of the factors which may be considered may include the following; user, a range in terms of
age or height, ergonomics this refers to the comfort of using the artifact, how the artifact will be
powered (if necessary), whether it will be fixed or mobile, what type of structure is required to be
made, if the product will be mechanically or electronically controlled and how regular will the
maintenance schedule be.

Activity 8
1. Write design specifications that will serve as benchmarks during your design process.

1.8 Possible Solutions

Normally possible solutions are simple and unrefined. The possible solutions only have
annotations that will guide you to choose the best idea so that it can be further developed. There
must be basic information on each possible solution so that one can easily analyze the option
struction and possible materials to be used. If there is any information that might be rs. The
annotations may include some data related to the function of the product, relevant to help in
making the best decision then it would be included.
1.8.1 Possible solution One

1.8.2 Possible Solution Two

 1.8.3 Possible Solution Three

1.8.4 Possible Solution Four

Activity 11

1. Generate three possible solutions and analyze each of the solutions by;
a) Stating the advantages and disadvantages of each design.
b) Making considerations on whether you can use similar materials, joints and safety
features that are used on the product.
1.8.5 Chosen idea
Once the advantages and disadvantages of each idea are weighed, decision can be made on which
would be the best solution. This can be indicate by a statement to that effect or even a tick that is
accompanied with a short statement stating that it is the chosen idea.

Activity 12
1. Choose your best idea and clearly indicate your choice from the possible solutions final that
you generated.
 1.9 Development of Chosen idea
1 This is another critical stage where you have to make the chosen solution into a final solution
2 In the development of the solution, you have to follow a progression or sequence from the
proposed things e.g. material of each part on the idea to the final material
3 At this stage, you can even make changes on specifications indicated on possible solution e.g.
construction methods, material etc, but you have to indicate the change. For example, if you
proposed a sheet metal to be used on one part of the solution, you can change it to
Perspex(acrylic) and give a reason for a change. If the construction method was to use nails, then
you change to screws, you give reasons within that development area.
4 If you have to modify some shapes of some parts, you have to show changes. All the
development changes have to be shown either by sketching in freehand or by using drawing
instruments; or if you have skills of using a computer, you can do the drawings with the computer
5 Before the final development of the solution is finally drawn in full, an exploded view of the
solution has to be shown (drawn)
6 The final solution is part of the development or is the development of the chosen idea which has
to be realized.
7 The final solution must look exactly how it is going to appear when it is finally made. It should be
in three dimension projection, preferably in Isometric.

The process of developing the chosen solution has to be done in all areas such as materials, size,
method of construction, safety, texture, colour and appearance. Study the following steps shown
below and see how the development has been done.

Example
Activity 13
1. Develop your chosen idea and consider developing the product in the following areas.
a) Material
 b) Function
c) Size
d) Shape
e) Safety
f) Use
g) Maintenance
h) Colour, appearance and aesthetics.

1.10 Presentation Drawing

When you are satisfied that all aspects have developed and you will result in the product to work
efficiently and effectively, you will then be required to draw the final product. The product can be
drawn in isometric, oblique or in perspective. No illustration or measurements should appear on
the drawing as it is observed on the presentation drawing shown below.

Activity 15
1. Draw a fully enhanced presentation drawing

1.11 Working Drawing

A working drawing should meet the conventional ISO drawing standards.
The working drawing must be presented in orthographic projection. It should be either in first
angle or third angle projection. All important details such as measurements and cross-sections
that may be required on the drawing must be shown. Where necessary, a cross-section can be
employed so that the internal details that might be difficult to see can be shown so that the ideas
can communicated easily to anyone that might be assigned to make the product. All the views on
the drawing must be correctly dimensioned.

Activity 16
1. Produce a working drawing and add all the necessary dimensions. Where necessary show a cross
section.

1.12 Production Plan

 The production plan is a summary of activities to be carried out. It should include all the details of
activities to be carried out, correct quantities and sizes of required materials, the estimated time and the
actual time taken. You will have a column for other comments where you may have to record any
information related to production. This is where you indicate changes made if any as you will be working.
See an example of an incomplete production plan.

1.12.1 Material List

No. Description Quantity

1.12.2 Cutting List (sample)

Part Qty Material Length Width Thickness
Side rails 2 Mild steel 1400mm 35mm 3mm
angle bar
Front and 2 Mild steel 1000mm 35mm 3mm
rear rail angle bar

1.12.3 Production Plan Sample

PART Material Process Tools to be Sketches Estimated Actual Comments
used time Time
Side rails Mild steel Measuri Scriber 3minutes 2minutes
angle bar ng Engineer’s sq
 &markin
g out
“ Cutting Hacksaw 4minutes 5minutes
“
Filing Files 10min. 8min.
“ “
Side Measuri Pencil, 5min. 3 min.
board1 “ ng & S/rule
marking
out
“ Cutting Panel saw, 8min. 5min.
“ Jigsaw
“ Planing Jack & 9mins 18mins Took too
“ smoothing long to cut
plane because of
blunt blade
Finishing Sander, 10mins 10mins
“ “ Abrasive
papers
Side board
2
Base

Head
board pad
Assembly

Activity 16

Draw a production plan which you will follow as you will work on your project.

1.13 Realization
This is the manufacturing stage. No information will be reflected in the portfolio.

PROJECT WORK (REALIZATION OF THE PROJECT)

After satisfying the process up to production planning, the artifact to solve the problem has to be realized.

All practical work will be done during this period done and surface finish has to be completed within the time
frame indicated.
During the construction work, all skills will be practiced in practical activities and safety measures should be put
into place.

Testing can be carried out at all every stage of construction, e.g. construction methods, if them do not satisfy
specification, a modification can be made or a re-design of a part of a project can be done.

Make your project and keep recording your observations in the production plan.

1.14 Testing and Evaluation

The purpose of testing and evaluating the product is to assess if the product is able to solve the
problem that was identified when the design brief was formulated. If the product can’t function as
intended, then the design cycle has to be repeated.

Therefore, when the artifact is tested and evaluated, check if it is functioning correctly. Avoid
superficial testing. Cross check if the product meets the stated specifications. If it does not meet the
specifications, give an explanation as to why there is a difference in the outcome.

State clearly what changes you would make on the product if you were given another chance to
make the same product.

Write down your evaluation report.

1.15 Finalizing the portfolio.
When you have finished working on your product, testing and evaluation has been done, then, you
should do the following to complete your portfolio.

1. Organize all the papers in sequence of their presentation.

2. Number all the pages.
3. Create a content page that will guide any reader.
4. Prepare a cover page.
5. Bind your portfolio using a spiral binder, a slide binder, or staples.
2. SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 2.1 ELECTRICITY AND ELECTRONICS

INTRODUCTION

Electronics is a wonderful world that will give you knowledge and practical skills of making circuits which
make systems e.g. Alarms, Radios, Computers etc to work. We hope you will enjoy this unit.

Before we go deep into the activities of making electronic circuits, we have to look at what makes
electronics i.e. the basic components and components in general, which we may call bits and pieces.
Nearly all electronic devices are made from a collection of small electronic components. These
components are assembled and connected to make an electronic circuit. A circuit is the pathway
through which the power travels around to perform the work of the circuit. The name circuit is derived
from a circular path on route. Just like in cross country or any sporting race, competitors have to follow
a route and complete the race up to the starting or required point. In the same way, the power moving
around the circuit should follow the right path until it completes its movement in order to produce the
result. It should be ensured that the power in the circuit does not take a short cut to reach the end,
then, it will be a short circuit. This can affect some components or the device in which the circuit
works. The electronic circuit needs to be designed in such a way that the flow of electricity travels
through various components in the right way.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this unit you should:
• Observe electrical safety
• Design electronic circuits
• Apply electronic components

KEY SKILLS

• Draw electronic circuits

• Construct electronic circuits from diagrams
2.1ELECTRICS

What do electrics mean?

Stewart states or defines electrics as:
“ circuits without semiconductors such as transistors, but which may include electro-magnetic devices
such as motors and relays”.

- For example if in a circuit you use a battery, connecting wires, a switch, a bulb holder and a bulb (see
diagram given below), the circuit shown is an electric circuit and not electronic. Even including an
Ammeter which measure current or a volt-meter which measure voltage, in a circuit as shown below,
may refer to electrics.

2.2 What is electricity?

Carbon, Mould and Cave state – “that early scientists thought that electricity was a kind of fluid like
water, and they called it electrical current. They also thought it flowed from positive (+ve) to
negative (-ve). We now know that electricity is the movement of electrons that actually travel from
negative to positive in a circuit”.

Electricity –Is the movement of electrons that are thought to travel from negative (-ve) terminal to the
positive terminal in a circuit, and the speed at which it flows through a circuit is considered to be an
electrical current. In other words we can say: the rate at which What electricity flows around the circuit
is known as electric current – which is measured in amperes (Amps).

2.2.1What is electricityused for?

Electricity is used to provide;

- Heat and light
- Magnetic effect
- Carry information along wires e.g. in radios and telephones.
- Produce chemical changes such as in electroplating of chromium.

- Electricity is invisible. We can only know its existence by the results of its performance. But since
we cannot see it, and we can only feel it, it is dangerous. Since it is dangerous then we have to
observe electrical safety.
2:3 DESIGNING WITH ELECTRONICS
Any designing with electronics puts into consideration a good number of aspects. Before any circuit is
constructed or any electronic project is made one has to look at the components which will make that
circuit and their uses, where the components will be mounted and the devices they will be used on. So
let us look at the components. You should know them, and understand what they do. Some of the
components have already been covered under electrics. Below is a table showing the components and
their symbols.

Electrical and Electronic components with their symbols

COMPONENTS SYMBOLS WHAT THEY DO

The battery or Cell.

Stores and supplies

electricity.

Produces light.
It is an
1. Bulb and 2.bulb holder. electrical/electronic
component that
transforms electrical
energy into light energy.
When the current passes
through the filament, it
1 becomes white hot.
2
The bulb holder is used to
hold a bulb in position

Changes electric currents

into sound. It makes
continuous sound and
Buzzer makes useful alarms.
It is an electronic
component. It stores
and releases electricity.
The value is less than
1mF.
Electrolytic capacitor. (polarized) It is an electronic
component. It stores
and releases electricity.
The value is larger than
1mF.

A semi conductor that

allows current to flow in
Diode one direction only.

It is an electrical
component used to
regulate the flow of
current in a circuit. It
breaks the circuit when
overloaded with current.
Fuse

A semiconductor that
lights up when current
passes through it.

The flow of current

through it is in one
Light Emitting Diode direction only.

Light sensor.
It changes resistance
with the change of light
intensity. Resistance is
high in the dark and is
LDR (Light Emitting Diode) low in the bright light.
Varies resistance in a
circuit. It varies
resistance between the
centre- terminal. When
the spindle is rotated.
The resistance value is
always marked on the
Pontentiometer case.
(Variable resistor)
It is an electronic semi-
conductor component
that slows down or
restricts the flow of
current in a circuit.
Resistor
 Completes and breaks
electric current in a
circuit.

Slide switch

1 2 1. Wires cross over each

other. No electrical
connections
2. Permanent electrical
wire connections
3. Temporary electrical
3 wire connections.
4. A components linking
Wire cable.
4
2:3:1 RESISTORS.
A resistor is an electronic component which opposes the flow of current in a circuit. Resistance is
measured in ohms
Resistors in a circuit are either fixed or variable . Fixed resistors are colour coded so that their
value can be read, to see what resistance they offer to the flow of electric current.

Fixed resistor (symbol) Variable resistor( symbol)

Resistive components
There are a good number of resistive components that are used in various circuits. Some have fixed
values and others are variable.

Carbon resistors

Carbon resistors have fixed values. Mostly they are coded using colour bands. They have three bands
close to each other which give the value of a resistor in ohms ( ). The fourth band which is far apart
indicates the accuracy (tolerance) value.
Red - 2%
Gold - 5%
Silver - 10%

An example of colour bands and accuracy (tolerance band) are shown in the diagram below.

