STRUCTURES AND

MECHANISMS
INDEX:

1. DEFINITION

2. UTILITY OF THE STRUCTURES

3. FORCES ACTING ON THE STRUCTURES

4. TYPES OF STRUCTURES

5. ELEMENTS OF THE STRUCTURES

5.1. FOUNDATION ELEMENTS
5.2. SUPPORTS
5.3. ELEMENTS FOR TRANSMISSION OF LOADS TO SUPPORTS

6.-EFFORTS SUPPORTED BY THE STRUCTURES

6.1.-COMPRESSION STRESS
6.2.-TRACTION EFFORT
6.3.-BENDING EFFORT
6.4.-TORQUE FORCES
6.5.-CUTTING OR SHEAR STRESS

7.-TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAR STRUCTURES

7.1.-METALLIC PROFILES
7.2.-TRIANGULATION OF STRUCTURES
7.3.-STABILITY OF THE STRUCTURES

8. THE MECHANISMS
8.1.-METALLIC PROFILES
8.2.-TRIANGULATION OF STRUCTURES
8.3.-STABILITY OF THE STRUCTURES

9. THE MECHANISMS
9.1. MOVEMENT TRANSMISSION MECHANISMS
9.2. MOVEMENT TRANSFORMATION MECHANISMS
1.-DEFINITION

Structures are a set of elements that,

conveniently joined together, are capable of supporting
the stresses to which they are subjected.

In addition to supporting, as mentioned,

different forces or loads, structures must support their
own weight without overturning or breaking.
The structures must be resistant, light and stable.

2.-UTILITY OF THE STRUCTURES

The most important functions of structures are:

Support weight: such as a bridge or a car.

Holding objects: like a painting easel.
Contain objects inside: like a bin.
Protect objects and people: for example the case of a computer or the helmet of a motorcyclist.

3.-FORCES ACTING ON THE STRUCTURES

The first force you have to hold is your own weight. In addition to their weight, structures have to hold
loads (external weights).

If structures are in motion, they will also have to withstand the “inertial forces” that appear when
bodies brake or accelerate.

Some structures often have to withstand the effects of pressure from a liquid or gas.

4.-TYPES OF STRUCTURES

The great variety of existing structures makes their classification difficult.

According to the type of component elements, the following are distinguished:

1.- MASSIVE STRUCTURES: such as load-bearing walls, slopes, breakwaters, etc.

2.- BAR STRUCTURES: such as bridges, warehouse trusses, high-voltage towers, etc.
3.- LAMINAR STRUCTURES: formed by sheets or plates, like the body of a car or an airplane.
4.- HANGED STRUCTURES: its main elements are cables and tensioners.
5.-ELEMENTS OF THE STRUCTURES

We will classify the different elements, taking

into account the function of structures that they
perform:

- Foundation elements
- Supports or pillars
- Load transmission elements to the supports.

5.1.-FOUNDATION ELEMENTS

The foundations are the elements of transmission of loads to the ground.

In the old days, when it was built with “load-bearing walls”, the foundation was a “widening of the
wall”.

At present with the use of concrete, the foundation is solved with footings. The columns and load-
bearing walls transmit the weight to the footings.

5.2.-SUPPORTS

The elements in charge of transmitting the loads to the foundation are the
brackets. These can be fundamentally of two types:
a) Load-bearing walls: they are linear and continuous elements. It is the traditional construction
system.
b) Pillars: they are vertical, specific and independent elements that support the weight of other parts of
the structure.

5.3.-LOAD TRANSMISSION ELEMENTS TO SUPPORTS

As elements that transmit the loads to the pillars or supports, we will study the following:
- Catenary
- Bow
- Beam
- Tie rod or tensioner
- Square
Catenary: The catenary is the curve that describes a rope, chain or similar, held by two points that are
not on the same vertical. It was widely used by the Catalan architect Gaudí.

Arc: Another way of transmitting efforts is through arches that are usually shaped like a semicircle
(semi-circular arch) or with two centers or pointed (widely used in the Gothic) or horseshoe (used by
the Arabs).

Another form is the vaults and domes, which are an evolution of the arches. The vaults are a succession
of arches, while the domes are formed by an arch that is rotated by a vertical axis that passes through
the upper part.

Beams: It is the most used transmission element today. They are horizontal elements that work in
flexion. They normally transmit the loads to the pillars.

