/.

‘•loCf
•y- *;
MMMip
‘ f > rrnV . j*;- - - »*'

n-

t5w
w £&y • 4i«S;fi -5&. Si; .8 *

&8K
^ • ***%?. *. > c£ • * -r' - v? - >. -

;v

«■'•,'j-^■ w.j-i' •.• „•->

&2B3& v-'i'.--*.'i- <.;■

^■•:. .■•••; .'o.■.-•;•:• 'i ; '• •W >’.'•:

v
■R.
OLlfiHC lOBfll LIBRQRr

150028

’• Vi

.
V -■:-; ;'.:.;:vV

• 'w*
W.Sff®>
' *»*_^
 II B KJ1ETEHHK

CBOPHHK 3AZIAM
no AHAJlMTHMECKOn rEOMETPHH
Hod pedaKnueu npocf). H. B. E <j) u m o o a

roCyAAPCTBEHHOE H3AATEJlbCTBO
OH3HKO-MATEMATHMECKOPI JTHTEPATyPbl

MOCK BA
 PROBLEMS
IN

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY .

Edited by Prof.
N• YEFIMOV

Tyansfctted from the Russian by

o. SOROKA

PEACE PUBLISHERS
J
M os cow
U DC 516 (076.1) 20

150028
 CONTENTS

Part One
PLANE ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

Chapter 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry 9

§ 1. An Axis and Segments of an Axis. Coordinates on a
Straight Line.
1 1
§ 2. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates in a Plane 14
§ 3. Polar Coordinates . .
16
§ 4. A Directed Segment. The Projection of a Segment on
an Axis. The Projections of a Segment on the Coordi¬
nate Axes. The Length and the Polar Angle of a Seg¬
ment. The Distance Between Two Points
20
§ 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio
26
§ 6. The Area of a Triangle .
30
§ 7. Transformation of Coordinates
31
Chapter 2. The Equation of a Curve
35
§ 8. A Function of Two Variables
35
§ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curve. Curves Rep
resented by Equations ...
37
§ 10. Derivation of the Equation of a Given Curve
40
§ 11. Parametric Equations of a Curve
44

Chapter 3. Curves of the First Order

§ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line. The' Slope'-
intercept Equation of a Straight Line. The Angle
Between Two Straight Lines. The Conditions for the
Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two Straight
Lines
6 Contents

§ 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines. Discussion

of a System of Equations Representing Two or Three
Straight Lines. The Intercept Equation of a Straight
Line.87
§ 14 The Normal Equation of a Straight Line The Problem
of Determining the Distance of a Point from a Straight
Line. 82
$ 15. The Equation of a Pencil of Lines.
§ 16. The Polar Equation of a Straight Line.73

Chapter 4. Geometric Properties of Curves of the Second

Order.78
§ 17. The Circle.76
§ 18. The Ellipse .83
§ 19. The Hyperbola.^7
§ 20. The Parabola .^
$ 21. The Polar Equation of the Ellipse, Hyperbola and Pa¬
rabola . . . . ..116
§ 22. Diameters of Curves of the Second Order.118

Chapter 5. Simplification of the General Equation of a Curve

of the Second Order. The Equations of Some Curves
Encountered in Mathematics and Its Applica¬
tions .^
§ 23. The Centre of a Curve of the Second Order.121
§ 24. Reducing the Equation of a Central Curve of the Sec¬
ond Order to Its Simplest Form .124
§ 25. Reducing a Parabolic Equation to Its Simplest Form 128
5 26. The Equations of Some Curves Encountered in Mathe-
131
matics and Its Applications .

