FORMATION OF IONIC COMPOUNDS AND COVALENT MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

Compounds are formed between the chemical combinations of two or more elements. To distinguish between the
types of compounds, one should first take note of the type of elements that are chemically combined.
Figure 2 shows the compounds formed based on the type of elements combined.

IONIC COMPOUNDS COVALENT MOLECULAR

COMPOUNDS

METAL NONMETAL
NONMETAL NONMETAL

METALLOID NONMETAL

Figure 2: Compounds Formed Based on the Types of Elements Combined

To determine if an element is a metal, non-metal, or metalloid one should refer to their location in the periodic table.
Figure 3 shows the location of these three types of elements. The pink colors are the metals, the blue ones are nonmetals and
the green elements are the metalloids. As you can see, most elements are metals and placed on the left side of the periodic
table except for Hydrogen. On the right side are the nonmetals separated by a stair-like barrier of elements which are the
metalloids or semi-metals.

Figure3: Periodic Table of Elements showing the metals, nonmetals and metalloids
The Ionic Compounds
Based on Figure 2, Ionic compounds are formed between a metal and a nonmetal. The chemical combination
between the two types of elements results in the formation of ionic bonds between the atoms.Ionic bonds are the electrostatic
force of attraction that holds cations (positively charged atom) and anions (negatively charged atoms) together.
Sodium Chloride (NaCl) or table salt is an example ofan ionic compound. It is the combination of Sodium (a metal)
and Chlorine (a nonmetal). Sodium becomes a cation (Na +) as it loses an electron and transfers to the chlorine atom. Chlorine
gaining the electron becomes an anion (Cl-) and eventually, an ionic bond is formed holding these ions together.

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Figure 3: Ionic Bonding between Sodium and Chlorine

The table below show examples of ionic compounds and their uses.

Table 1: Common Ionic Compounds and their Uses

Ionic Compound Chemical Importance and Uses
Formula
Potassium iodide KI Iodized salt used for thyroid health
Sodium fluoride NaF An ingredient in toothpaste that helps prevent
cavities and tooth decay.
Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 Baking soda; used in baking and as an antacid
to reduce stomach acid, treats indigestion and
upset stomach.
Sodium hydroxide NaOH Used as a cleaning agent, it is the component
of soap and detergents.
Barium Chloride BaCl2 Used in making fireworks releasing the green-
colored explosions

The Covalent Molecular Compounds

Covalent molecular compounds or simply covalent compounds are substances that are formed from the chemical
combination of two or more nonmetallic elements. Based on Figure 2, it could be between a nonmetal and another nonmetal,
or a metalloid and a nonmetal. Table sugar or sucrose (C 12H22O11) is an example of a covalent molecular compound. It is a
combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms.
In a covalent compound, atoms of the different elements are held together in molecules by covalent bonds. Unlike
ionic bonds, in which electrons completely transfer from one atom to another, covalent bonds share their valence electrons.
The force of attraction between the shared electrons and the positive nuclei of both atoms holds the atoms together in the
molecule. A molecule is the smallest particle of a covalent compound that still has the properties of the compound.
Figure 4 shows the sharing of electrons between Hydrogen and Oxygen atoms to form the water (H 2O) molecule.
This sharing of electrons resultsin a covalent bond between atoms.

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Figure 4: Covalent bonding between H and O to form water molecule

There are millions of covalent molecular compounds most are formed by carbon and found in living things. The
smallest, simplest covalent compounds have molecules with just two atoms referred to as binary molecular compounds.
Here are some examples of Covalent Molecular Compounds and their uses

Table 2:Lists of Some Covalent Molecular Compounds and their Importance.

Covalent Molecular Chemical Importance and Uses
Compound Formula

An odorless, colorless gas used mainly as fuel to make heat and light.
Methane CH4

Ammonia is used as a refrigerant gas, for purification of water supplies, and in

the manufacture of plastics, explosives, textiles, pesticides, dyes, and other
Ammonia NH3 chemicals.

Ozone is a gas that occurs naturally in trace amounts in the stratosphere. It

protects life on Earth from the harmful UV rays of the son. But this gas is toxic
to living organisms at ground level.
Ozone O3
 It is an essential gas for plant and animal processes – like photosynthesis and
respiration. But the excessive amount in the atmosphere is unsafe as it is a
greenhouse gas.