Tie rods and tensioners: They are elements, normally metal bars or cables, that work under traction.

Squad

6.-EFFORTS SUPPORTED BY THE STRUCTURES

If you look at the construction of the buildings, once the foundations are built, the workers begin to lift
the pillars and a series of beams on them, in such a way that these elements are the ones that will
support the entire weight of the building.

But how does a beam or a column deform when supporting a weight? In the case of a beam, what
happens is that the force acting on it tends to bend it, and if the force is very large, it would even break
it. As we see, there are elements of the structures that must resist stress of one type, while other
elements must resist it in a different way. For example, a pillar receives another type of stress and we
can see how it deforms.

In the previous examples there is a column or a beam that receives weight and the different
consequences that occur in these elements.
How many different kinds of efforts are there?
We will study the following types of efforts:

Compressive stress
Tensile stress
Bending stress
Torsional stress
Shear or shear stress
Buckling stress

6.1.-COMPRESSION STRESS

They are those that when acting on a structure make it compress, shorten, as in the case of a pillar of a
building.

Examples: Pillar of a building, legs of a table, cupboard, etc.

A body is subjected to compression when two equal and opposite forces act on it.

The faces of the body perpendicular to the forces tend to join, while the parallel faces tend to separate,
which produces a shortening in their length if the forces are of sufficient value.

F F

6.2.-TRACTION EFFORT

They are those that when acting on a

structure make it stretch, lengthen.

Examples: A rope connected to a crane and

holds a weight. The elevator cable, the
shopping cart handles.

A body is subjected to traction when two

equal forces act on it in the opposite
direction.

The faces that are perpendicular to the

forces tend to separate, and the parallel faces
to come together, thus elongation occurs if
the forces are of sufficient value. This is the
typical case of a rubber band.
 6.3.-BENDING EFFORT

They are those that when acting on a structure make

it have a tendency to bend.

Examples: a beam, bridges, a fishing pole.

A body is subjected to bending when two equal

parallel forces act on it, and another in the opposite
direction in the middle of the two previous ones
equal to the sum of these.

In the particular case of a beam, bending is

considered, as the effect of bending the beam under
the action of loads that normally act on its axis.

When a bar (beam) is flexed, tensile stress, compression, shear, and transverse stresses are produced in
it.

A typical example is a plank simply supported, to which a force perpendicular to its axis is applied,
which causes the upper half to compress, while the lower half is pulled, leaving a fiber in the center that
does not suffer alteration , called neutral fiber.

The maximum distance that occurs in a body simply

supported when it is subjected to bending is called
an arrow.

6.4.-TORQUE FORCES

They are those that when they act on a piece or structure, they tend to turn it, to twist it.

Examples: a screwdriver when you put a screw with it, a key when you open a door, a car axle when it
transmits force to the wheels of a car, the axles of machines.

A body is subjected to traction when two pairs

of opposing forces act on it in the opposite
direction, that is, normally its sections tend to
rotate one in the opposite direction of the
other. The shear phenomenon is produced in
this way.
6.5.-CUTTING OR SHEAR STRESS

They are those that when they act on a structure tend to cut it, to break it, and are due to two equal and
opposite forces whose lines of action are very close together.

Examples: scissors work in shear, a cantilever beam works in shear in the embedment area, etc.

A body is subjected to shear when two equal

forces act on it, in opposite directions, in
parallel planes and with very little separation.

The solid tends to disjoin by tearing at the

separation of the two planes where the force
acts. Typical example of this case are scissors.

6.6.-PANDING

We say that a body is subjected to buckling, when it is

subjected to compression, its length being very large with respect to
its cross section (bodies of great slenderness). This is the case of the
pillars.

An example we can easily observe when we compress a thin

stick, it will flex and deform, so if we continue to apply force the
stick will break.

7.-TECHNICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BAR

STRUCTURES

Most structures are built by combining various elements. The

solidity and resistance of the structure depend on the materials with
which these elements are made, their shape and how they are placed.

It seems, in principle, logical that the elements seen above such as

beams, pillars, squares etc. is that they were solid, so that they can
hold a lot of weight.
 However, a structure is not more solid the more material it has. On the contrary, the more
solid elements we use, the more we will increase the weight, with which, as the structure grows, it
will be much more difficult for it to remain standing.

The fundamental thing about a structure is not the material, nor its quantity, but the shape of an
element and the way in which they have been placed.