Part Two
SOLID ANALYTIC GEOA1F.TRY

Chapter 6. Some Elementary Problems of Solid Analytic

139
Geometry.
§ 27. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates in Space. 141

§ 28. The Distance Between Two Points. The Division of

a Line Segment in a Given Ratio .
143
 Contents 7

Chapter 7. Vector Algebra . 145

$ 2(). The Concept of a Vector. The Projections of a Vector 145

§ 30. Linear Operations on Vectors.
§ 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors.155
§ 32. The Vector Product of Vectors.160
§ 33. The Triple Scalar Product.1(34
§ 34. The Triple Vector Product. 1GQ

Chapter 8. The Equation of a Surface and ttie Equations of

a Cl,rve. 169
§ 35. The Equation of a Surface.169
§ 36. The Equations of a Curve. The Problem of the Inter¬
section of Three Surfaces.172
§ 37. The Equation of a Cylindrical Surface with Elements
Parallel to a Coordinate Axis.173

Chapter 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a

Straight Line. The Equations of Quadric Surfaces 175
§ 38. The General Equation of a Plane. The Equation of
the Plane Passing Through a Given Point and Having
a Given Normal Vector..
§ 39. Incomplete Equations of Planes. The Intercept Equa¬
tion of a Plane . ]7g
§ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane. The Distance of
a Point from a Plane.|8]
§ 41. The Equations of a Straight Line .185
S 42. The Direction Vector of a Straight Line. The’Cano¬
nical Equations of a Straight Line. The Parametric
Equations of a Straight Line.190
§ 43. Miscellaneous Problems Involving the Equation of
a Plane and the Equations of a Straight Line . . 19S
§ 44. The Sphere . 2Q2
§ 45. The Equations ol the Plane, Straight Line and Sphere
in Vector Notation. 20Q
§ 46. Quadric Surfaces.* * 214

Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of

Determinants . . . 230
§ 1. Determinants of the Second Order and Systems of Two
Equations of the First Degree in Two Unknowns . . 230
8 Contents

§ 2. A Homogeneous System of Two Equations of the First

Degree in Three Unknowns.233
§ 3. Determinants of the Third Order.234
§ 4. Properties of Determinants.235
§ 5. Solution and Analysis of a System of Three First-
degree Equations in Three Unknowns.239
§ 6. Determinants of the Fourth Order .242

Answers and Hints

Part One .. ..... . 244
Part Two.284
Part One

PLANE
ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY
 Chapter I

ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS OF PLANE

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

§ 1. An Axis and Segments of an Axis.

Coordinates on a Straight Line
A straight line on which a positive direct'on has been chosen is called
an axis A segment of an axis bounded by arbitrary points A and
B is called a directed segment if one of these points has been
designated as the initial point, and the other as the terminal point
of the segment. A directed segment with A as its initial point and
B as its terminal point is denoted by the svmbol~AB. The value
of a directed segment of an axis is defined as the length of the seg¬
ment taken with a plus or minus sign according as the direction of
the segment (that is, the direction from its initial to its terminal
point) agrees with the positive or negative direction of the axis The
value of a segment AB is denoted by the symbol AB, whereas its
VS t£enoted fcy !lle symbol | AB |. If the points A and B
dearlv AB® flTenn de,™ed b>' tlle”1 * called a zero segment;
have no
nave nn delimte
rlfnmm'L"" V" th,S case (a zer0 se2ment is considered to
direction).
Let there be given an arbitrary straight line a We next chnnsp
dirprtment< aS4ithe.-Unit ,for measurement of lengths, assign a positive
no nt on
point on this
h- 'r u °\the
line by <the,letter
reby making
0. We 11 have
an axis)-
thus a»d some
estahlishorl ^
coordinate system on the line a established a
Jbe (coord>nate of any point M of the line a (in the chosen
the legmen t'oAL * “ the nUmber * ‘^al tbe value of

x = OM.

th^orMn uJ?fC?lled ,h? °rigin °f coordinates; the coordinate of

lion U!“a"y haV' (h'" Posi'i»« dlrec

12 Cli. /. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry_

If A1 j (A:,) and M2(x2) are two arbitrary points of the line a,

then the formula

M, M 2 = x2 —
expresses the value of the segment MXM2 and the formula

| MxM2 | = | x2 —*1 |

expresses the length of this segment

1. Plot the points:

(—y). F (V2), and

A (3), B(5), C(—1), D
!)•
H (—V5).