Carbon dioxide CO2 In the industry, carbon dioxide in liquid and solid form is used as a refrigerant,
in fire extinguishers.

One of the most important substances, perhaps in the universe. Water exists in
three states of matter and is essential to life processes, as our body needs water
for all cells, tissues, organs to help regulate body temperature and maintain
bodily functions.

It is also essential for daily and domestic use. Water also plays an important role
Water H 2O in the balance of the ecosystem.

PROPERTIES OF IONIC AND COVALENT MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

When sugar and table salt placed side by side, it may appear the same because they are both white crystalline solids.
From the self-activity performed, you have notice that table salt is salty and sugar is sweet. These properties suggest that they
are very different substances.
Sugar is a covalent molecular compound made up of sucrose (C 12H22O11) molecules, while table salt is made up of
sodium chloride (NaCl) ions.
Tasting is the best way to identify the physical property of a substance,but it is not always a safe way because there
6
are compounds that are toxic and poisonous.

Table 3: Properties of Ionic and Covalent Molecular Compounds

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS
 They Form Crystals  They have low melting points and boiling
 They have ahigh melting point and points
boiling point  Most are soft and flexible
 They are hard and brittle  They are flammable
 They conduct electricity in aqueous  They are not conductors of electricity
solution  They can be classified as polar or
 They are nonconductors of electricity in nonpolar molecules
solid form

Table 3 lists the properties of ionic compounds and covalent molecular compounds. Why do you think these
compounds possess these properties?
PROPERTIES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS
1.) Formation of Crystals
The ionic bond formed between the cation and anions is very strong. The ions are arranged in a regular, geometric
structure called crystal lattice. Different ionic compounds have different crystal forms. Naturally occurring ionic crystals are
found in rocks and minerals; they are mixed with transition metal elements to give rise to brilliant colors

A B C
 Figure 5: A.) Rock Salt Crystals (Halite) B.) Amethyst crystals, a form of quartz (SiO 2), the
iron ions mixed in the crystal is responsible for the purple color C.) Cinnabar – a mercury
sulfide (HgS) mineral and an ore of mercury.
2.) They Have High Melting Points and High Boiling Points
7
Ionic compounds have very high melting and boiling points. The ions in a crystal lattice are closely packed together
creating a strong electrostatic force of attraction between them. Figure 6 shows a small representative bit of the crystal lattice
of Sodium chloride. The more ions there are in a crystal structure the stronger the ionic bonds. Therefore, a large amount of
energy is required to overcome these bonds.

Table salt melts at 801 ˚C and boils at 1413˚C. Ceramics are made of ionic compounds and are effective heat resistant
and are suitable for cookware.

Na+

Cl-

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3D-vdW.png
Figure 6: Crystal Lattice of Sodium Chloride

3.) They are hard and brittle

Because of the strong electrostatic attraction between ions’ ionic compounds, therefore, they are hard and difficult to
separate. But ionic compounds can be also considered as brittle. For instance, when pressure or a mechanical force is being
applied like striking a hammer on the crystal, it will cause charges to move closer. This result in electrostatic repulsion which
will be enough to split the crystals.

4.) They conduct electricity when dissolved in water

When ionic compounds are dissolved in water to form an aqueous solution, the cations and anions are dissociated or
separated and are free to conduct electricity through the solution. These ionic substances that conduct electricity are referred
as electrolytes.

Figure 7: A water solution of ionic compound that conducts electricity

The figure shows a simple electrolysis set-up, where two electrodes (positive and negative) are connected to a light
bulb and a source such as a battery. When an ionic compound (ex. Salt) is dissolved in water, the ions break out individually
into cations and anions. These ions are then free to move. When 8 the electrodes are dipped into the salt solution, the cations
flow into the negative electrode while the anions flow into the positive electrode causing electricity to flow. This in turn lights
the bulb.
Floodwaters contain many dissolved ionic compounds. One should be careful in case live wires come into contact
with floodwaters. You can get electrocuted.
5.) They are nonconductors of electricity in solid form

Solid ionic compounds do not conduct electricity, instead, these are good insulators. This is because the ions are
locked into its crystal lattice and ions cannot move out, so the solid cannot conduct electricity. Only ionic compounds in
liquid (molten) form or aqueous solutions are good electrical conductors.