Example black
Brown brown

Red
100 Gold
or silver

A table of Carbon resistors colour codes and their values is given below.
 A table of resistor colour codes

Colour 1 2 Zeros

Black 0 0

Brown 1 1 0

Red 2 2 0 0

Orange 3 3 0 0 0

Yellow 4 4 0 0 0 0

Green 5 5 0 0 0 0 0

Blue 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0

Violet 7 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Grey 8 8 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0

White 9 9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0

Variable resistors (potentiometer)

These are resistors which increase or reduce resistance. They can be adjusted to provide a range of
resistance by turning the spindle.

Light Dependant Resistors (LDR):

Their resistance is dependant on the amount of light.

Temperature resistors
Their temperature is dependant on temperature change. They are of two types of positive and
negative coefficients.

Pre-sets - very small variable resistor, which is usually adjusted by using a small screw driver.

2.3.2 TRANSISTOR.
A transistor is an electronic semiconductor component or a device that controls current flow in a circuit.
It acts as a fast switch and it amplifies current or electrical signals into larger copies. It is a silicon or
germanium based semiconductor.

In electronics, silicon is one of the materials mostly used in the manufacture of semiconductors such as
diodes, ICs, transistors, and others. It is one of the materials that cannot normally conduct electricity, but
can be made to do so, and it is made to behave like a conductor or insulator.

Transistors are available in various shapes and sizes. They are of two main groups: The bipolar and field
effect. Mostly used in our Design and Technology curriculum, is the bipolar. Bipolar describes the
transistors of this group, of their construction or fabrication. Bipolar transistors are divided into two
types. The npnand pnp. These two transistors are similar in operation, but they differ in the way the
current flows. The npn and the pnp describe the arrangement of the three layers of the n-type and the
p-type slices of silicon. In npn transistor, a slice of p-type silicon is sandwiched between two slices of
n-type silicon. In PnP, a slice of n-types silicon is sandwiched between two slices of p-type silicon.

A transistor is made of these three layers, hence it has three legs or leads called emitter (e), base(b) and
collector (c). Transistors are either in metal or plastic case. Those in metal case, the emitter is the leg
nearest to the tag on the case, the base is in Centre and the collector the other end. This can be
viewed well from underneath. For the transistor to work, the three legs have to be connected in the
correct way round the circuit. If wrongly connected it might be damaged. Also it is often required to
connect a resistor to the ‘base,’ (input) of the transistor to keep it from being damaged. This is known
as the base current ‘protective’ or ‘limiting resistor, because it limits the flow of current in order to
protect the transistor. npn needs a positive collector voltage. Pnp needs a negative collector voltage.
The arrow on the sign of the npn points from the base to the emitter. On pnp type, the arrow points in
the opposite direction. ‘N’-type (npn) is negative type. ‘P’-type (pnp) is positive type.

Three layer of sandwich P type Three layer of sandwich n type

2.3.3 CAPACITORS
A capacitor is an electronic component which stores an electrical energy by separating positive and
negative electrical charges. It can be charged and discharged. When it is charged up, there is a
voltage between the two leads in the same way as a battery has a voltage between the terminals. If
the leads are connected together in a circuit the capacitor discharges the stored up electrical energy and
like the battery, it produces an electric current.

A capacitor is made from layers of insulating and conducting materials. Capacitors are available in
various shapes and sizes. The ability of the capacitor to store quantities of charge at a particular
voltage is called capacitance. The capacitance is measured in farads. But farads are too large for
electronics. So most of the capacitors used in electronics have small values measured in microfarads
mfd, symbolized by mF. Some have even smaller values measured in nano farads (nF) and Pico farads
(pF) capacitors are useful in a lot of timing circuits. There are two basic types of capacitor. The
polarized and the non-polarized.
Microfarads – mF are written on capacitors with the maximum voltage they can take.
2.3.3.1 POLARIZED CAPACITORS

They are mostly electrolytic and usually are above 1mF and have positive (+) and negative (-) leads. They
have special make up to give greater storage capacity for their size, i.e. higher value. Their leads should
be connected the correct way round in a circuit. The positive lead to the positive, and negative lead to
the negative. They are often used with resistors to give a time delay.

2.3.3.2 NON-POLARIZED CAPACITORS

These are non-electrolytic, they are of polyster type or ceramic. They are capacitors usually of lower
values below 1mF. They have no polarity, and they are connected in any way in a circuit since the leads
are neither positive nor negative. They are often used in-making circuits.
Capacitors store electrical energy and can be used to:
- Provide time delay
- Allow alternating current (A.C.) to pass through but block direct current D.C. e.g. in audio amplifiers.
- Filter out unwanted signals e.g. in a car’s suppressor.

2:3:4 DIODES
A diode is an electronic component made from an N- (negative) type and P-(positive) type of silicon or
germanium, semiconductor materials. It allows current to flow through it in one direction only, thus
creating a kind of ‘one way street’ in an electrical circuit. It has two leads i.e. ‘Anod (+)’ and Cathode (-).
Current will flow only when the anode (+) is connected to the positive and cathode (-) to the negative of
the power supply respectively. A diode is said to be forward biased when it is connected in this way.

Diodes
A variety of diodes are available and are supplied in various sizes depending on which circuit they will be
used in e.g. in a radio circuit. The arrow on the sign and the band on the diode show the conducting
direction.

2.3.4.1 LEDS
LED means Light Emitting Diode. LED is a special diode which emits light (which lights up) when
current passes through it. It gives light like a bulb and it uses only very little amount of power,
compared to a bulb. It is preferred to use LEDS in place of bulbs as they serve batteries to last longer.
LED emits light of specific wavelength when a current flows through it. LED has several advantages
over a bulb because it gives off no heat and it responds very rapidly to changes in current. Also it does
not wear out. It has two legs (leads). The leg nearest to the small flat edge on the LED is usually
short. It is the negative lead and should be connected to the negative terminal of the power supply.
LEDs normally work at a lower voltage of around 2 volts. To prevent them from drawing too much
current and burning out, a resistor is connected in series with them.

-
+

Light emitting diode

2.4 Control electrics
A switch is one of the electric controls. In a circuit, electricity will be able to flow through when the
circuit is complete. We may probably say that a switch is a very and most important electric
component in a circuit.

There are different types of switches. Some of them are:

A push button, a toggle switch, a slide switch, a rocker switch, a micro switch, a red switch, a rotary
switch, a key switch, and many more. Each switch is made differently depending on its purpose of use.

Types of operation
There may be various types of switch operations. But let us look at two types of operation.

1. Momentary action (spring loaded) e.g. bell push switch.

2. Set – reset e.g. domestic light switch.

Switching Actions

SPST

SPST – Single pole single throw. Simple ON/OFF Switch

Push-to-make
Push – to – make

Spring loaded types may be either push-to-make or push-to-break.

SPDT – Single pole double throw or change-over switch. This is used to select one of two outputs.
They have three connections. Com (common) connection plus two contacts. On spring loaded types
the contacts are known as NC (Normally Connected) and NO (normally open).

These also can be used as either

push-to-make or push-to-break SPDT
switches by using appropriate contact

The circles on the circuit symbols DPST

represent the Com connections, the
triangles represent the contacts

Example Circuits
+ 9V
 9V

0V

Circuit 1. SPDT switch Circuit 2. DPST Switch

Used to switch on either used to isolate (completely)
Lamp or motor disconnect) motor from supply
- Circuit 1. Use the symbol - circuit 2 the general symbols
for a battery for a DC supply

Switch Rating
Switches are rated for both the voltage to be used and the maximum current to be switched. Ratings
for AC and DC are different

Activity
Design circuits for the following applications, using SPDT micro switches and / or a DPDT toggle switch.

1. Lamp off only when switch is operated

2. Lamp on only when switch is operated
3. Lamp and motor on only when switch operated (Hint-series or Parallel)
4. Lamp on only when two switches are operated.
5. Lamp on when either of two switches is operated.
6. Single switch switches 12 DC motor on and 6V DC lamp off simultaneously.
7. Reverse the direction of current through a motor (Hint-start from circuit 2 above).
8. Two switches controlling a motor, one on/off. The other forward / reverse.
2.5 Magnets
Magnets also play an important role in electrics control. There are two types of magnets.
Permanent and Temporary. Permanent magnets are made from special steels and magnetized, with
two different poles at each end. The North pole and the South pole. Unlike poles attract to each
other, like poles repel. Both poles attract metals containing iron in them. Permanent magnet may
be used in switching on things e.g. in reed switches.

Temporary magnets are called electromagnets. These are activated by passing electricity through a
coil. They are used to switch “on” and “off” things at will, e.g. in an electric bell. They are made by
winding an enameled copper wire round soft iron. Electromagnets are useful in solenoid and relays.
In a solenoid when electricity is turned on, the plunger is pulled into the tube. Switches in relays are
“turned” “on” and “off” by an electromagnet. Relays are used to connect up two circuits using
different voltages. In this way delicate components in a circuit are protected.

ACTIVITY2
Take the piece of wood and the components given to you. As a group, mark the circuit and assemble the
components on the board as shown in the diagram above. See information given above.
2:6 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

By grouping together electronic components in a particular way, an electronic circuit can be

produced. Components are usually arranged on a circuit board. There are different types of circuit
boards. These are usually, the bread board, strip board, matrix board, nails and board, the printed
circuit board (PCB).

An example of an electronic circuit involving the following components:

Resistor, Buzzer,Transistor, Wires and Battery

2.6.1 Bread board

The bread board is a prototyping board on which you can mount or assemble electronic components
quickly to experiment or try circuits. Various circuits can be assembled on this board which can later be
assembled and soldered on a strip board (vero board), or a printed circuit board (PCB). The bread
board contains a group of sockets which are inter-connected under the board. It has two rows of
sockets which run length wise of the board. These are known as rails, or tracks normally used as
electricity supply lines. The other sockets run across, usually in sets of 5. Each socket in a set is
interconnected under the board and makes a line. The lines are not interconnected to each other. They
have a gap in between. Components are plugged into these sockets together with wire links to complete
the circuit.

Advantages of a bread board are:

Components can easily be plugged into the sockets following the designed circuit.
- Components such as ICS can also be installed without much trouble.
- Circuits can easily be dismantled and other circuits made on the same board.
- Several circuits can easily be built on one board at the same time.
- Fault components can easily be removed and easily be replaced, unlike the strip board or the
Printed Circuit board, where components are permanently soldered.
- No soldering is required.
- It can be used in devices that may not require movements and where circuits may require to
change or to be added.
- Good for both beginners and experienced, because they can easily test circuits on this board before
the components are finally soldered.

Disadvantages may be:

If the component pins or legs are not properly pushed down up to the bottom may cause the circuit not
to work.
- It may not be suitable to fit in devices that are very small with small spaces.
- If used in devices that may be subjected to movement or vibrations may not encourage the proper
performance of the device, because components might shake and become loose, which may require
to be checking loose components all the time.
- It is not suitable for sensitive equipment such as computers.
- It cannot be used where component joints need to be quite firm and permanent.

ACTIVITY1. (Mounting circuit components on the board)

STRIP BOARD
Insulated board

Holes 2.54mm apart

 Copper track

A strip board as shown above is a circuit board which has a series of strips of copper track fixed to an
insulated board. It has holes drilled at regular intervals, through the board. Components are
mounted on this type of board with their leads passing through the holes. One side of the board has no
copper tracks and that is where the components are mounted. The other side is the bottom part,
where the leads of components are soldered when being fixed onto the board permanently. Before
mounting the circuit on this type of board, you will have to mark out the areas of copper track that has
to be removed so as to stop electricity from flowing past the components rather than through them.
This will prevent short circuiting. The circuit is built up using the remaining copper strips as connectors.

2.6.2 MATRIX BOARD

It is a type of board which is similar to a strip board except that the matrix board has no copper tracks.
It has drilled holes and through these holes small rigid pins are pressed in the board. Then the
components and connecting wires are soldered to these pins.

2.6.3 NAILS AND BOARD

There is a range of construction methods used to join components in a circuit. The other method is a
simple nails on wooden board. The circuit is assembled on one side of the board.

How to build a circuit on this board

1. Get a piece of wood (preferably soft wood). Cut to a reasonable size to suit the size of the
circuit to be put on.
2. Get a piece of plain paper.
3. Draw a circuit on it.
4. Tape it on this piece of wood
5. Get the components as required by the circuit and check if all are correct.
6. Nail the pins (small nails) on the points of connections
7. Join the components with connecting wires. Or solder them in place to the nails (leave delicate or
sensitive components such as transistors, solder them last).
8. Connect the circuit to the battery (batteries).