2. Plot the points whose coordinates satisfy the equa¬

tions:

1) |.>c| = 2; 2) |x—1 | = 3; 3) |1—x| = 2; 4) |2 + x| = 2.

3. Characterize geometrically the location of the points

whose coordinates satisfy the inequalities:

1) x 2; 2) x-3<0; 3) 12-—x < 0; 4) 2x

3; 8) x — l >0;
V/
*

5) 3x -5>>0; 6) 1 <x <: 3; 7) -

1

2x — 2-x 2x— 1
9) : 0; 11) x — 2 <
X —
*>»: 10) x—l

12) X2 — 8x 4- 15 ==£ 0; 13) *’-8*+15;> C

14) *2 + x —12> 0 ; 15) *2 + *--12<: 0.

4. Find the value AB and the length \AB\ of the seg¬

ment determined by the points: 1) 4(3) and B(H)>
2) 4(5) and B (2); 3) 4 (— 1) and B (3); 4) A (—5) and
B (—3); 5) 4 (—1) and B (—3); 6) 4 (—7) and B ( 5).
5. Calculate the coordinate of a point 4, given:

1) B (3) and 4B= 5; 2) B (2) and 4B = — 3;

 # /. An Axis and Segments of an Axis 13

3) B(— 1) and BA=2\ 4) B (—5) and BA=—3\

5) B (0) and \AB | = 2; 6) fl(2) and |/lfl| = 3;
7) £(— 1) and |4B| = 5; 8) ZJ (—5) and |/lfi| = 2.

6. Characterize geometrically the location of the points

whose coordinates satisfy the following inequalities:
1) |*| < 1; 2) 1 a: | > 2; 3) |*|<2; 4) |x|Sa3;
5) x — 2 | < 3; 6) |x — 5|<1; 7) \x— l|s*2;
8) x — 3|>1;9) j x + 1 | < 3; 10) |x + 2|>l;
11) |x + 5|< 1; 12) |x + 1 |>2.

7. Determine the ratio in which the point C

divides the segment AB, given:

1) A (2), B(6) and C (4); 2) A (2), B (4) and C(7);

3) A(— 1), B(5) and C (3); 4) A(l), fi(13) and C (5);
5) A (5), B (—2) and C(—5).

8. Given the three points /I (—7), B (— 1) and C( 1).

Determine the ratio X in which each of these divides the
segment bounded by the other two points.
9. Determine the ratio * = — in which a given
point At (x) divides the segment ATaT, bounded bv given
points At, (x,) and Af2 (x2).
10. Determine the coordinate x of a point At which
divides the segment A4,A42 bounded by given points A4, (x,)
and At2 (x2), in a given ratio
11. Find the coordinate x of the midpoint of the seg¬
ment bounded by two given points At, (x,) and At (x ).*
12. In each of the following, find the coordinate x of
the midpoint of the segment bounded by the two given
points: s

1) A (3) and BJ5); 2) C (—1) and D(5); 3) At, (-1) and

(—3); 4) P,(—5) and P2(l); 5) Q, (3) and Q, (—4).
1-1 Ch- 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

13. Find the coordinate of a point M, given:

1) A1, (3), M2(7) and X=^ = 2;

2) A (2), fl(—5) and A=^==3;

3) C(—1), D (3) and X = ;

4) /1(—1), fi(3) and A=^==—2;

5) /l (1), D(—3) and ^ = 3;

6) /4 (—2), B(-l) and .

14. Given the two points A (5) and B(—3). Find:

1) the coordinate of the point M symmetric to the
point A with respect to the point B\
2) the coordinate of the point N symmetric to the
point B with respect to the point A.
15. The segment bounded by the points A (—2) and
£(19) is divided into three equal parts. Determine the
coordinates of the trisection points.
16. Determine the coordinates of the end points A and
B of the segment whose trisection points are P(—25) and
Q (—9).