PROPERTIES OF COVALENT MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS

1.) They have generally low melting points and boiling points
The covalent bonds between atoms are quite strong, but the intermolecular forces, the attraction between molecules can be
relatively weak. The addition of a small amount of energy separates these molecules easily. Therefore, they have low melting
and boiling points.
 2.) Most Covalent Compounds are soft and flexible

This is because covalent bonds are relatively flexible and easy to break, which causes molecular compounds to form gasses,
liquids, and soft solids at room temperature. However, there are exceptions, primarily when molecular compounds assume
crystalline form.

3.) They are flammable

Covalent compounds tend to be more flammable than ionic compounds. Combustion is a reaction that releases
energy when the compound reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water. Many of these molecular
compounds that undergo combustion contain hydrogen and carbon atoms.

4.) They are not conductors of electricity

Ionic compounds dissociate into ions when dissolving in water, ions are needed to conduct electricity. When
dissolved in water, covalent compounds separate into molecules rather than ions so, It is typically don’t conduct electricity.

5.) They can be classified as Polar and Nonpolar Molecules

Covalent Molecular Compounds can be polar or nonpolar. The polarity of molecules results from the differences in
the electronegativity of the bonded atoms.
Electronegativity (EN)is the ability of an atom in a molecule to attract shared electrons toward it. Figure 9 shows the
electronegativity values of the elements in the periodic table.

Figure 9: Electronegativity Values of Atoms of Elements

The greater the electronegativity of an atom the stronger is its ability to attract shared electrons towards itself and away from
the less electronegative atom. The electrons are not shared equally and part of the molecule carries a partial positive
charge(δ+) and the other part carries a slight negative charge(δ-) creating a dipole.
For instance, the covalent bonding between Hydrogen (H) and Fluorine (F).Fluorine has an EN = 4.0 while Hydrogen
has an EN = 2.1, thus fluorine is more electronegative than hydrogen and so the shared electrons spend more time around the
fluorine atom creating a partial negative charge. The arrow points to the slightly negative side of the molecule. This kind of
bonds is apolar covalent bond.

Figure 10: Unequal Sharing of Electrons Between H and F

When two identical atoms covalently bonded with each other like diatomic Hydrogen (H 2), there would be equal
sharing of electrons between the Hydrogen atoms. This type of bond is a nonpolar covalent bond form nonpolar molecules.

Figure 11: Unequal Sharing of Electrons between H and F

To determine if the type of bond is polar or nonpolar, one has to consider the electronegativity difference between the
bonded atoms. The greater the difference, the more polar is the bond.

Table 4. Electronegativity Difference to Classify Bonds

Electronegativity Difference Bond Type
0 < 0.4 12 Nonpolar
0.5 – 1.9 Polar
>2.0 Ionic
Based on Table 4 the electronegativity difference between H-F bond is:
Combining Atoms H F
EN Values 2.1 4.0
Difference 1.9
Type of Bond Polar

Examples:

Combining Atoms H H Combining Atoms Na Cl

EN Values 2.1 2.1 EN Values 0.9 3.0
Difference 0 Difference 2.1
Type of Bond Nonpolar Type of Bond Ionic

If the difference in electronegativity is greater than or equal to 2.0, the electrons are completely transferred instead of being
shared. And an ionic bond would result rather than a covalent bond.
Metals have unique characteristics common to all of its kind while some at varying degrees. Exploring these characteristics
made it possible for humans to maximize their uses.

In Grade 7, you have learned about the varying properties of matter specifically for metals and non-metals. The properties of
matter can either be extensive or intensive and either physical or chemical.

Extensive properties like mass and volume depend on the amount of substance that is being measured. While intensive
properties like density, colour, melting and boiling point do not depend on the amount of matter. These two are physical
properties which means that they can be measured and observed without changing the substance’s chemical composition or
identity.