This method of mounting components is also good as it is easy to check the circuit and not expensive.
But on the other hand it would need a lot of pieces of wood and careful nailing of pins for each circuit so
that it doesn’t look clumsy. On this type of board, it might be difficult to fix on ICS. It is convenient
and useful for circuits that are simple and not complex. It is also useful for experimenting simple
circuits where appropriate boards may not be available. It is good for modeling. See diagram below.
ACTIVITY2
Take the piece of wood and the components given to you. As a group, mark the circuit and assemble the
components on the board as shown in the diagram above. See information given above.

2.6.4 SCREW AND SCREW CAP CONSTRUCTION

The screw and screw cap construction method is also useful for simple circuits. Small holes are drilled
in the board or a piece of wood where screws have to be driven. Screws with screw caps, are screwed
onto this piece of board, and components can be mounted without soldering. Components can be
easily removed and replaced and other circuits built on it. ICS might not be easy to fix on this board.

See the diagrams.

The screw and screwcap construction.
2.7 INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (ICs)
Integrated circuits simply mean combined circuits. Various circuits made into one structure (of
circuits).

ICs are electronic components consisting very small chips made out of slices of silicon onto which various
components have been formed. Which means, they combine a lot of circuits, and do various jobs of
transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes etc. whose inter connections are fabricated or ‘grown’ into a
single tiny structure. The silicon chips are encased in black plastics and are connected to pins (metal
legs) which are added so that electrical connections can be made to them.

ICs may look similar, but they have letters or numbers on them to differentiate them from each other
and of what they do. ICs have a dot or notch at one end so that the ends and the pin numbers are
correctly identified. Numbers are not written on pins, but on the diagram they can be seen.
2.7.1 BUILDING THE CIRCUIT WITH 555 TIMER
Using the systems approach, we have already seen that in electronic systems, circuits are designed using
the main blocks i.e. the input, control and output. The building blocks guides how one can design a
circuit. This is simply because you have to know what components would be in need in the input; what
is going to control the input and the output; what devices will be needed in the output. After all have
been considered, especially what function is the circuit going to perform, then, the circuit can be
designed.

With 555 timer circuit, it will need to have four blocks, as shown below.

Before you can construct any type of circuit, it is necessary to produce a simple process diagram that will
show the blocks of the electronic system to be designed. At the same time you will need to construct a
circuit diagram showing the value of various components you want to use.

Below is a diagram showing a 555 timer in use and also showing the four blocks.

As you work using the timer IC to operate your circuit it is possible to alter the timing between the
flashes.
ACTIVITY 5

Try to change the values of the components. You will see how the frequency of timing will affect the
output. Record your observations. For the above circuit you have been given a choice of three different
frequencies shown below. Select the right flash time, design a toy, put in the circuit and observe how it
operates. Your Facilitator will guide you as you do this activity. Let R3 remain in same position to protect
your LEDs from damage.

(1) R1 = 10K Brown black orange

R2 = 120KΩ Brown red yellow
R3 = 100K Brown black yellow
C = 1.0MF

2.7.4 PRACTICAL WORK: Few more circuits using a 555 Timer.

A monostable timing circuit

.
UNIT 2:8 ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 2

2.8.1 CIRCUIT CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

We have already seen some methods of building a circuit, i.e. boards upon which circuits are built. We
have looked at the bread board, the strip board, the matrix board, the nail and board, and the screw and
cap construction, and how the circuits are built upon them, either temporarily or permanent.

There is still another construction technique or method upon which permanent and even more complex
circuits can be built. The Printed Circuit Board (PCB) is one best way you can turn your circuit design
into a permanent circuit.

2.8.2 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB).

A printed board is a glass – reinforced plastic Board (GRP) coated with a layer of copper either on one
side or both. The circuit is designed and drawn on the board with etching pens (spirit pens) then
etched or immersed in acid to remove copper, leaving only copper tracks for the circuit.

2.8.2.1 MAKING A PCB

A printed circuit board has to be made according to the required circuit. Making of a PCB is done in
stages. When you are satisfied with the circuit design after modeling, a PCB can be used. Before any
design circuit is put on the PCB, it would need to organize all components necessary to be in a circuit.

Preparing the PCB

1. The initial stage of making a PCB, is first to prepare a circuit diagram that is going to be designed on
the board. The PCB layout should be worked from the circuit diagram. Draw the design on a
piece of plain paper possibly with a pencil. The layout should be made with consideration of the
size of components, to allow you work out spacing between the ‘blobs’ (connecting points). The
layout should be compact putting into consideration the product into which the designed board is
going to fit.

PCB planning
PCB plan layout

2. After the circuit diagram is drawn, transfer the layout onto the PCB. Stick the paper on the board
with cello-tape. Drill the holes using a 1mm drill bit through each ‘blob’. Ensure to hold the board
firmly over a piece of wood. After drilling, remove the paper. Clean the PCB with a plastic coated
steel wool. Then draw the circuit connecting the holes, using etch resistant pen.

Circuit layout transferred onto the paper and attached to the piece of PCB using cello-tape.
 Drilling through the “blobs” while the PCB is held firmly over a piece of scrap wood

If it is not done in this way, other ways can be used. On most boards, a tracing paper or a rub down
transfer can be used. Set the circuit layout on the side of the copper, without forgetting that the
components will be mounted on the opposite side. If a pencil was used to trace the layout, ensure
to go over the lines with etch resistant pen.

3. When the designing on the board is finished, then suspend or immerse the PCB into a warm bath of
acid, i.e. warm ferric chloride (Iron (111) Chloride) acid used to remove the copper. The chemical
can either be in a tray or in a bubble tank. To prepare this solution, you need three teaspoons of
ferric chloride (Fecl3) and 100mls of boiled water to 60ºc. The board can be immersed in the
solution for about 2hrs. It is necessary to take care, as the acid is dangerous and harmful. Use
protective clothing, goggles, even the acid proof coat if possible. To hold or pick the PCB from the
acid, tweezers should be used.
The acid will remove all the copper except the tracks covered with etch resist. After the process is over,
remove the PCB from the acid and thoroughly wash in water, thereafter nicely clean it with wire wool
(steel wool).

If holes were not drilled, then after preparing the board in this way drill the holes on the points
where the joints will be made. A correct size of drill bit or a 1mm drill should be used to suit the
legs of components. Care must be taken when drilling. Support the board on a piece of wood,
firmly held, to avoid breaking the drill bit.

4. The PCB is now ready for building on it the circuit. Components are soldered permanently. But
before components are soldered, if tinning solution is available, dip the board to give all the
remaining copper tracks and pads a tin film. If tinning solution is not available, it is still necessary to
tin the joints using solder to prevent oxidation at these points.
2.8.3 SOLDERING
AmritBirTiwana (1998:2) in his beginners guide to electronics, in electronic projects and circuits, opens
up as:

‘Soldering to electronics is what stitching is to clothes’.

The most important thing that matters with clothes is how well they’re stitched – hopefully well enough
not to give way at the most unexpected moment, or place. Same is the case with electronic circuits.
Their reliability, no matter how good they themselves are, depends on soldering, and this, fortunately is
an art easily acquired and rarely forgotten. So, master this art and keep these points in mind.
• Clean surfaces - The two surfaces to be soldered must be clean.
• A clean bit – keep the soldering iron tip shinning clean.
• Optinum temperature – keep the tip at a temperature just high enough.
• Warm component leads – Even component leads need to be warm.
• Use a proper core – use a proper core with low melting point.
• Printed circuit Boards – The backbone of electronics
• Tools of trade – you hardly need any tools to get started.

CAUTION!!!

A few points to keep in mind

• Never try to be “over friendly” with electricity.
• Be zealous but never over zealous enough to adventure poking fingers in live circuits.
• Shinning solder joints – good joints
• Electronic bits and pieces should not be too hot.
• Practice soldering. You know it is practice that makes a man perfect.
• Never hold a soldering Iron from the front end … well experience will teach you that.

2.8.3.1 SOFT SOLDERING

There are two methods of soft soldering. One is used for joining sheet metals, while the other one is
used when fixing electronic joints into a circuit. Our soldering concern at this time is the soldering of
electronic components. Components and wires are joined to the circuit board permanently using
soldering iron and solder. Solder is an alloy of tin and lead. It melts at low temperature of about
200ºc, and sets when the heat is removed.

CARE

Care should be taken when soldering sensitive components such as transistors, Diodes, ICs, they should
not get too hot, or they may be damaged. So it is advisable to use a heat sink between the board and
the component. A small long nose pair of pliers or crocodile clip can do. They will act as heat sinks, at
the same time helping to hold the components in position, also to allow your hands to be free as you
solder with ICs. An IC socket or holder is soldered where the IC is going to be plugged.
Soldering LED

2.8.3.2 For successful soldering, remember the following points:

1. Clean the board and all components.
2. Ensure that the soldering iron is clean and the tip is coated with a thin layer of solder.
3. Put the component lead (leg) through the hole on the board and support both the board and
component so that your hands are free.
4. Heat the component leg and the copper track with the soldering Iron.
5. Apply the solder to the component and not to the Iron. The solder will flow when the heat is right.
6. Allow your work to cool without moving it about.

2.8.3.3 AFTER SOLDERING THE CIRCUIT.

Once your circuit is complete the next thing to do is to test it.

1. Look first to see if you have soldered the components in their right positions. Check that they are
connected in the right way round the circuit.
2. Closely inspect the soldering joints
3. If all looks well, connect the battery and touch the probes together. The LED should of course light
up.

When the circuit works, it is the time to put it in its package and start continuity testing.

UNIT 2.9 CONTROL LOGIC

Introduction

Now that you have been introduced to a good number of aspects of electrics, which
include control electrics, and electronics in which electronic systems, a number of inputs
and output transducers have been introduced and made known. It will be easy for you to
understand control logic and the language of logic. All you will need is to follow the
explanations and examples given in forms of diagrams. If you have understood how
electronic systems work, and how blocks are built, this will enhance your understanding
of control logic. Control logic is simple and is usually used in a lot of automatic electronic
systems where people may not be there to control the systems, but the systems will work
to control themselves to solve a problem. Again to understand control logic, you have to
look at some situations which can be solved by using control logic system. A situation will
make you identify a problem that will enable you to come up with a design idea (brief).
This will guide you to find a possible solution that solves the problem logically.

SITUATION

Examle:

In Livingstone, even during the rain season, the weather condition is that, it is very hot
during the day and at night. Mr. Mudenda lives alone. He likes leaving windows open
whenever he is not at home to allow fresh air circulate in the house. Many times, he
comes back home at night. When it rains with wind, usually the rain enters the house
through the windows. When it is dark, mosquitoes find chance to get into the house.

In the situation above, what problem can you identify?

There is no one at home who can close windows at those times.

How can you solve Mr. Mudenda’s problem?

By designing a system that will automatically close the windows when it rains or when the
night falls.

What will be the possible solution?

Let us have three characters. Musonda, Zulu and Nyambe. We will use these people as
characters for us to understand how the problem above can be solved.
Musonda - will be in charge to close the windows.

Zulu - will be responsible to detect the rainfall and to alert Musonda.

Nyambe - will look at the nightfall and alert Musonda.

Both Zulu and Nyambehave a press switch connected to the electric bell or buzzer which
will alert Musonda immediately the rain falls or the night falls. Musondawill hear the bell
or the buzzer when Z or N (or both) press the switch, then he will act to close the
windows.

Look at the diagrams below.

Fig.1

Logic control OR gate In control logic,

the circuit like this is known as OR gate.
Fig.2OR gate Z closed.

When Z is closed the circuit is complete and the buzzer will sound to alert Musonda

FIG. 3 OR gate N closed.

When N is closed the circuit is complete and the buzzer will sound to alert Musonda (M).
Fig.4 OR gate, both Z and
N are closed.

When both Z and N are closed, they will both complete the circuit, and the buzzer will
sound to alert Musonda (M).

An OR gate will give an output when the input Z or N (or both), is present. When Z orN is
closed OR both at the same time, they will complete the circuit.