§ 2. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates

in a Plane
A rectangular cartesian system of coordinates is determined by
the choice of a linear unit (for measurement of lengths) and of two
mutually perpendicular axes numbered in any order.
The point of intersection of the axes is called the origin o
coordinates, and the axes themselves are called the coordinate
axes. The first of the coordinate axes is termed the *-axis or
axis of abscissas, and the second, the y-axis or axis of ordinates.
The origin is denoted by the letter 0, the x-axis by the symbol
Ox, and the */-axis by Oy. . .
The coordinates of an arbitrary point M in a given system are
defined as the numbers
x = 0/Wx, y = 0My

(Fig. I), where Mx and Mv are the respective projections of the

point M on the axis Ox and' Oy, 0MX is the value ot the segment
 § 2. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates in a Plane 15

0MX of the x-axis, and 0\\ is the value of the segment OM of

the y-axis. The number x is called the abscissa of the point M, and
the number y, the ordinate of M. The notation M (x, y) means that
the point A1 has the number x as its abscissa, and the number y as
its ordinate.
The axis Oy divides the entire plane into two half-planes, of
which the one containing the positive half of the axis Ox is called
the right half-plane, and the other, the left half-plane. In like man¬
ner, the axis Ox divides the plane into two half-planes, of which
the one containing the positive half of the axis Oy is called the
upper half-plane, and the other, the lower half-plane.

Fig. /.

The two coordinate axes jointly divide the plane into four quad¬
rants, which are numbered according to the following rule: the first
quadrant is the one lying simultaneously in the right and the upper
half-planes; the second quadrant lies in'the left and the upper half-
planes; the third quadrant lies in the left and the lower half-planes*
a°d the fourth quadrant lies in the right and the lower half-planes.

17. Plot the points:

A (2, 3), B(—5, 1), 0(0, 3),
£(—5, 0),

18. For each of the following points, find the coordi¬

nates of its projection on the x-axis:

4(2, -3). fl(3, -1), C(—5, 1), D(—3, —2), £(_5, -1).
19. For each of the following points, find the coordinates
ol its projection on the //-axis:

4 (-3, 2), B ( 5, 1), C (3, -2), D(-l, 1), £(_6> _2).

16 Ch. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

20. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric, with

respect to the axis Ox, to the following points:
1) A (2, 3); 2) B(—3, 2); 3) C (— 1, —1);
4) D (—3, —5); 5) E (—4, 6); 6) F (a, b).
21. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric, with
respect to the axis Oy, to the following points:
1) A(—1, 2); 2) B(3, -1); 3) C (—2, -2);
4) D(— 2, 5); 5) £ (3, —5); 6) F (a, b).

22. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric, with

respect to the origin, to the points:
1) A (3, 3); 2) B(2, —4); 3) C (—2, 1);
4) D (5, —3); 5) £(—5, —4); 6) 5 (a, b).
23. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric, with
respect to the line bisecting the first quadrant, to the fol¬
lowing points:
1) A (2, 3); 2) 5(5, —2); 3) C (—3, 4).

24. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric, with

respect to the line bisecting the second quadrant, to the
points:
1) A (3, 5); 2) 5 (—4, 3) C (7, —2).

25. Determine the quadrants in which a point M (x, y)

can be situated if:
1) xy> 0; 2) xy < 0; 3) x—y = 0; 4) x -{-y = 0;
5) x + j/ > 0; 6) x + y<0\ 7) x —«/> 0; 8) x — */<0.

