Module 2

FACTORS THAT AFFECT WASTE GENERATION RATES.

The effect of source reduction and recycling activities, Public attitudes and
legislation, and geographic and physical factors on the generation of solid
waste are considered in the following discussion.

1. Effect of source reduction and Recycling Activities on waste

Generation.

The effects of source reduction and the extent of recycling activities on

waste generation are considered in the following discussion:

Source Reduction: Waste reduction may occur through the design,

manufacture, and packaging of products with minimum toxic content,
minimum volume of material, and /or a longer useful life. Waste reduction
may also occur at the household, commercial or industrial facility through
selective buying patterns and the reuse of products and materials.

Because source reduction is not a major element waste reduction at the

present time, it is difficult to estimate the actual impact that source
reduction programs have had (or will have) on the total quantity of waste
generated. Nevertheless, source reduction will likely become an important
factor in reducing the quantity of waste generated in the future.

For example, if the postage rate for bulk mail were increased significantly,
the quantity of bulk mail would be reduced sharply. Some of the other ways
in which source reduction can be achieved follow:

 Decrease unnecessary or excessive packaging

 Develop and use products with greater durability and reparability (e.g.,
more durable appliances and tires)
 Substitute reusable products for disposable, single-use products (e.g.,
reusable plates and cutlery, refillable beverage containers, cloth
diapers and towels)
 Use fewer resources ( e.g., two-sided copying) ™
 Increase the recycled materials content of products ™
 Develop rate structures that encourage generators to produce less
waste.
Extent of Recycling: The existence of recycling programs within a
community definitely affects the quantities of wastes collected for further
processing or disposal.

2. Effect of public Attitudes and legislation on waste Generation.

Along with source reduction and recycling programs, public attitudes and
legislation also significantly affect the quantities generated.

Public Attitudes Ultimately, significant reduction in the quantities of solid

wastes generated occur when and if people are willing to change –of their
own volition- their habits and Life styles to conserve natural resources and to
reduce the economic burdens associated with the management of solid
wastes. A program of continuing education is essential in bringing about a
change in public attitudes.

Legislation Perhaps the most important factor affecting the generation of

certain type of wastes is the existence of local, state, and federal regulations
concerning the use of specific materials. Legislation dealing with packaging
and beverage container materials is an example. Encouraging the purchase
and use of recycled materials by allowing a price differential (typically 5 to
10 percent) for recycled materials is another method.

3. Effect of Geographic and physical factors on waste Generation

Geographic and physical factors that affect the quantities of waste generated
and collected include location, season of the year, the use of kitchen waste
food grinders, waste collection frequency, and the characteristics of the
service area . Because broad generalizations are of little or no value, the
impact of these factors must be evaluated separately in each situation.

Geographic location Different climates influence both the amount of

certain type of solid wastes generated and the time period over which the
wastes are generated. For example, substantial variations in the amount of
yard and garden wastes generated in various parts of the country are related
to climates are related to climates. That is, in the warmer southern areas,
where the growing season is considerably longer than in the northern areas,
yard wasters are collected not only in considerably greater amounts but also
over a longer time. Because of the variations in the quantities of certain
types of solid wastes generated under different climates, special studies
should be conducted when such information will have a significant impact on
the system. Often, the necessary information can be obtained from a load-
count analysis.
Season of the year The quantities of certain types of solid wastes are also
affected by the season of the year. For example, the quantities of food waste
related to the growing season for vegetables and fruits, seasonal sampling
also will be required to assess changes in the percentage distribution of the
waste materials comprising municipal solid waste , especially in areas of the
country with extensive vegetation.

Use of Kitchen Food Waste Grinders. While the use of kitchen food
waste grinders definitely reduces the quantity of kitchen wastes collected,
whether they affect quantities of wastes generated is not clear, because the
use of home grinders varies widely throughout the country, the effects of
their use must be evaluated separately in each situation if such information
is warranted. Unit waste allowances made in the field of waste water
treatment for estimating the additional suspended solids capita contributed
from homes with food grinders varies from 0.1 to 0.04 Kg/capita. Typically,
the clues used in the waste water field only reflect the increase in solids
removed at wastewater treatment facilities and do not reflect the material
that has solublized in the process of being transported. More realistic values
for estimating the effect of food waste grinders are 0.04 to 0.05 Kg/capita.
Alternatively, for homes with food waste grinders one can assume that 25 to
33 percent of the total amount of food waste generated is ground up.

Frequency of collection. In general, where unlimited collection service is

provided, more wastes are collected. This observation should not be used to
infer that more wastes are generated. For example, if a homeowner is
limited to one or two containers per week, he or she may, because of limited
container capacity, store newspapers or other materials; with unlimited
service, the homeowner would tend to throw them away. In this situation the
quantity of wastes generated may actually be the same, but the quantity
collected is considerably different. Thus, the fundamental question of the
effect of collection frequency on waste generation remains unanswered.

Characteristics of Service Area. Peculiarities of the service area can

influence the quantity of solid wastes generated. For example, the quantities
of yard wastes generated on a per capita basis are considerably greater in
many of the wealthier neighborhoods than in other parts of town. Other
factors that will affect the amount of yard waste include the size of the lot,
the degree of landscaping, and the frequency of yard maintenance.
METHODS USED TO ESTIMATE WASTE QUANTITIES

Waste quantities are usually estimated on the basis of data gathered by

conducting a waste characterization study, using previous waste generation
data or some combination of the two approaches.