This is a simple circuit that will ensure that the three characters control the closing of the
windows when it rains or when the night falls, or when both happen at the same time.

In place of Z, a device that detects the rain can be used. In place of N, a device that
senses light can be used. In place of M (the buzzer), an output device can be used, in this
case a device that can be able to move the window to close e.g. a motor.

N
Logic OR gate

2.9.1 THE LANGUAGE OF LOGIC

In the language of logic, it says that when the switch is in the closed state, it will be at
logic state 1. Look at the diagram, switch Z is closed. From this observation, we can say
that Z is at logic state 1.

When the circuit is in an open state, we will say, it is at logic state 0. Look at the diagram,
switch N is open. We will say that it is at logic state 0.

From the explanation above we can say, in the similar way that when the logic gate
produces an output, the output is at logic state 1. When the logic gate does not produce
an output, the output is at logic state 0.
OR gate

We have seen, in the language of logic, there are two logic states, i.e. logic state 1, and
logic state 0. The logic states will lead us to logic gates. The logic gates will lead us to the
electronic devices. The electronic devices will lead us to the inputs and the outputs. The
inputs and the outputs will lead us to the OR gate.

To understand an OR gate, first you have to know what a logic gate is. Logic gates operate
in automatic systems.

What is an automatic system?

An automatic system is a system which works automatically without anyone sitting

operating it, for example, the freezer. When you switch it ON, it will start working; when
it freezes i.e. when it has accumulated a lot of ice, it controls itself, it senses the
temperature change, it switches OFF. When it senses that the ice has melted and it is
becoming hot, it switches itself ON. No one will sit there to be controlling it. It will work
like that for years every day. That is how an automatic system works.

Below is a diagram Representing two input OR gate.

Symbol for OR gate

In an OR gate system there should be two characters with different tasks but producing
the same output at different times or at the same time.

In electronics, most logic gates are electronic devices, not really switches and the inputs
are electrical pulses. In logic system, in either the input or the output, there will be only
two states, logic1 or logic 0.

THE TRUTH TABLE

The truth table explains the facts about how the logic gate operates. The state of the
input and the output are explained in a table shown below. The table represents a two
input and one output of an OR gate.

Truth table of an OR gate

2.9.2 TheANDgate
In an AND gate both operators have to press the switches at the same time. If one switch
is not pressed, there is no output. Look at the diagram below.

Control circuit
When Z is pressed there is no reaction in the output. When N is pressed, there is no
response in the output. When Z andN are both pressed, well only the buzzer sounds.

In logic circuit, an AND gate only gives an output when both inputs Z and N are closed. So
the difference we can note is, in an OR gate, the current connection is in parallel. In AND
gate, the circuit is connected in series.

Z N

Logic AND gate

What can be the truth table for the AND gate?

The table below gives the answer.

Truth table of the AND gate

2.9.3 The NOT gate

You will find it easy to understand how the NOT gate operates, since the principles of
logic gates are now known. The NOT gate uses a single input and a single output. When
you follow the logic states, you will see that in a NOT gate, when the input is at logic state
0, the output will be at state 1. When the input is at state 1, the output is at logic state 0.
NOT gate at state 0

Then from the explanations of the diagrams above, we can show the block diagram of the
input and the output, and also the truth table as shown below.
Unit 3SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY

UNIT 3.1 MECHANISMS

INTRODUCTION

This Unit welcomes you to a wonderful world of mechanisms. It is an interesting unit which will enable
you to see how various mechanisms perform and how they have made work easier in our lives. For
example, where the load could have been heavy to lift, it is easily lifted. Where the distance could have
been long e.g. to travel, it has been made short.

This unit also gives you the outcomes and a simple background on mechanisms. Mechanisms together
with structures, and energies applied, with force found in mechanisms have made wonderful machines.

Background

Mechanisms have existed for many centuries, even though in the early days of human existence they
might have not been noticed. They existed in some ways in which people carried things, worked and
moved.

As early as the third century BC, most fundamental mechanical devices had been inverted and were
classified (by some Greek Scientist – Archimedes) into categories of five basic mechanisms which were:
(1). The wheel and axle (2). The wedge (3) The lever (4) The pulley, and (5) The screw.

Since that time few mechanisms have been added. Sometimes included was a ramp as sixth
mechanism. Other mechanical devices such as gears, cams, chain wheels, wheels and rollers were
known, but were considered to be a variation of the lever. The technical knowledge was there, even
though somehow this could have been primitive in some way. With time, with improved materials,
with precision and manufacturing methods, combing with ingenious applications, mechanisms have
been created in wonderful systems.
As you proceed through this unit and the sub-units, you will find that nowadays mechanisms have been
noticed and classified as follows:

1. Levers
2. Linkages
3. Cams
4. Gears
5. Pulleys
6. Chain and Sprockets

You will find other areas of mechanisms such as ramps, screws, wedges and winches which do not fall far
away from the categories of mechanisms classified above and you will learn about them all.

You will also find simplified notes which will make it easy for you to follow and understand. In some
parts of the Unit, you will find sets of activities. At the end of the Unit you will find exercise/Assignments.

UNIT OUTCOMES

After completing the unit of mechanisms, you should:

- Identify different types of mechanisms

- Describe each type of mechanism and give examples where it is used.
- Discuss advantages and disadvantages of mechanisms
- Understand what mechanical advantage means
- Workout ratios in various Mechanisms
- Identify forces in different Mechanisms
- Identify various motions in mechanisms
- Apply the principles of mechanisms in models/artifacts marking

KEY SKILLS

- Making models/artifacts involving mechanisms

- Working-out ratios in various mechanisms
3.2 MECHANISMS
Stewart,describes a mechanism as:

A way of changing one kind of force into another kind of force from one place to another and includes
levers, linkages, cams, gears, pulleys and cranks.

Also, he describes machines as:

Machines are made up of one or more mechanisms to solve particular problems; they can only work
when energy is applied.

James Garratt, describes mechanism as:

a device which changes an input motion and force into a desired output motion and force

Input motion Mechanism Output and motion

and force

Steve Cushing,describe a machine as:

a machine is something that modifies force. When a force comes from an outside source, it is called
Input. The mechanical action the machine produces is called output.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

What is a mechanism?

From the descriptions and information given above, we can say in other words that, a mechanism is any
system with units that work together and which has an input (effort) and an output (work). A
mechanism makes work easier by controlling movement. A mechanism can change the direction of
movement.
What is a machine?

On machine we can say:

It is a device for doing work at one point by an application of a force at another point of a device.

What is an input and output of a mechanism or machine?

INPUT: It is the effort applied to a mechanism or a machine in order to do the work.

OUTPUT: it is the total work done by a mechanism or a machine.

What are advantages and disadvantages of a mechanism?

Advantages

Some advantages of a mechanism are:

- Mechanisms have played a useful role at many times in movement of things.

- They are versatile
- They are efficient in certain areas e.g. where rollers or bearings are used.
- There are times when there is no alternative, but use a mechanism.
-

Disadvantages

Some of the disadvantage of using a mechanism may be:

- Mechanisms always need maintenance e.g. parts that need oiling.

- A lot of rubbing parts are liable to wear
- Many times moving parts may be dangerous
- Mechanical functions may not be better than digital functions.

ACTIVITY (1)

1. Collect various toys which are fitted with some form of mechanism and operate them. Look at
the way they have been designed. Observe the way they perform. Write few things on what
you have observed.
 2. Look at simple machines, e.g. s scissors and some other machines e.g. a bicycle, etc. Observe
the way they operate. Write and comment on your observation.

2.2.1 MOTIONS
Mechanisms, even though they may be, they cannot perform their work without some form of
motion. Motion simply means movement. When an object moves, it is said to be in motion.
The type of motion is described by the direction in which the object moves.

One of the functions of mechanisms or mechanical systems is that they change the direction of one
motion to another. Mechanical systems involve four types of motions which are as follows:

1. LINEAR MOTION
It is a type of movement in a straight line and in only one direction.

2. RECIPROCATING MOTION
It is a type of movement that is forward and backward or up and down in a straight line.

3. ROTARY MOTION
It is a circular movement about a fixed point e.g. the object going like a wheel at a fixed point.

OSCILLATING

It is a backward and forward movement along a curved path about a fixed point e.g. a pendulum.
ACTIVITY 2 (on motions)

Think of various things you have seen that work with movements. Under each type of motion list five
things that operate with such motions.

In mechanisms, there are several types of machines such as levers, linkages, wheels, gears, cranks,
pulleys, ramps, screws, wedges, chain and sprocket. The lever is the simplest of all, even though there
are different types of levers.

3.3 LEVERS
A lever may have several descriptions as listed below, and nearly all of them mean the same.

1. A lever consists of a rigid bar or rod and fulcrum upon which it rests or hinges.

2. A lever consists of a beam that can rotate about a fixed point called a fulcrum

3. A lever is a rigid bar which pivots at a point called fulcrum.

4. A lever consists of a rigid bar with a fixed point called pivot on which it turns.

5. A lever has an input force called the effort, and the output force called the load.

6. A lever changes an input motion and force into a desired output motion and force.

Dave Catlin (in the Inventa book of mechanisms 5-1) describes a lever in this way:

A lever is a bar. Levers work with fulcrums, which are also known as pivots.

The book further says: the lever is one of the oldest known mechanisms. Every culture in the world
discovered it.

The Greek Scientist Archimedes worked out the principles of the lever. He was very impressed with
himself and boasted, “Give me a lever long enough, and a fulcrum and I will move the world.”
Given below, is an example of a lever. A bar or rod is one example of lever which enables large loads to
be moved with very small effort.

He boasted “Give me a lever long enough, and a fulcrum and I will move the world.”

He could not move the large stone with bare hands. He is able to move it by using a bar. The bar has
somehow increased or multiplied the force exerted by him on the large stone.

Levers make work easier. Levers can move heavy loads. Levers do not necessarily need to be like a
stick. They can be any shape any size and may not really be straight. Leavers are cheap, easy to carry
around, very efficient, versatile and can be used in all sorts of ways and can lift a large load a short
distance. Again levers can be used to increase or amplify movement.

Before you can see how the force is multiplied, you need to understand some special words i.e. Effort,
Load, and Fulcrum/pivot.

Effort - is the force exerted.

Load - the object to be moved.

Fulcrum /pivot - the point of support of the lever

3.4 Machine Rules
There are machine rules that govern levers. If you want to know how much effort is used to move or
raise a load, you need the weight of the load, the length of the lever, the distance of the load from the
fulcrum/pivot and the distance of effort from the fulcrum, the distance moved by the effort, and the
distance the load is moved.

Now look at some example below.

Example data

Load = 80kg

Load distance from fulcrum = 1m

Effort distance from fulcrum = 2m

Load distance moved = 0.1m = 100mm

Effort = Load x distance from fulcrum

Effort distance from fulcrum

Effort = 80kg x 1m = 80 = 40kg

2m

Load Distance moved = Effort distance moved = 0.1m = 100mm

Load distance from fulcrum
Effort Distance moved = 0.1m x 2m = 0.2m = 200mm
1m

ACTIVITY (3)

Draw a simple lever with its fulcrum. On the drawing show the effort, and the load. In your data,
include the load weight (2) the load distance from the fulcrum (4) the load distance moved. Calculate the
following: (1) the effort (2) load distance moved (3) effort distance moved.

Levers are mostly used to gain mechanical advantage (MA). For example, a load which might be big,
heavy and may be impossible to move, can be raised, lifted or moved with the help of a lever, just by
using a small amount of effort. But you may ask how does this simple mechanism gain that much
mechanical advantage? The mechanical advantage is gained by not keeping the fulcrum in the centre
i.e. the point at which the lever will turn to move the load. There must be a distance longer away from
its pivoting point than the short distance that the load is moved. To find the Mechanical advantage, it
is calculated as it is shown below.

Take for example 20kg to be the effort and 75kg to be the load.

MA = load
Effort
Therefore, MA = 75kg = 3.75 = 3.75
20kg 1

So a 20kg weight is able to lift a 75kg load which is 3.75 times greater than the effort.

Mechanical Advantage gained can further be explained by moments.