§ 3. Polar Coordinates
A polar coordinate system is determined by choosing a point O,
called the pole, a ray OA drawn from that point and called the
polar axis, and a scale for measurement of lengths. When determin¬
ing a polar system, it must also be specified which direction of
rotation about the point O is to be considered positive (in diagrams,
counterclockwise rotation is usually taken as positive).
The numbers q = 0M and 0=<J AOM (Fig. 2) are called the po¬
lar coordinates of the arbitrary point M (in reference to the chosen
 $ 3. Polar Coordinates 17

system); the angle 0 is here understood as in trigonometry. The

number q is called the first coordinate or polar radius*, and the
number 0, the second coordinate or polar angle (0 is also termed
the amplitude).
The notation M (q, 0) means that the point M has polar coordi¬
nates q and 0.
The polar angle 0 has an infinite number of possible values
(differing from one another by a quantity of the form ±2nn, where
n is a positive integer). That value of the polar angle which satis¬
fies the inequalities — ji<0< + ji is called its principal value.

In cases where a cartesian and a polar coordinate system are to

* u*e<? flde.by s,de* we shall agree: (1) to use the same scale; (2)
when determining polar angles, to regard as positive the direction
° rotation Hie positive x-axis into the positive
f/-axis (thus, if the axes of the cartesian system have their usual
position , e., with the axis Ox directed to the right and the axis
Oy directed upwards, then polar angles are also measured as usual
’ 6r*inhre F!easured positively in the counterclockwise direction)’
Under this condition, and provided that the pole of the polar
coord,na e system coincides with the origin of rectangular cartesian
coordinates, while he polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis
he transformation from polar coordinates of an arbitrary point to
its cartesian coordinates is carried out by the formulas
x Q COS 0,
y Q sin 0.
Under the same conditions,

e= yV + t/2, tan 0=—

OM denotes here the length of the segment, understood as

elementary geometry (that is, the unsigned length) The more cun
bersome symbol | OM | need not be employed in this case since the
points 0 and M are regarded as arbitrary points in a plane rather
 18 Ch. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

will be the formulas for transformation from cartesian to polar

coordinates.
When using two polar coordinate systems in a single problem,
we shall agree to adopt the same positive direction of rotation and
the same scale for both systems.

26. Plot the following points given in polar coordinates:

A (3, y), B(2,n), C(3. -■=-), D(4. 3y) .

E (5, 2) and F (1, —1).

(The points D, E and F are located approximately by
using a protractor.)
27. Determine the polar coordinates of the points sym¬
metric, with respect to the polar axis, to the points

/Mx(3, f), M,(2, -f), M, (3, —J) .

Af4(l, 2) and Ms(5, —1),
given in a polar coordinate system.
28. Determine the polar coordinates of the points
symmetric, with respect to the pole, to the points

M,(l, -J), Af,(5, £), Af,(2, -y),

M4 ^4, and M5 (3, —2),

given in a polar coordinate system.

29. In a polar coordinate system, A ^3, —-g-n) ar,d

B (5, are two given vertices of a parallelogram ABCD\

the point of intersection of its diagonals coincides with
the pole. Find the other two vertices of the parallelogram.
30. Given the points A ^8, —y71) anc* ^ (®» “3") *n
a polar coordinate system. Calculate the polar coordinates
of the midpoint of the segment joining the points A and B.
31. Given the points

^(3. y), b(2, -y), C(l, n), d(5, -fa),

£ (3, 2) and F (2, —1)

k
 $ S. Polar Coordinates 19

in a polar coordinate system. The positive direction o)

the polar axis is reversed; determine the polar coordinates
of the given points in the new system.
32. Given the points

M' (3’ t) ’ Mt 0’ | n) ’ AU2. °).

A1‘ (5* t)’ Ms(3’ ~Jn) and (l.

in a polar coordinate system. The polar axis is turned so
that, in its new position, it passes through the point M ;
determine the coordinates of the given points in the new
(polar) system.
33. Given the points M, (12, i- ji) and M2 ( 12,
in a polar coordinate system. Calculate the polar coordi¬
nates of the midpoint of the segment joining M and M
34. Given the points M, (qu 0,) and A42(o„ V) in a
polai coordinate system. Compute the distance d between
them.