Meanwhile, chemical properties become evident during a chemical reaction when a substance’s chemical identity is
changed. To recall some of the properties, look at the pictures and describe the properties of metals exhibited in each figure.

Metals have common properties that make them very useful. The unique combination of these properties makes
metals suitable for various purposes. Subsequently, metals have similar physical and chemical properties because they have a
common atomic arrangement.

Arrangement of Atoms in Metals

In metals the outermost electrons are free to move between atoms forming the so-called “sea of electrons” or sea of
delocalized electrons. The metal ions are arranged in a lattice structure surrounded by these electrons. The structure is held by
strong forces of attraction between positively charged metal ions and negatively charged valence electrons known as metallic
bonding.
It can be described as the sharing of free electrons among a lattice of positively charged metal ions. The structure of metallic
bonds is not the same with that of covalent and ionic bonds. While ionic bonds join metals to non-metals, and covalent bonds
join non-metals to non-metals, metallic bonds are responsible for the bonding between metal atoms.This type of bond exists
in all metallic elements and metallic mixtures called metal alloys.
Physical Properties of Metals

Have you ever asked why metallic objects come in different shapes? Why they are shiny? Why most of your cooking
equipment are made of metals? Why electrical wires are made of metals? You might have asked these questions but you do
not know exactly the reason behind these.
Remember, atoms in metals lose electrons forming cations. The delocalized electrons surround the ions. Atoms are
arranged like closely packed spheres due to the electrostatic interactions between the ions and the electron cloud
which bond the metallic solid together. Metallic bonding accounts for many physical properties of metals. Below are the most
common properties of metals.

Physical Properties Descriptions

Malleability Ability to be rolled or hammered into flat sheets or shapes
without breaking
Ductility Ability to be drawn into wires
Electrical Conductivity Ability to carry electric current
Thermal Conductivity Ability to transfer heat
Luster Shininess due to the reflection of light
High Melting Point Temperature at which metal changes from solid to liquid

Understanding metallic bonding will help you explain and figure out why metals have these unique properties.
Most metals are malleable and ductile but the amount of force needed to reshape or flatten a metal varies. For example, thin
sheets of lead can be readily bent into shape using your hands, while iron requires heating and hammering. Metals can easily
be formed into different shapes without breaking because the layers within the lattice structure are able to slide over each
other due to the free-floating electrons and non-directional nature of metallic bond.

You haven’t seen a wire made of plastic or wood. This is because these materials are not capable of conducting electricity.
Materials in which electric current cannot pass through are called insulators. Hence, the flow of electric charge is not
possible. Metals are electrically conductive due to the highly mobile electrons which can transmit or transfer electrical
charges.
Most of the cooking wares at home are metals. Metals conduct heat more readily than any materials. The delocalized valence
electrons acquire heat faster and transfer heat to its neighboring electrons and cations.

Aside from these, metals are lustrous which means that they have shiny appearance due to
light reflected off by delocalised electrons. The electrons can move freely causing any light
incident to get reflected back.

Lastly, almost all metals except mercury are solids with high melting points. This is related to
the strength of metallic bond due to the attraction between electrons and cations. High amount
of energy is needed to overcome the bond strength which is generally high in metals. This is
also directly related to some of the properties such as hardness and tensile strength of metals.

Chemical Properties of Metals

You are living near the beach. You noticed that some parts of your house are tarnishing with a reddish-brown colored
substance. What do you think happened to these parts? What causes them to rust?
Aside from the physical properties, metals also have chemical properties. They react with other substances leading to some
changes in their composition.
Remember, metals form positive ions arranged in a lattice structure by losing their electrons. This means that metals are
electropositive elements. Metals undergo chemical reactions due to its electropositive character.
Almost all metals except the noble metals like gold and silver react with oxygen to form basic or metal oxides.
Metals vary in terms of reactivity. They combine with oxygen at different temperature and intensities. For example,
sodium (Na) metal is always kept immersed in kerosene because it reacts so vigorously with oxygen present in air that it
catches fire.
Some metals will undergo chemical change on their own or with other elements and release energy. They cannot be found in
pure form and are hard to separate from the minerals they are found in. Sodium and potassium are the most reactive metals.
They react violently with air and water. Potassium ignites when it comes in contact with water. Not all metals react with
water at equal intensity. There are metals that are very reactive in cold water while some in hot water or steam. For example,
magnesium reacts mildly with water but vigorously with steam while zinc and iron react mildly with steam. Copper, gold and
silver do not react with water at all. They react with water to produce metal oxide (or metal hydroxide) and hydrogen gas.
In addition, metals react with dilute acid to form salts and hydrogen gas. Sodium and magnesium react with dilute
hydrochloric acid to form their salts.
Moreover, metals that are highly reactive are more prone to chemical destruction or corrosion. This is primarily due to the
reaction between oxygen and metals. For example, iron and steel have serious corrosion problems if not treated and
prevented.