All things being equal, structures are better the lighter they are: they are cheap, their construction
requires fewer raw materials, and they are easier to transport and assemble.

7.1.-METALLIC PROFILES

To obtain resistant and light structures metal profiles are used. Indeed, by giving the material
certain shapes, it is possible for a structure to support great weights and stresses using much less
material than would be necessary to manufacture the same structure with solid bars.

The material from which they are made is usually steel, concrete and aluminum, since they are very
resistant materials and also have good behavior against oxidation if they are placed outdoors. Steel
structures, however, do have to be protected with special paints (minium, etc.) to prevent oxidation.

We can distinguish the following types of profiles:

- Open profiles
L profile
T profile
U profile
Double T profile

- Closed profiles:
Square tube
Round tube

7.2.-TRIANGULATION OF STRUCTURES

There are many structures that are made up of triangles.

This is because they have been reinforced with
diagonal bars. In this way a
relatively light and resistant structure.

Why? The triangle is a very stable geometric figure that

does not tend to deform when a force acts on it, as shown
in the figure.
 In this case it is observed that a and b work in compression while c is subjected to a tensile
stress.

Polygon triangulation

A polygon with four or more sides to which a force is applied

tends to deform as a result of it. To make it stable, it must be
triangulated, that is, its non-consecutive vertices must be
joined by means of rigid elements.

Applications of triangulation

In many structures, the frame bars are arranged to form

triangles to achieve strength, manageability and lightness at
the same time.

Examples: Construction cranes, pylons, scaffolding, bridges,

metal shelving, some folding chairs, etc.

7.3.-STABILITY OF THE STRUCTURES

A structure, in addition to being resistant, must be stable and not lose its balance due to a variation in
the conditions that surround it.

The stability of a body depends on the situation of its center of gravity.

The center of gravity of a body is the point of application in that body of the force of gravity that
attracts it towards the Earth.
To check if a body is stable, it is enough to draw a vertical line that passes through its center of gravity:
if the line falls within its base, the body is in equilibrium.

Determination of the center of gravity of a body

Cut out on cardboard the figure in which you want to calculate the center of gravity (c.d.g.) and with a
thumbtack, hold it on a piece of plywood board, placed vertically.

From the pin, a thread is hung with a weight at the other end and a line is marked following the path of
the thread.

The figure is put in another position and doing the same operation, as indicated in the attached figure.
The point where the lines that have been drawn on the figure intersect is the center of gravity.
Types of balance

Depending on the characteristics of the body, the balance can be stable or unstable.

Stable equilibrium
It occurs when the center of gravity is very low or the base is very wide. In this way, it is difficult for
the vertical of the center of gravity to leave the base, even if the body tilts sharply.

Unstable balance
It occurs when the center of gravity is very high or the base is very small. Thus it is probable that the
vertical of the center of gravity exits force from the base when tilting the body even slightly.

CONCLUSION:

1st) The structures, in addition to resisting the efforts, must be stable.

2nd) The lower the center of gravity, the more stable the structures will be.
8. THE MECHANISMS

While structures withstand forces in a static way, that is, without moving, mechanisms allow the
movement of objects.
The chain gear system of a bicycle, the gears of the clock, the lever of a rocker, the pulley of a water
well ..., are some of the simplest mechanisms that are found as part of many objects.
Mechanisms are elements designed to transmit and transform forces and movements from a driving
element (motor) to a receiving element. They allow human beings to perform certain jobs with greater
comfort and less effort.
According to their function, the mechanisms can be classified into mechanisms of transmission of
movement, of movement and mechanisms of transformation of movement.

8.1. MOVEMENT TRANSMISSION MECHANISMS

They transmit the movement, force and power produced by a motive element (motor) to another point.
Linear Transmission Mechanisms (I):
Pulley: It is a wheel that rotates around an axis. It is attached to a fixed surface. A rope, chain or belt is
passed through the groove of the pulley that allows to overcome, in a comfortable way, a resistance R,
applying a force F.
Fixed Pulley: It is in equilibrium when the applied force F is equal to the resistance R, which presents
the load, that is, when F = R.
It serves to raise and lower loads with ease. It is used in wells, simple cranes, weight training
equipment, etc.
 Mobile Pulley: It is a set of two pulleys, one fixed and the other that can move linearly. It is in
equilibrium when F = R / 2.
By means of this system, the effort made to overcome the resistance of a load is reduced by half
with respect to the fixed pulley.