3.5 MOMENTS

Moments describe the turning effect caused by force on a lever. The effect of turning on a lever is
dependent on the distance of the force from the pivot/fulcrum. The turning effect so produced is
known as moment.
Moment = Force x Distance
You can find the moments the above formula. For example:

Force x Distance = Force x Distance

20kg x 3.75m = 75kg x 1m

20 x 3.75m = 75 x 1

Moments give us the equilibrium of the two sides, i.e. of the effort and that of the load.

EQUILIBRIUM

When a lever or beam is not moving and remains at a balanced level, it is said to be in equilibrium. This
means the anti-clock wise moments are equal to the clockwise, moments. This further means that the
effort force just balances the load force. The moments to the right and the left of the pivot are equal.

What observations can you make from the given examples in the moments and in the mechanical
advantage diagrams when compared?

ACTIVITY (4 )
Look for simple, but suitable materialsand make a simple scale (balance) that will demonstrate the
anti-clockwise moments equal to clockwise moments.

3.5.1 LEVERS – VELOCITY RATIO

The lever velocity ratio is the distance moved by effort, over the distance moved by load.

Velocity Ratio = Distance moved by effort

Distance moved by load

Look at the diagram below.

Suppose the distance moved by the effort and by the load were as shown in the diagram, what would be
the velocity ratio?

VR = 800mm = 4 = 4: 1
200mm 1

In real practice the lever does not work 100% perfectly, because of friction at the fulcrum. Friction is
the resistance of one surface moving in contact with another. Suppose all the effort went into lifting
the load, the lever would be 100% efficient. But because of friction, some effort is always lost, and
efficiency would then be:

Efficiency = MA. MA depends on friction. VR does not.

VR

Efficiency in the above lever will be:

Efficiency = MA = 3.75 x100% = 93.75%

VR 4 1
3.5.2 TYPES OF LEVERS
There are different types of levers, each with the effort pivot (fulcrum) and load. These levers have
been put into three classes. (1) First class lever. (2) Second class lever. (3) Third class lever.

1 FIRST CLASS LEVER

It is a type of lever which has the fulcrum (pivot) somewhere between the load at one end and the effort
at another end.

(Examples of 1st class lever)

2 Second Class lever

It is a type of lever with a fulcrum (pivot) at one end and the effort applied at another end. The load is
in between the two.

Please give a line diagram of a second class lever.

3 Third class lever

It is the type of lever with the fulcrum at one end and the load at the other end. The effort is applied in
between the load and the fulcrum.
4 Class 3 lever
Unlike class 1 and class 2 levers, it has a Mechanical disadvantage. The input force, the effort is greater
than the force produced at the load. The distance moved by the load is greater than the distance
moved by the effort.

ACTIVITY (6)

In each type of lever 1, 2, and 3 on the spaces, on papers provided or in your notebook list three types
of levers other than those shown in the example, draw or find their pictures and paste them. On each
indicate where the effort, the fulcrum and the load will be.
3.6LINKAGES
A linkage is a type of mechanical part designed to transmit motion and force. When an input motion is
given to a linkage system, it can be transferred into a required output motion and force. Linkages can
be used to divide the output movement along, two or more paths. Linkages can make two things move
at the same times or make objects move parallel to each other. Linkages are very important in
mechanical systems, because they can be used to change:

• The direction of movement

• The size of the force
• The amount of movement

Linkages can do a lot of things; they are used and applied in many different ways.

3.5.1 TYPES OF LINKAGES

There are different types of linkages such as:

1. Reverse motion linkage

2. Parallel motion linkage
3. Push – pull motion linkage
4. Bell and crank linkage
5. Pantograph – a sketch, parallel linkage.

3.51.1 REVERSE MOTION LINKAGES

These are types of linkages mostly used in a good number of things to make them move in opposite
directions. It may have fulcrum (pivots) at different points on a connecting lever. If the fulcrum
where the connecting lever pivots is at the centre, the output movement will be the same as the
input movement, except that it will be in the opposite direction. If the fulcrum of the connecting
lever is not at the centre, the output movement will not be equal to the input.

Look at the diagrams below:

1. Push – pull motion linkages
These are types of linkages which are used in things to make movement in the same direction as
the input. The linkage connects two levers together ensuring that both move in the same
direction at the same time.

2. Parallel motion linkages

They are types of linkages systems with levers set at a distance apart and parallel to each other at
all times. Any movement they make will be parallel always. Very useful in things such as tool
boxes, lazy tongs(Give diagram of lazy tongs) and many others that work in a similar way. On
the other hand they are also used for respect or copy movement. In some cases by changing
the positions of pivots/ fulcrum, can be used to copy, enlarge or reduce drawings e.g. in a
pantograph. A pantograph is a sketch graph of parallel linkages, which is usually fixed to the
drawing (drawing board) and used to copy, enlarge and reduce drawings at the same time.
 4. Bell cranks

These are types of linkage system that can be used to change the direction of motion or force
through 90o e.g. the bicycle brakes; they use the bell crank principle.

Double bell Crank

Double bell Cranks work in the same way as a single bell Crank, but are important and useful where two
things can work at the same time and in different directions. Double bell Cranks can change direction
of motion of things. Also used to operate controls e.g. on a model aeroplane.
3.6 HARMOGRAPH
It is not a linkage system, but a type of mechanism with links and pivots used to make random patterns
on a paper.

Linkages do not only apply in lever systems, they also apply, in other mechanisms such as cams, pulleys,
gears, pneumatic and hydraulic systems. Linkages are not always straight, they are of various shapes.

ACTIVITY (7)

In this activity, as an individual, a group, you will receive materials or you will be asked to find materials
which will be given to you on a separate sheet. The materials will be used to construct simple models of
the above linkages.

3.7 THE CAM SYSTEM

What is a Cam?

A cam is a rotating or sliding piece fixed to a Cam shaft or an axle that moves a follower in a desired way.
A cam is a form of a wheel which does not have a true centre. Most cams are connected to rods, levers
or springs. Cams provide repetitive motions.

What is a cam follower?

It is a piece or a rod which is held in contact with a cam system and it gives a regular repetitive motion by
a rotating or sliding a cam. Some followers have rollers or circular wheels to reduce friction.

What is a cam shaft?

It is a rod to which a cam is fixed.

A cam is a mechanism which can be used to change the direction of motion to another, like a rotary
motion into a linear or reciprocating movement. Cams can be used as simple mechanical control
devices. Cams are very important in a lot of machines e.g. in a car engine; in industry where machines
have to produce identical piece of work. Most of the mechanisms or engines which use reciprocating
movements have cam systems.
There are different types of cam. They will be mentioned, but we will be concerned mostly with the
rotary and linear cams “which will be used in most design and Technology projects.

3.7.1 Rotary cams

A rotary cam is a type of mechanism that changes a rotary motion into reciprocating motion. A rotary
cam does not have to be circular. Instead it might be a special heart pear or round shaped piece of
metal or plastic fixed to a rotating shaft. A round or circular cam usually does not have a true centre
sometimes called eccentric cam. The profile of the cam determines direction or movement of the
follower. A rotary cam is often seen as an offset wheel or a wheel with shaped bumps on it; a wheel of
an irregular out line or profile. A cam with a pear shape is considered to be the most common. For
half of its rotation, it has a dwell period. Which means the follower does not move while in contact
with the circular part.

There are types of Cam that are flat or plate, used to change the direction of reciprocating motion, often
used on machines such as automatic Lathe. The profile of the Cam raises and lowers the follower.
Inclined planes are linear cams, even though they are not very much used compared to circular or rotary
cams.

Where are Cams used?

Cams are used in a lot of machines e.g. in a mortise lock. For the key to lock and open, it uses a system
of Cams. Cams make the pistons in a car engine allow the values open and close when sucking in fuel and
air in the cylinder and letting out the exhaust gas.

ACTIVITY (8)

Can you add on the list at least ten more things where cams are used? Look at the types of cam given
below in the diagrams. What machines do you think they can be found in? Give example of each. In
addition to the given example, on each, give a brief note on how you think the machine operates with
such a cam?

3.7.2 Types of cam

There are different types of cam systems. A cam can be designed depending on the type of work it is
going to perform.

3.8 THE CRANK

A crank is a lever which is attached to a rotating shaft. A simple crank may turn a rotary motion into an
oscillating motion. In the normal circumstances cranks have additional linkages for them to turn
rotation motions into reciprocating movements. Cranks may be similar to cams in doing work, but they
are made differently. That is to say, they are under special linkage system.
A crank uses a wheel and axle principle. With difference in length of handle, increases the leverage to
put more force to turn the shaft. To have more force and efficiency several handles or cranks are
incorporated into a shaft, i.e. they can be put together to form a crank shaft. A car is one of the
machines that uses a crank shaft to provide motion.

It is a mechanism which can convert rotary motion into linear motion. When the crank is rotated, it
forces the slider to move forward and backwards. If the input is provided by the slider, the crank is
forced to rotate. The longer the crank the more distance the slider can move. The slider moves twice
the length of the Crank through 180o forward and again through 180o backwards

Look at the example diagrams below.

A crank and a slide

3.9 GEAR SYSTEMS
A gear is a system of teeth that can transmit movement from one source to another. Gears are wheels
with teeth or pegs linked together usually made from metal or plastic. Sometimes they can be made of
other resistant materials depending on their use. Gears do not need belts as they drive each other
directly. Gears systems transmit motion and force by inter locking or meshing their teeth together.

According to Dave Catlin (The Inventa book of mechanisms 1-1)

Gives the information that:-
Gears were discovered a long time during the 3rd century BC. Philo of Byzantium described a machine
called ‘baroulkos’. It is the 1st recorded use of gears. The baroulkos was used by the Romans for
lifting heavy weights. He also stated that a gear is a disk with teeth around its edge.

A gear

3.9.1 GEARS

Gears are sometimes called Cogs. When two gears mesh together and they are made to run, they
produce a motion. Between the two gears, there must be a driver gear and driven gear. The driver is
the input gear and the driven is the output gear. When the driver gear turns, the driven gear turns in
the opposite direction i.e. reversing the motion. These two gears form a gear train. The more teeth
the gear has the bigger it is. Machine metal gears are expensive compared to plastic gears.
Inefficiency is found to be in metal gears due to friction which is usually reduced by lubrication
IDLER GEAR
In order for the driver and the driven gear to be able to run in the same direction, there must be another
gear in between the two. This gear is called “Idler”. An idler is an extra gear between two gears
which ensures that both the driver and the driven gears rotate in the same direction. On the other
hand it can be used to act as a spacer. An idler gear does not alter the gear ratio of the system, also it
does not change the velocity ratio of the system.
GEAR TRAIN

When two or more gears are meshed together they form a gear train. The geartrain transmit rotary
(turning) motion torque through several gears. On many gear trains a small wheel called ‘pinion,’ is fixed
or mounted on a larger gear.

SPUR GEARS

These may be regarded as ordinary or normal gears (flat gears). When spur gears of different sizes are
meshed, the larger gear is called the wheel and the smaller gear is called pinion. These two gears
make a simple gear train. If the smaller gear is the driver and the large gear is the driven, the smaller
gear (the pinion) will rotate faster than the large gear (the wheel), the wheel will be slower. The
velocity ratio (and gear ratio) will depend on the number of the teeth of the driver gear and the number
of the teeth of the driven gear. Suppose the smaller gear has 20 teeth and the larger gear has 80 teeth
(see diagram below), the gear ratio of this simple gear train would be:-

Gear Ratio = Number of teeth on driven gear

Number of teeth on driver gear

GR = 80= 4 = 4:1
 20 1
So the gear ratio will be 4:1, which means while the smaller gear makes a complete revolution will only
move ¼ of its revolution. So for it to make a complete revolution, the smaller one must make four
revolutions. Therefore, the gear ratio is comparing the number of teeth of one gear to another.
NB: Spur gear transmission system is compact and has minimal backlash between the gears which is a
great advantage.

COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN

It is a combination of simple gear trains sometimes it is not possible that simple gear trains can provide a
big enough gear ratio. (Look at diagrams below). What motions can they make? Can their ratio be
calculated?

WHAT IS SPECIAL ABOUT GEARS?