35. Given the points M, (5, -2-) and AT, (8, —in a
polar coordinate system. Compute the distance d between
them.
36. In a polar coordinate system, M and
M2 (3> ]^J are two adjacent vertices of a square. Find
its area.
37. In a polar coordinate system, P
and
Q ^4, g Jij are two opposite vertices of a square. Find
its area.

38. In a polar coordinate system, a(4, — -I n\ ancj

f 7 \ \ 12/
B \8, 12n) are two vertices of a regular triangle. Find
its area.
39. One vertex of a triangle OAB is situated at the
•pole,• and the other two vertices are the points A to
and B (q 0.)
0.)- Calculate the area of the triangle
20 C/i. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

40. One vertex of a triangle OAB is at the pole 0, and

the other two vertices are the points A ^5, j and
ji
B ( 4, Y2J • Find the area of the triangle.
41. Calculate the area of the triangle whose vertices
are A ( 3, ~ n B and C (6, Jij in polar co¬
8- kn)

ordinates.
42. The pole of a polar coordinate system coincides
with the origin of rectangular cartesian coordinates, and
the polar axis coincides with the positive *-axis.

M, (

Ms (

lar coordinate system. Determine the cartesian coordinates

of these points.
43. The pole of a polar coordinate system coincides
with the origin of rectangular cartesian coordinates, and
the polar axis coincides with the positive *-axis. Mx (0, 5),
M2(—3. 0), Af,(j/3, 1), MJ — V2, —1/2), Af. (1,—V 3)
are points given in the rectangular cartesian system.
Determine the polar coordinates of these points.

§ 4. A Directed Segment. The Projection of

a Segment on an Axis. The Projections of a Segment
on the Coordinate Axes. The Length and the Polar
Angle of a Segment. The Distance • Between Two Points

A line segment is said to be directed if one of its bounding

points has been designated as the initial point, and the other as the
terminal point of the segment. A directed segment having A as its ini-
tial point, and B as its terminal point (Fig. 3) is denoted by the symbol
AB (the same as a segment of an axis; see § 1). The length of a
directed segment AB (in a given scale) is denoted by the symbol
\ AB | (or AB\ see the footnote on page 17).
The projection of a segment AB on an arbitrary axis u is defined
as the number equal to the value of the segment A,B, of the
axis a, where the point A, is the projection upon the axis u of the
point A, and £, the projection of the point B.

• • ^KmsMliir U
No..
 $ 4. A Directed Segment and Its Projections 21

The projection of a segment AB on an axis a is denoted by the

symbol proj UAB II a rectangular cartesian system of coordinates
has been attached to the plane, the projection of a segment on the
x-axis is denoted by X, and its projection on the y-axis by Y
If we know the coordinates of the points XI. (x,, y.) 'and
y2), then the projections X and Y of the directed segment

Fig. 3.

MtM2 on the coordinate axes can be calculated from the formulas

X = *2- 1 >
^ y2 y\-

LheUsS,subtrfac? fthhperproJ.ecti«ns of.a directed segment of the coordinate

axes, subtract the coordinates of its initial point from the correspond-
mg co°rdinates of its terminal point.
ve x-ax\s must be rotated
o make .ts direction coincide with that of a segment AO* is
termed the polar angle of the segment AI.Af,.

ingly Vhfs^n inhniT^nf'0^ 3S, in trig°n°metry; accord-

X = d cosO, Y t=d-sin 0

have the formulas g d P angle- From these> we also

d= \T\2 y2
and

cos 0 = Y
sin 0 =
V X2+ Y2 ’ i^X* + Y* '
22 Ch. /. Flementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

which express the length and the polar angle of a segment in terms
of its projections on the coordinate axes.
If /Vf, (a'|, //,) and M2(x2, y2) are two given points in the plane,
the distance cl between them is determined by the formula

d =V (x2 — a,)2 + (y2 — yx)2.