Methods commonly used to assess solid waste quantities are

1. load-count analysis,

2. Weight-volume analysis, and

3. Materials Mass-balance analysis.

In this discussion, it will be helpful to remember that most measurements of

waste quantities do not accurately represent what they are reported or
assumed to represent. For example, in predicting residential waste
generation rates, the measured rate seldom reflects the true rate because
there are confounding factors (e.g., onsite storage and the use of alternative
disposal location) that make the true rate difficult to assess.

1. Load-Count Analysis. In this method, the number of individual loads and

the corresponding waste characteristics (types of waste, estimate volume)
are noted over a specified time period. If scales are available, weight data
are also recorded. Unit generation rates are determined by using the field
data and where necessary, published data.

2. Weight-Volume Analysis. Although the use of detailed weight- volume

data obtained by weighing and measuring each load will certainly provide
better information on the specific weight of the various forms of solid wastes
at a given location, the question remains: What information is needed in
terms of study objectives?

3. Materials Mass Balancer Analysis. The only way to determine the

generation and movement of solid wastes with any degree of reliability is to
perform a detailed materials balance analysis for each generation source,
such as an individual home or a commercial or industrial activity. In some
cases, the materials balance method of analysis will be required to obtain
the data needed to verify compliance with state-mandated recycling
programs.
1. Physical Methods of Waste Characterization

These methods involve the identification and quantification of the physical

properties of solid waste.

 Weight and Volume Measurement:

o Objective: Determines the mass and volume of waste produced.
o Methods: Weighing using scales; volume estimation using
containers or density calculations.
 Particle Size Distribution:
o Objective: Determines the size range of particles in waste, which
is important for processes like composting and incineration.
o Methods: Sieving or screening using various mesh sizes.
 Moisture Content:
o Objective: Indicates the amount of water in the waste, which
affects its decomposition and calorific value.
o Methods: Heating a sample at 105°C in an oven until a constant
weight is achieved.
 Density:
o Objective: Measures the compactness of waste, helping in
designing storage, transportation, and landfill systems.
o Methods: Determining the mass per unit volume by compacting
or non-compacting methods.
 Visual Sorting:
o Objective: Separates waste into categories such as paper,
plastic, metals, organic matter, etc.
o Methods: Manual sorting followed by weighing each category.
 Calorific Value:
o Objective: Determines the energy content of waste, important for
waste-to-energy (WTE) projects.
o Methods: Using a bomb calorimeter to measure heat released
during combustion.

2. Chemical Methods of Waste Characterization

These methods assess the chemical composition of waste to understand its

potential environmental impacts and treatment methods.

 pH Analysis:
o Objective: Measures the acidity or alkalinity of waste, crucial for
biological treatment methods.
 o Methods: Mixing waste samples with water in a defined ratio and
measuring pH using a pH meter.
 Proximate Analysis:
o Objective: Provides data on moisture, volatile matter, ash, and
fixed carbon content.
o Methods: Thermogravimetric analysis is used for proximate
analysis of the waste.
 Elemental Analysis (CHNS/O):
o Objective: Determines the percentage of carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulfur, and oxygen in waste.
o Methods: Combustion techniques in an elemental analyzer.
 Heavy Metal Analysis:
o Objective: Detects the presence of toxic metals such as lead
(Pb), mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), etc.
o Methods: Techniques like Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy (AAS)
or Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) spectroscopy.
 Total Organic Carbon (TOC):
o Objective: Measures the amount of carbon in organic compounds
present in the waste.
o Methods: Combustion methods coupled with infrared detection.
 Leachability Tests (Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure -
TCLP):
o Objective: Assesses the potential for harmful substances to leach
from waste into the environment.
o Methods: Leaching waste samples in an acidic solution and
analyzing the leachate for contaminants.

3. Biological Methods of Waste Characterization

These methods are used to understand the biodegradability and biological

composition of waste.

 Biodegradability Assessment:
o Objective: Determines the potential for organic waste to
decompose under biological processes.
o Methods: Incubating waste samples in aerobic or anaerobic
conditions and measuring gas production (e.g., CO₂ in aerobic or
methane in anaerobic digestion).
 Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD):
o Objective: Measures the amount of oxygen required for the
biological degradation of organic matter in waste.
o Methods: Incubating waste in water under aerobic conditions for
a specified period (usually 5 days) and measuring oxygen
depletion.
 Compostability:
 o Objective: Determines the suitability of organic waste for
composting.
o Methods: Monitoring decomposition under controlled aerobic
conditions, measuring temperature rise, and analyzing the
quality of the resulting compost.
 Respiration Index (RI):
o Objective: Measures the biological activity and stability of
organic waste by determining CO₂ production rates.
o Methods: Incubating waste samples and measuring CO₂ evolution
in closed systems.
 Microbial Population Analysis:
o Objective: Identifies the types and numbers of microorganisms
present in the waste, which are critical for processes like
composting and anaerobic digestion.
o Methods: Culturing techniques or DNA-based methods like PCR
(Polymerase Chain Reaction) for microbial identification.