Usually gears can be used to slow down motions. This is called gearing up. They can be used to
rotate things faster. This is known as gearing up.
Gears:
1. Are efficient and accurate.
2. Can be quiet.
3. Can transmit large loads.
 4. Can run at fast or slow speeds.
5. Need to be mounted carefully or they won’t run properly.
6. Gear trains can have small or large ratios.

3.9.2 TYPES OF GEARS

There are different types of gear systems. Apart from the ordinary gears, there are several types which
may be called special gears. Special gears are used for transmitting rotary (turning) motions in special
ways. Some are used for turning a drive through 90%, of converting rotary to linear (straight line
movement). These are bevel gears, worm and wheel gears, Rack and Pinion gears, crown gears.

1. BEVEL GEARS

They are gears that can drive round corners. Bevel gears can be driven at many different angles,
usually turning a drive through 90º. They have their teeth cut at an angle (usually 45º). When two
bevel gears are meshed together they change the direction of rotary motion into rotary motion through
90º angle. One example where the bevel gears are applied is a hand drill. The bevel gear ratio works
in the same way as normal gears.
2. CROWN GEARS

This is another type of gear system used to transmit and change rotary motion through 90º.

3. WORM AND WORM WHEEL

This is another gear system which is used to change the direction of motion through 90º. A worm gear
is a special type of gear. A worm is a screw. It is a single long tooth wrapped around the cylinder, a
thread cut like a screw which meshes with a worm wheel. The worm shaft is always at 90º to the
worm’s wheel shaft. When the worm turns once, the wheel turns ‘one tooth.’ This means for every
one complete turn of the worm, the worm wheel rotates by distance of just one of its teeth. For
example if the driven gear has 50 teeth, the worm must turn 50 times to produce one output revolution.
The teeth of a worm wheel are cut at a slight angle in such a way that it will mesh easily with a worm.
Worm gears only gear down. The worm can drive the wheel. The wheel cannot drive the worm this
means the gear acts like a brake. The worm tries to push itself off the shaft. This has to be stopped
somehow. Worm gear can convert high speed to low speed in one reduction. Worm gears can have
very high gear ratios. Worm gears can as well be inefficient.
Look at the worm gear ratio and also at the worm gear torque.
Worm gear input turns = Number of output turns x Number of teeth
Input torque = Output torque ÷ Number of teeth input worm wheel
Number of output turns = 50
Output torque = 300 kg - cm

GEAR RATIO = Number of teeth on worm wheel

Number of teeth on worm

Number of input turns = Number of output turns x Number of teeth in a worm wheel.

= 50 x 50 = 2,500 turns

Input torque = 300 kg – cm ÷ 50 = 6 kg – cm

Real input torque = input torque ÷ efficiency

Example efficiency = 25%

Real input torque = 6 kg – cm ÷ 0.25 = 24 kg – cm
GEAR RATIO = Number of teeth on worm wheel
Number of teeth on worm gear

= 50 = 50:1

5 RACK AND PINION

A rack is a flat bar with teeth cut along its surface and works together with a pinion. A pinion is a small
wheel with teeth cut on its outer edge used as part of a Rack and Pinion gear system. The rack and
pinion gear system converts rotary into linear movement and vice–versa. Examples of where Rack and
Pinion system is used are a pillar drill, canal lock gates, car steering wheel and several other machines
ACTIVITY
1. Look up for the pictures of a pillar drill, canal lock gate and a car steering wheel. Cut the pictures
and paste them up in your book.
2. Look up for three more pictures of machines which you feel use Rack and pinion gears. Cut the pictures
and paste the up in your book.

3.9.3 GEAR TRAINS IN FORM OF GEAR BOXES

Gear trains are very common in gear boxes of various machines. A gear box contain an assembly of gears
that connect input and output shafts. Usually pairs of gears are fixed together on rotating shafts and
these pairs mesh together in form of gear train. Gear boxes are used in cars, clock mechanisms, metal
lathe machines and many other machines. In gear boxes various speeds are produced, low, high and
even reverse speeds e.g for high speed (low torque) input usually is transformed or changed into low
speed (high torque) output. Gear boxes like those found in cars, have allowance for gears to be slipped
in and out of mesh by a gear level to give different ratios and a change of directions.
Gearbox Gear System
3.6 PULLEY SYSTEMS

A pulley is a wheel system with a groove in its rim used to transmit motion by means of a belt, rope or
string passing over a rim.

pulley

USES OF PULLEY SYSTEM

1. Pulleys are quite important means of transmitting forces in machines. Transmitting rotary
motion and torque (turning force) from one shaft to another.
2. Lifting things.

WHERE PULLEYS ARE USED

There are many things, domestic and industrial appliances and machinery in which pulleys are used e.g
Sewing machines, Lawn mowers, Elevators, Drilling machines etc. It will also depend on what type of
pulley system.

3.10.1 TYPES OF PULLEY SYTEMS

There are mostly two types of pulley system i.e.
1. Power pulleys – for changing and transferring motion
2. Lifting pulleys.

POWER PULLEYS
They are pulleys which are used for changing and transferring motion. Mostly, these are belt and
pulley transmission system.
• These types of pulleys are fixed on shafts and with belts transfer rotary motion from one point to
another.

Pulleys fixed on shafts

• They are also used to change speed, and can be used to change the direction of motion.

• Pulleys need to be fixed tightly onto shafts or else they might slip and render the effort and
energy lost.

In a belt and pulley transmission system, there are some advantages and disadvantages. These are:-

ADVANTAGES
- Their operation is quiet.
- Belts do not require lubrication.
- Belts are relatively cheap to produce.
- Belts can easily be replaced.
- Because of the above points, they are used in a lot of domestic appliances.

DISADVANTAGES
 - Sometimes belt slips occur.
- On the other hand a belt slip is not always a disadvantage. When a slip occur it may be useful as
it might not cause some injury to the person using the equipment or damage the equipment
being used.
SPEED RATIO
In the machines that use belt and pulley, the output rotary speed of the shaft depends on the speed
ratio of the pulley system. Also at which the motor shaft rotates. For example, if a small pulley of
78.5 circumference for one complete revolution of the driver pulley on the belt, will be ¼ of the driven
large pulley moved along the belt. The rotary speed ratio between the driver pulleys is called speed
ratio.
Look at the diagram below:

You have already known the lever velocity ratio which is:-
VR = Distance moved by effort
Distance moved by load

Similarly the pulley velocity ratio will be either by using the circumferences of both the driver and the
driven pulleys or by using the diameters of both the driver and the driven pulleys. So using the
following formula, the speed ratio can be calculated:
Speed ratio = circumference of the driven pulley
Circumference of the driver pulley

= 314 = 4 = 4:1
78.5 1

Or VR = Diameter of driven pulley

Diameter of driver pulley

= 100 = 4 = 4:1
25 1
ROTARY SHAFT SPEED
Now that the velocity ratio of the pulley system is known, i.e. 4:1, therefore the rotary speed of a given
shaft can be known. If the input shaft could run at 60 rpm (revolution per minute), then the shaft
would then run at the speed of:-
RPM of driven shaft = RPM of driven shaft x diameter of driver pulley
Diameter of driven pulley

RPM = 60rpm x 25 mm = 60 x 25 = 15 rpm

100 100

NO SLIP BELT ON PULLEY SYSTEM

A special toothed belt and pulley are used in cases where quiet no slip drive is needed especially in
engines which use timing belts, where any slip would cause a serious problem to them.

BELT DRIVES
Belt drives are called friction drives because if they were left not to be tight, they can stretch and slip.
That is why it is even necessary to have a tensioner to prevent the belt slipping from the wheel. There
are several ways of making sure that belts are tight.

1. Making sure the belt is made to measure.

 2. Pushing the jockey (tensioner) pulley down makes the belt tight.

3. Slipping the pulley in the slot tightens the belt.

4. Where there is a provision for adjusting the position of the pulley, the belt
can be tensioned.
SOME POINTS TO REMEMBER ON PULLEYS

- The pulley belt when turned into 90º from the driver pulley to the driven pulley, changes the
direction of motion into quarter turn.
- Twisting the belt into 180º also changes the direction of motion into the opposite direction, i.e.
the driven pulley reverses the motion.
- Belt pulleys of the same size will run at the same speed and in the same direction when the belt is
not twisted to any particular angle.
- The principle is if a small pulley is used to drive a large pulley, the large pulley speed will be
slower. When a large pulley is used to drive a small pulley the small pulley speed will be faster.
When pulleys are of the same size, they will run at the same speed.

COMPOUND BELT DRIVE

It is a pulley system where more than two pulleys are used and connected not to one belt. For example
in a compound pulley system shown below, pulley A is small it will move faster but with low torque
(turning force). Pulley B is bigger it will move slower when driven by A but it will have more torque.
Pulley C mounted on the same shaft as pulley B is small but have the same torque as pulley B Pulley D
is big same as B driven by belt connected to pulley C and it will move slower but will have the most
output torque.
A B C D

A B C D
LAYSHAFT
It is a shaft or spindle mounted with several pulleys at different positions which drives lots of different
machines at the same time from the same source of power.

VARIABLE SPEED DRIVE

A pillar drill serves a good example of a machine with variable speed drive using only one belt of the
same size. It has two sets of stepped cone pulleys with one set mounted on the driver motor shaft, and
another on the driven shaft. They are mounted in the opposite way. The smallest driven pulley will be
give the fastest speed because it is driven by a larger pulley. Likewise the largest driven pulley will
provide the slowest speed because it is driven by the smallest pulley. So using only one belt several
speeds are obtained from the stepped pulleys.
CHAIN AND SPROCKET

The chain and sprocket system is another type of mechanism with a strong drive linkage. A sprocket is
toothed wheel. A chain is a length of loosely jointed links. The best way to make the belt grip better
is to increase the friction between the belt and the wheel by changing surfaces of the belt. A chain and
sprocket uses wheels that slot into the chain belt. This stops the chain from slipping and makes the
drive more positive. This type of drive is common on bicycles, motor-cycles, some forklifts and many
other machinery

ADVANTAGES
The chain and sprocket main advantages are positive non slip drive. It also serves a strong drive
linkage.
- Chains don’t wear out so quickly.
DISADVANTAGES
- The cost of chain and sprocket.
- Need for lubrication.
- Backlash between the chain and the sprocket.
- Nosy operation.
CHAIN AND SPROCKET VELOCITY RATIO

The ratio depends on the number of teeth on the driver and driven sprockets. For example if the
number of teeth of the small driver sprocket is 16 and the driven large sprocket is 32, the driven sprocket
will rotate slowly. For a complete turn of the driver sprocket, it will mean a ½ turn of the driven
sprocket, and on the chain link it would mean that only 16 links of the chain are moved along.
Therefore the velocity ratio will be VR = Number of teeth on the driven sprocket
Number of teeth on the driver sprocket

VR = 32 = 2 = 2:1
16 1

3.10.3. LIFTING PULLEYS

They are pulleys which are known as free running pulleys. They are used where lifting of heavy things
are required e.g. in factories, in building and construction industries, ware houses, mechanical
workshops and many other places where heavy loads have to be lifted. In lifting pulleys, there are
compound and single pulley systems. Compound pulley systems use two, three or more pulleys
depending on the nature of loads to be lifted. Lifting pulleys use ropes, strings and also chains in some
instances or area.

Look at the machine rule of lifting pulleys given below

EXAMPLE DATA
Load = 100 kg
Number of falls = 4
Height lifted = 2m
 1. What will be the effort applied?
2. What will be the distance moved by effort?
Look at the diagram below:

1. Input effort = Load ÷ Number of falls

Input effort = 100 kg ÷ 4
Input effort = 100 = 2kg
4
2. Distance moved by effort = number of falls x height lifted

Distance move by effort = 4 x 2m

Distance move by effort = 8m

A simple pulley system is known as a simple pulley system. A simple pulley system does not multiply
force. Its advantages are that it changes the direction of force. As we can be aware, it is easier to pull
down than to pull up. Therefore a single pulley makes work easier by allowing pulling down in order to
raise a load.

SEE DIAGRAM BELOW

3.10.4 BLOCK AND TACKLE SYSTEM

A block and tackle is made up of several fixed and moving pulleys. A block and tackle is commonly used
e.g. in butcheries for lifting carcasses; in auto mechanics workshops to lift cap engines. Using a block
and tackle uses a smaller effort to lift a large load.
UNIT 4 ENERGY
INTRODUCTION.