Types of Alloys

Interstitial alloys are alloys where atoms of the added element occupy spaces (interstices) between atoms in the lattice,
rather than displace atoms of the main metal. The atoms of the interstitial element are much smaller than the atoms of the
main metal. While substitutional alloys are alloys where atoms of the added element substitute atoms of the main metal in
the lattice. The atoms of the substitutional element are of a similar size to atoms of the main metal.

Interstitial Alloy Substitutional Alloy

Common Metal Alloys in Everyday Life

You are probably not aware that you are using alloys every day in your life. When you eat your meal, cook in the
kitchen, drive your car, and use your mobile phone. Most of the tools and equipment you use are made of alloys. Below are
the most common alloys with their constituent elements.

Alloy Composition Uses

Bronze - made to improve the 85-88% copper, 12-12.5% tin with the Used in making of sculptures, musical
properties of copper. addition of some other metals like instruments, medals, and in industrial
aluminum, manganese, zinc or nickel applications.
in small proportions
Steel - an alloy of iron which has the iron with about 1% carbon used widely in the construction of
property of being tough, hard, and roads, railways, airports, bridges, and
corrosion-resistant making of different construction
E.g. stainless steel 11% chromium by mass and maximum materials, household products, etc.
of 1.2% of carbon by mass
Brass- an alloy made to improve the copper and zinc with some other used in the manufacturing of
electrical and mechanical properties elements like arsenic, lead, decoration items, locks, zippers, gears,
phosphorus, aluminum, manganese, doorknobs, musical
and silicon instruments, plumbing purpose and
electrical applications
 Sterling Silver - improves the 92.5% of silver and 7.5% of other used in making cutlery, jewellery,
strength, hardness of silver and to metal, usually copper musical instruments, and different
reduce tarnishing medical tools
White Gold - an alloy of gold to gold with at least one white metal, used in making rings and pins
increase its strength and durability usually silver, nickel or palladium
Aluminium Alloys - have improved mixing aluminium with small amount Used widely in the construction,
properties, such as greater strength, of other elements, such as copper, transportation and aerospace industries
hardness and corrosion resistance. magnesium, manganese, silicon, tin
They are lightweight, durable and and zinc
strong
Titanium Alloys - have superior mixing titanium with small amount of Used in the military, airline and
strength to weight ratios, durable, and other elements, like tin, aluminium, aerospace industries, as well as
corrosion resistance molybdenum, silicon and vanadium consumer electronics, sporting goods,
in medical and dental implants

Metals really have a wide variety of functions and uses. The insane thing about metal is that it has an extremely wide
scope of capacity and can be utilized by any sorts of profession. Doctors and designers exploit these metals by developing
great structures industry while a few specialists consider these to be as unadulterated physical help in which they move their
creative mind and inventiveness.

In any case, metals have a big influence in your regular day to day existence. You associate with them diversely as
every one of them has its own properties: some are utilized as supporting components for structures, cell phones,
transportation. Some are utilized for enrichment by specialists and stone worker or some are utilized to show riches, similar to
gold for instance.

That being stated, you have inclination to neglect the significance of metal since you encounter them straightforwardly or
indirectly wherever you may go, along these lines seeing their quality as plainly obvious. Furthermore, some of them are
intangible to natural eyes so this may add to your absence of understanding metal in your life.

Indeed, metal is an important resource that is very beneficial to everyone. The properties of metals help you to do a lot things
and make your life more comfortable. That is why, you must take responsibility on the safe extraction of metal resources for a
sustainable future.