Hoist: It is a special type of assembly consisting of two groups of

pulleys: fixed and mobile.
As the number of pulleys increases, the mechanism becomes more complex, but the effort
required to overcome the resistance decreases.

Linear Transmission Mechanisms (II)

Lever: The lever is a rigid bar that rotates around a fulcrum or joint. A force F is applied at one
point on the bar, in order to overcome a resistance R, which acts at another point on the bar.
The lever is in equilibrium when the product of the force F, by its distance, d, from the fulcrum
is equal to the product of the resistance, R, by its distance, r, from the fulcrum. This is the so-called
lever law, which is mathematically expressed as follows:
F.d = R.r
There are three types of lever: first degree, second degree and third degree grade

FIRST GRADE:
The fulcrum is between the applied force and the resistance.
 SECOND GRADE:
The resistance is between the fulcrum and the
applied force.

THIRD DEGREE:
The applied force is between the fulcrum and the
resistance

Circular transmission mechanisms:

a) Wheels and Pulleys: They are systems of two or more wheels that are in contact, either directly or
through a belt.

- Friction wheels are systems of two or more wheels that are in direct contact. One of the wheels is
called driving or input, because when moving it causes the movement of the driven or output wheel,
which is dragged or driven by the first. The direction of the driven wheel is opposite to that of the
wheel motor.
They are widely used in industry,
for example to manufacture and
drag sheet metal, paper rolls or
other thin surfaces. They are also
used inside machines and
devices, such as video recorders.
 - Belt pulley systems are sets of pulleys or
wheels located at a certain distance, whose axes
are usually parallel, that rotate simultaneously
by the effect of a belt. Thus, the rotation of one
shaft is transmitted to the other through the
pulleys coupled to said shafts. The two pulleys
rotate in the same direction.

This mechanism is used in industrial machines, as well as in car engines, washing machines, drilling
machines, etc.
The gear ratio between the rotational speeds depends on the relative size of the wheels, and is
expressed by the following equation:

d1 / d2 = n2 / n1

In the previous equality, d1 and d2 indicate the diameters, and n1 and n2 the speeds of the driven and
driven wheels. Wheel speeds are expressed in revolutions per minute (rpm) and diameters in
millimeters (mm).

a) Gears: These are sets of wheels that have projections called teeth, so that some wheels drag the
others. In this case the gears rotate in the opposite direction.

They are used in industrial and automotive machines, but also in household items such as drills,
mixers, juicers, toys, etc.
' Chain gear systems consist of two parallel shafts toothed wheels located at a certain distance from
each other, which rotate by the effect of a chain or toothed belt meshed to both. In this case the gears
rotate in the same direction. It is used in industrial machines and motors, bicycles, etc.

The gear ratio is:

Z1 / Z 2 = N 2 / N 1

Z1 and Z2 are the number of teeth, and N1 and N2 are the speeds.

8.2. MOVEMENT TRANSFORMATION MECHANISMS

They transform a circular motion into a rectilinear motion or vice versa.

Crank - lathe set: A crank is a bar attached to a shaft that it rotates.

The mechanism that is based on this device is the winch, which consists of a drum that rotates
around its axis in order to drag an object.
A lathe is in equilibrium when the following equality is fulfilled:

F.Bf= R.Br
 • Rack-pinion: it is a pinion or gear wheel with
straight teeth, crimped to a rack, that is, a toothed belt or
bar. When the gear wheel rotates, the rack moves in a
rectilinear motion.
This mechanism makes it possible to transform the
rectilinear movement of the rack into a circular motion of
the pinion. It is used in columns of drills, corkscrews,
directions, etc.

Crank-crank assembly: It is made up of a crank and a bar called a crank. This is articulated at
one end with said crank and, at the other, with an element that describes an alternative movement.
As the wheel turns, the crank transmits the circular motion to the crank, which undergoes a
reciprocating motion.

This system also works in reverse, that is, it

transforms a reciprocating or reciprocating
rectilinear movement into a rotational
movement. Its importance was decisive in the
development of the steam locomotive, and today
it is used in internal combustion engines,
windshield wipers, machine tools, etc.

Ratchet: Allows rotation in one direction and prevents it the other way round. It is used in
watchmaking, brakes, etc.

Spring: They absorb energy when a force is applied to them. It is used in toys, watches, pens,
mattresses, etc.