Unlike cars ,buildings, or electronic circuit, energy cannot be seen.

• We all need energy to work

• It cannot be destroyed
• Any machine needs energy for it to work.
• Energy exists in many different forms and can be changed from one form into
another.

OBJECTIVES.

• Define energy.
• State uses of energy.
• Identify the forms of energy.
• Identify ways of conserving energy.

KEY SKILL

• Application of energy

DEFINATION

Energy is the capacity to do work.

ACTIVITY

List a number of activities that you think needs energy.

ENERGY SOURCES

There are two groups of resources

• Renewable resources
• Non-renewable resources
 RENEWABLE{ it will not be used up or those that can be replaced }

• Water
• Wind
• Wood
• Solar energy (directly from the sun.)

NON-RENEWABLE (those that will eventually be used up or that which cannot be

replaced once it has been used.)

• Coal
• Oil
• Gas

All these are formed from the decomposition of plants which have been compressed by
the pressure of many layers or rock.

TYPES OF ENERGY

There are two types of energy

• Potential energy
• Kinetic energy

POTENTIAL ENERGY

• It is energy which is not being used.

• It is energy which is stored which can be used when needed.

The rock has potential

Energy
Battery
KINETIC ENERGY

It is energy in the process of being used. It is caused by movement. The faster an object
moves, the more the energy.

MECHANICAL ENERGY

Mechanical energy moves things and is ready to be used.

HEAT ENERGY-

Heat is energy inside a substance. It can be released by burning substances such as

wood, coal, paraffin or gas.

Heat can be transferred by conduction, radiation or convection.

Transfer of heat

• Conduction: when you boil water on the stove, heat energy is transferred by
direct contact between two objects.
• Radiation: occurs when heat is transferred through the air without direct contact
between objects. Eg. Warming yourself using a heater or firewood

Activity : what you need.

• A metal strip metal strip

• Candle wax heat
pin
• A pin
• A source of heat

Write your observation after heating one end of the metal strip

ELECTRICAL ENERGY

There are two types of electrical energy. Potential and kinetic energy.

A battery or cell stores energy (potential energy). This energy is released in the form of
electrical energy (kinetic) through a conductor (wire). Current may pass through when
connected.
ACTIVITY:

Flowing water is a source of energy.

Make an experiment to show the generation of power from the flow of water.

SOLAR ENERGY

Is energy that comes from the sun. Solar energy can be used for solar heating of water
and solar electricity. Eg. Watches and some calculators use solar energy.

OTHER FORMS OF ENERGY

Sound energy- beating of drums- the drum will produce energy that you hear as
sound.. this is called sound energy,
Light energy- when you light a candle in the dark, the room becomes lighter. It produces
energy in the form of light energy.

Chemical energy- the bulb produces

CONSERVING ENERGY.

The responsibility of saving energy is for everyone and it starts from you at your home
that’s why zesco ,an energy company , advertises in media to educate the public on how
to save energy and avoid blackouts.

• Turn off the light where you don’t need it.

• Switch off all lights during the day.
• Use compact fluorescent bulbs where possible.
• Switch off all electrical appliances that are not in use.
• It is cheaper to boil water in a kettle than on stove.
• If possible use solar power.
UNIT 4. STRUCTURES
INTRODUCTION
Structures are found in nature and are also made by man.
Examples of structures may include houses, tables, trees, cars, a leaf, boxes, a crane etc.
In design & technology, you will need to design and make products and use structures in your
construction. The strength depends upon the material used and the form and arrangement of parts or
ways of making joints stronger. Structures must be able to carry the load as intended and not collapse
whilst in use.

OBJECTIVES

• Define a structure
• Identify different types of structures.
• Classification of structures.
• Use simple materials to produce a model structure
• Judge how strong a design will be.
• Understand the important ideas of strong designs.
•
KEY SKILLS
• To design and make strong structure

DEFINITION:-

• A structure is anything that can support a load or weight on anything.

• The load may be an object or a person.
TYPES OF STRUCTURES

1. Natural
2. Artificial (man-made)

EXAMPLES OF NATURAL

• A tree – the trunk and branches are structures that support the fruits, leaves and flowers.
• Human and animal Skeletons:

The skeleton of a human being and animals support the weight of soft parts or flesh of a body (mass of
the body). Even when the body is exposed to dynamic forces moving about e.g. (running) the flesh is still
attached to the skeleton.
A SPIDER WEB

• BEE HIVE – Bees make complex structures which are genetically shaped, and are precise.

• AN EGG SHELL
 • TORTOISE SHELL AND SNAIL

Therefore we have two types of structures:-

FRAME STRUCTURE:- (Man-made)

- Pylons
- A dining chair
- A tower crane
- Bicycle
- A bridge
-
SHELL STRUCTURE:-
SHELL (An egg shell tortoise shell, a car shell, a house, cups, pot, water tank etc).

- A shell structure gains its strength from the shape and its one piece structure.
- It does not have a frame.
- It encloses a space.
- Made from light material.
- A shell provides support from the outside.
-
STRUCTURAL FAILURE

Structures fail for many reasons. These may include:-

1. Poor design
2. Over loading/fatigue
3. Poor joints or material
Failure occurs because of forces acting on structures. These can be stationary force (static) due to
structure’s own weight or dynamic forces (moving forces)

ACTIVITY 1

• List many structures that you can see in school.

• Classify the structures that you have listed as artificial or natural.

4.1 FORCES
A good structure must be able to withstand all forces acting on it.

4.2 TYPES OF FORCES

1. TENSION FORCE: It is a pulling force. It forces the member to stretch e.g. a chest expander
shown below.

1. COMPRESSION FORCE
Force which will cause a member to be squashed or pushed

2. SHEAR FORCE

Shear is a cutting force e.g. a pair of scissors exerts a shear force between its two blades in order
to cut a piece of paper/material
 3. STATIC FORCE
A static force is a force which is stationary e.g. someone standing on a beam or a bridge.

4. DYNAMIC FORCE

Dynamic force is a moving force. When a static person on a bridge starts jumping, the force
applied is more than the one standing.

5. BENDING FORCE

A force which tends to make a structure bend e.g. a beam which is flat over a long span with a
load will tend to bend.

STABILISING STRUCTURES

Structure can be strengthened by:

i) Making the base heavier

ii) Making the base wider

iii) On frame structures
Put a cross member to strengthen the structure

This makes the structure stronger and more rigid. This is called Triangulation, because a
triangle has been formed. A triangulated frame is the strongest form of a structure.
4.4 TIE AND STRUT

1 . A strut is a diagonal member under compression.

• A tie is a diagonal member under tension.

ACTIVITY 1: Show the forces acting on the structure by using arrows

ACTIVITY 2: A diagonal member under tension because of the load

Load

A rectangular frame can be strengthened by adding extra members as shown.

triangle is a s stable and rigid structure

ACTIVITY 3
Put 2 chairs together and leave a space between them.

i) Put a flat card board paper cross.

ii) Put an empty cup in the middle and slowly put some marbles one by one until it collapses.
What are your findings?

ACTIVITY 4

Paper

Fold your paper like this, put double the weight of marbles
slowly. What are your findings?

ACTIVITY 5

How can you strengthen this sign post? Give reasons

How can this raft be strengthened?

How can this water tank stand be strengthened?

5 . PLASTICS
INTRODUCTION
Plastics are materials of our time and era and as such, plastics need to be understood and used.
Because of mankind’s constant search not only for new ways of making longer-lasting products, but
cheaper, lighter, and better; plastic has been added to the long list of materials that man has used for
centuries. Plastic is relatively a new material that has surpassed in its usage, other materials known from
time in memorial. It has main good properties that can easily be manipulated in manufacturing various
products common to man.

Back ground

The first plastic material known as ‘Celluloid’ was developed in 1855. The first synthetic material was
manufactured in 1905. Plastic unlike wood and metal is processed in a laboratory, therefore it is a
man-made material. Plastics are the mostly used material in commercial production because of the main
advantages they have over other materials. Plastics are available in various types and forms depending
on the properties they possess. In this unit, we shall limit ourselves to plastics that are in everyday use.

Unit outcomes

On completion of the unit, you should:

➢ Differentiate plastic products from other products of other materials.

➢ Classify plastic products into two main groups
➢ Describe common uses of plastics
➢ Identify methods of joining and deforming plastics

Key Skills

On completion of the unit, you should be able to:

➢ Select suitable plastic for the job

➢ Use appropriate method of joining and deforming plastic
➢ Apply suitable finishing techniques on plastic products

DEFINITION
According to JH Aucamp and C Moyo they say, “the term ‘Plastic’ describes a material which will change
in shape when heat is applied and maintains that new shape after the heat and pressure have been
removed”.
 Activity 1. (Group)
Gather a number of different types of articles that you think are made of plastics. Put each one of them
on a red hot cooker plate or 0n fire. Write your observations.

Article no. Observations

5.2 CLASSES OF PLASTICS

There are two main classes of plastics which are:

1. Thermoplastics
2. Thermosetting plastics

The diagram below shows a graphic representation of the cycle of the two types of plastics:

Heat applied Heat applied

Plastic hardens Plastic softens Plastic hardens Plastic

permanently softens

Cooled off Cooled off

THERMOPLASTICS THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

When selecting plastic for any work, you should base the selection on the properties.
5.3. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF PLASTICS
➢ All are poor conductors of heat and electricity
➢ All are good insulators of heat and electricity
➢ All don’t rust
➢ All are water resistant
➢ The cost to manufacture them is very low

Thermoplastic and thermosetting plastics have a wide range of properties, from hard and brittle to high
tensile strengths. The strength of plastic tells us how good it is in resisting deformation [tension and
compression] caused by force acting on it, as well as breaking.

5.4. THERMOPLASTICS
These are plastics that become floppy [soft] each time heat is applied to them and harden when cooled.
These plastics can be reshaped over and over again. Thermoplastics have an ability to regain their
original shape when heated. This ability is known as ‘Plastic Memory’

Thermoplastics that are in everyday use are shown in the table below:

Thermoplastic Some properties Some uses

Acrylic [Perspex] Fairly hard, Brittle, Scratches Car rear lights, Windscreens
easily, Polishes well Glasses
ABS It is stiff, It resists impacts, Safety helmets, Toys
[Acrylonitrile-Butadiene- It is opaque Electrical appliances
Styrene]
PVC It is soft, easily cut, Hose pipes, suit cases, floor
[Polyvinyl Chloride] It is flexible tiles
Electrical insulators
Expanded Polystyrene Light in weight, spongy, Tape cassette boxes,
Very buoyant cooler boxes
Nylon It is hard, heat resistant Curtain rails,
Wear resistant Combs, plastic gears
Polythene- high density Softens at a lower Milk-bottle crates,
[HDPE] temperature- around Carrier bags
850C, Good electrical
Low density [LDPE] insulator

5.5. THERMOSETTING PLASTICS

These are plastics which do not soften once they have hardened. They cannot be reshaped when
reheated.

Thermosetting plastics that are commonly used are shown in the table below:

Thermosetting plastics Some properties Some uses

Polyester resin Hard, brittle, stiff Car bodies, boat bodies
Resistant to flame Canopies, used for casting
Epoxy resin Heat resistant, hard, Used as an adhesive, circuit boards,
Sets very fast for casting
Melamine Fire resistant, stiff, Used for plates and cups, Laminating
formaldehyde Abrasion resistant work surfaces
Urea formaldehyde Milky or colourless, Electrical fittings, sockets, control
strong, hard, stiff knobs, wood adhesives

Activity 2
Make a list of objects made of thermoplastics and thermosetting Plastic found in your area. State the
advantages and disadvantages about the use of plastic, especially where the environment is
concerned. Do not include the objects given in the tables above.

S/no. Thermoplastics Thermosetting plastics

1

5.6. PLASTIC FORMING

Products made from plastics are manufactured using a wide range of processing methods.

5.6.1. DEFORMING PLASTIC

To deform plastic means to change its shape without wasting the material in the process of producing
the product. Deforming is done by applying heat and pressure. When it is rubbery [softened], the
pressure is applied to form a new shape. The plastic retains the new shape when cooled.

Below are some of the equipment used in heating plastic when forming plastic

We shall see the use of strip heater during strip bending under the heading; Line bending

5.6.2. Line bending or Strip bending

This is deforming method used on plastic sheets up to 6mm. The method is also known as ‘hot line
bending’. Heat is applied along the bend line in order to bend the material with a small curve/ radius.

Strip heater Mould Product

Bending large Curves

Large single curve cannot be done by the strip bending method. Large curves are formed by using simple
formers made of wood

The diagram shows how to make large curves

5.6.3. Press forming

This is a process of forming plastic by means of double-curve bending. Two matching formers are used.
The plastic is heated in an oven and then clamped between matching formers, referred to as the male
former and female former. Press forming is ideal for shallow forms such as dishes and trays.

Below is a press forming mould and how it is done

Activity 3
1. Make a former to help in producing a plastic plate.

2. Make a shallow plastic plate of15mm and less than 160mm in diameter

5.6.4 Vacuum forming

This is one of the processes used to manufacture articles from thermoplastic sheets using a heater to
raise the temperature of the plastic so that it becomes rubbery or soft to enable it to fit over the shape
of the mould when the air beneath the sheet is evacuated. The method makes it possible to produce
large irregular mouldings.

Acrylic, Polystyrene and PVC are typical vacuum forming materials.

Below is a vacuum forming equipment:

5.6.5 Compression moulding

This is a process of making articles or products from a polymer plastic in the form of powder or ‘slug’.
This is then squeezed into moulding machine using a huge force. A slug is simply a powder which has
been compressed into a cube shape for easy handling instead of powder.

This method is used for thermosetting plastics.

Note: A slug is put between the moulds

5.6.6 Extrusion
This is a process used to make ‘long’ products like drain- pipes and curtain rails using plastic granules fed
from a hopper onto a rotating screw. The screw forces the plastic through a heated tube where it
becomes molten before being forced under pressure through a die.

Note: Thermoplastics such as Polythene, PVC and Nylon are used in extrusion.

The diagram below show the extrusion processes and the products made by the process.

These are products from extrusion process.

5.6.7 Extrusion Blow-moulding
This is a process used for making products like bottles and hollow toys by blowing air into a section of
extruded plastic tube. The blown air causes it to expand and take up the shape of the mould.

5.6.8. Injection moulding

Injection moulding is a process of forming articles by injecting molten plastic into a mould using an
injection moulding machine. Injection moulding is now the most important manufacturing method for
small consumer products, including bottle tops, sink plugs, containers, model kits, bowls, dust bins, milk
crates, radio cases, television cabinets, etc. This method is favoured in industry when products are to be
moulded in very large numbers.

Below is the injection moulding machine:

5.7. FABRICATION
Fabrication involves combining separate piece of materials by cutting joints or by using other
components such as screws, rivets and adhesives or by using heat processes.

Fabrication process can be either permanent or temporary. Temporary joints are designed to be easily
taken apart, whereas permanent joints can only be taken apart by damaging the joint.

5.7.1. Heat Processes

Heat processing joint involves melting the plastics together using a Hot air gun as a source of heat.

5.7.2. Joints on Plastics

Plastics can either be welded or glued to make permanent joints. Joints used in metal are also used in
plastic welding and gluing. Plastic welding is not very common in schools because of the non availability
of plastic welding equipment.

5.7.3. Gluing Plastics

Plastic gluing is the most common method used in schools to produce permanent joints. It is very
important to select the correct adhesive for a particular plastic to be joined. Joints like butt, lap, and
corner can be glued.

Steps When Gluing Plastic

• Ensure the two areas to be joined are very clean, dry, and free of dirt
• The joint must fit together well
• Apply just enough glue for the job
• Hold the joints securely, applying slight pressure until the glue has set.

Note: When using Tensol cement, work in a well ventilated area and avoid inhaling toxic fumes.

5.7.4. Threaded Fastenings

Threaded fastenings are temporary joints in joining plastics. Included in this are machine screws,
self-tapping screws, nuts and bolts.

5.7.4. Rivets in Plastics

Rivets can be used but they are not commonly used in plastic joints.
Laminating
Laminating plastic involves gluing together sheets of materials to make them i) thicker, ii) longer and
iii) wider. The edge of laminated plastic gives a very attract appearance.

5.8 WASTING PLASTIC

This is the processes of removing material. It involves changing the shape of plastic by cutting pieces off.
These include among others the following:

5.8.1 Sawing
The waste on plastic is cut using the following tools: Jig saw, Hacksaw, Junior hacksaw. Scroll saw , coping
saw, are used to cut curves.

Task to be done

The school head has asked you to make a label to be placed/fixed at his office door to help visitors
identify the office.

Activity 4

Outline the process of preparing the three pieces of material required in making the label for the school
head’s office

5.8.2 Planing
The waste material is removed using a plane. The jack plane and smoothing plane are the same planes
that are used to plane acrylic plastic. The piece should be firmly secured in the vice when planning.

5.8.3 Drilling
Hand and electric drilling machines are used to remove waste on plastic. When drilling larger holes it is
preferable to drill in stages, from pilot hole and smaller other bits will follow before using the final larger
bit. When material is thin, you can drill by placing the material between two wooden pieces.
5.8.4 Filing
Removing waste on plastic is done using Second-cut and smooth files in that order. Rasps or surform
tools could be used to file the edges of plastic.

5.8.5 Shaping
Removing waste on internal curves on plastics can be done using a half round file and finish off with
awet and dry paper.

Activity

From the three materials that you prepared for the label to be used at the School heads office, you are
further required to make and fix it at his door.

Outline all the activities and the process leading to the making and fixing the product

5.9.0 FINISHING PLASTIC

The majority of plastics do not need any extra surface finish. They already have an extremely good
surface finish from the forming process. Only the edges need to be smoothened and polished.

5.9.1. Self-finishing
Many plastic products are self finished for example injection moulded products. This means the product
does not need a finish. Examples of injection moulded products include among others, plastic cups and
plates, iron, switches, plastic bottles.

5.9.2 Edge Polishing Acrylic

The following stages are followed after cutting the Acrylic work piece

1. Protect the sides with scrap pieces of wood when holding the work piece in the vice.
2. Cross filing using a coarse file and then a smooth file
3. Draw filing using a smooth file
4. Scrapping using a metal scraper to remove the marks
5. Abrade by rubbing the edges with a fine grade dry abrasive paper followed by wet abrasive
[silicone carbide paper] of the same grade. Alternatively, the Acrylic can be polished with
brasso or buffing wheel. Avoid overheating when polishing thermoplastics on a buffing
machine.
5.10 STORAGE OF PLASTICS
➢ All plastic materials must be stored in a cool,dry and safe place, away from open flame and
extreme heat
➢ Sheets of plastics must be stacked on their edges.
➢ Make sure that the thin protective covering on Acrylic sheets is not removed or tempered with.
➢ Read and follow manufacturer’s storage instruction.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Activity
Identify the planes that can be used on plastics
State some uses that you can carry out with each of the planes stated
Group Activity
In your group, you are expected to produce one product from each process listed below:
(i) Line bending
(ii) Press forming

Activity

Observe and write down plastic products in your school and home which have been made by: i) Joints ii)
Threaded fastenings iii) Heat processes iv) Rivets

Activity

You are required to join two pieces of acrylic using one of plastic joints. Describe in less than six steps, how
to join the piece.

Activity

Identify the materials and equipment which is used for press forming. Describe how the deforming process
is carried out using one of the materials.

Reference Books

Aucamp, J.H. and Moyo, C. (2001).Design and TechnologyToday 1. Gaborone West: Collegium
Educational.

Gale, P. (1999). Skills in Resistant Materials Technology. Jordan Hill: Heineman Educational.

Hall, M. and Michael, J.D. (1988).Design and Plastics. London: Hodder and Stoughton Education.

Garratt, J. (1996). Design and Technology 2nd Edition. London: Cambridge University Press.
7 HYDRAULICS

INTRODUCTION

Hydraulics is another area of control system. Hydraulics are systems that use oil or fluids instead of air

which is used in pneumatics, to transmit motion and force.

SIMPLE HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

In a simple hydraulic system, there are two cylinders of different diameters joined together by a tube or

pipe. Both cylinders contain oil. Inside each cylinder there is a piston.

Look at the diagram below:

L S

HOW HYDRAULICS OPERATE

From the diagram, let us make the piston in small cylinder ‘s’. The piston I a large cylinder ‘L’.

When force is applied to piston ‘s’, the piston will exert pressure to the oil in a small cylinder. Oil is

then forced to move along the pipe or tube into cylinder ‘L’ and in all directions. Piston L will then rise.

The pressure created is a measure of force over a given area. To find how much pressure has been

created, you will have to know the area of piston ‘s’ and the force applied.

EXAMPLE
If piston area is 60mm2 and the force applied is 30 new tones, then the pressure exerted will equal

0.5N/mm. The pressure transmitted into the large cylinder will also be the same. A simple formula

shown below can be used.

Force = pressure x Area (F=(PxA)

This formula will always give you to find how much pressure has been exerted or created depending on

the size of the cylinders.

Therefore, the example given above will enable you to find how much pressure the larger piston will

exert to the load. Suppose piston ‘L’ has an area of 600mm2, how much pressure will be produced at

‘L’ piston after receiving a 0.5 N/mm2 force from the small piston.

It will be; force = Pressure x Area

Force on piston L will be:

0.5 x 600

= 300 N ten times greater than the input force.

Oil has a major advantage over compressed air. Air cannot be compressed. Hydraulics are common

in system such as cars (brake system), car jacks, heavy duty machines such as bull dozers, road graders,

diggers and many others. Car brakes and car jacks depend on either a pump driven by electric motor or

by internal combustion engine. It is possible to demonstrate hydraulic systems using disposable plastic

syringes and PVC tubing.

EXAMPLE

Car brake system

EXAMPLE

Hydraulic jack
Hydraulic jacks use the same principle just like the simple closed hydraulic system consisting of two

piston cylinder units filled with liquid and connected by tubing. In hydraulic jack the piston is made

very small in relation to the driven piston. The mechanical advantage is increased further by using a

lever.
8 LOGOS

INTRODUCTION
Logos form a very important aspect in the corporate world. Logos are designed to identify a company
or institution among such entities. They are also designed to advertise a company or institution. The
companies would go to great lengths by employing designers to create or update an image for them.
This unit will briefly cover the aspect of logos and similar symbolic language.
UNIT OUTCOMES
- Describe a logo.
- Differentiate between a logo and a pictogram.
- Differentiate between a logo and trademark
- Explain the importance of a logo and trademark in the corporate world.
KEY SKILLS
- Creating a logo
- Creating a trademark
- Drawing a pictogram
8.1 LOGOS
What is a logo?
Crampton, K and Finney, M describe the word logo as an abbreviation of the word logogram. A
logogram is a form of letter or symbol which forms or suggests a word. A logo will often take the form
of a symbol or pictogram and will not rely on words. When a logo takes a form of a symbol or simple
picture It will relate to the function of a company or the product it produces.
Look at the following logos:

SOME HINTS ON DESIGNING LOGOS

1. The first letters of the company can be formed into a design or symbol.
2. The logo can consist of a symbol only.
3. Colour is usually used but with discretion. Too many different colours will make the logo
confusing.
 4. Designs should be clear and bold.

ACTIVITY 1.0
Design a logo of a new company that will be selling Agricultural products, bearing the following name:
“Fruit and Vegetable Company.”

8.2 TRADEMARK
Trademarks don’t often take a form of a symbol. They often take a complete name of a company or
commercial product but written in a certain style of lettering or be set against a particular shaped
background.

ACTIVITY 1.1
Reproduce a common trademark that appeals to you.

8.3 PICTOGRAM
STUART BLAND (1986:100) defines pictogram as an “image related symbol. Information is conveyed by
means of a simple drawing as in a road sign.”
ACTIVITY 1.2
Construct the road sign using simple geometrical construction method. Enhance the symbol by using
appropriate technique.

REFERENCE
1. Crampton, K and Finney, M (1988). Design and Communication. London; Collins Educational.
2. Bland, S (1986). Graphical communication 1. London; Longmans.