44. Calculate the projection on an axis u of the seg¬

ment whose length d and angle of inclination (p with
respect to that axis are:

1) d=6, <p = ~; 2) d = 6, cp=^;

3) d = 7, <F’ = y‘. 4) d = 5, cp = 0;

5) d — 5, cp = .fi; 6) d = 4, <p = — y .

45. From the origin of coordinates, draw the segments

whose projections on the coordinate axes are:
1) X = 3, Y = 2; 2) X = 2, Y =—5;
3) X= —5, 7=0; 4) X = —2, F = 3;
5) -Y=0, y = 3; 6) 2C = —5, Y = — 1.
46. From the point M (2, —1), draw the segments whose
projections on the coordinate axes are:

1) X=4, Y = 3; 2) *=2, Y= 0; 3) X = —3, Y= 1;

4) X=—4t Y = — 2; 5) *=0, K = —3; 6) *=1, r = —3.

47. Given the points Af,(l, —2), /Vf2 (2, 1), A4S (5, 0).
M4 (—1, 4), and Ms(0, —3). Find the projections on the
coordinate axes of the following segments:

1) MtMa9 2) M,Ml9 3) M4Mtt 4) MSM9.

48. X=5, Y = —4 are the projections on the coordinate

axes of the segment MiMz whose initial point is M, (—2, 3)'»
find the coordinates of its terminal point.
49. X= 4, Y = —5 are the projections on the coordinate
axes of the segment AB whose terminal point is at B (1, — 3)’»
find the coordinates of the initial point of AB.
 §4. A Directed Segment and Its Projections 23

50. From the origin of coordinates, draw the segment whose

length d and polar angle 0 are:
ji 5
1) d O, 0
2) d = 3,
5" 0=t
ji £
3) d = 4, 0 4) d = 3, 0 JX.
3" 3

51. From the point A1 with cartesian coordinates (2, 3),

draw the segment polar nncr\*
segnien whose length and nnlar angle are:
ji
1) d = 2, 0 2) d=lf 0=
Fo ; 9 ’
ji
3) d = 5, 0
9"

52. Find the projections on the coordinate axes of the

segment whose length d and polar angle 0 are:

1) d= 12. 0=3-n; 2) d = 6, 0 JI
~6 *
ji
3) d = 2, °==— x-
4

53. Given the projections of three segments on the coor¬

dinate axes:
1) X = 3, Y= 4; 2) X = 12, Y = 5;
3) X — 8, Y = 6.
Calculate the length of each segment.
54. Given the projections of three segments on the co-
ordinate axes:
1)X = 1, y = J/3; 2) X=3|/2, Y 3 V2;
3) X = — 21^3, Y = 2.

^St'ofven'lhe8poims"d 'he P°'ar a"e'e ° Mch **"*"'•

^f2^\ ^)» ^a(—1» —7) and /W (—4 8)
SSs: len8'h a"d ,he P°lar 01 'he following

^ MtM2, 3) M'Ma, 4) AIJVT^.

oiMhe'i'ax'iTk'VF- f ,fRment is 5 and its projection

the x-axis is 4. Find the projection of this segment on
21 Ch. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

the //-axis if the angle which it makes with the //-axis is:
1) acute; 2) obtuse.
57. The length of a segment MN is 13, its initial point
is M (3, —2), and its projection on the x-axis equals—12.
f ind the coordinates of the terminal point of this segment
if it makes with the //-axis: 1) an acute angle; 2) an obtuse
angle.
58. The length of a segment MN is 17, its terminal
point is N (—7, 3), and its projection on the //-axis is equal
to 15. Find the coordinates of the initial point of this seg¬
ment if it makes with the x-axis: 1) an acute angle; 2) an
obtuse angle.
59. The projections of a segment on the coordinate axes
are X = \t Y — —) 3; find its projection on the axis which
2
makes an angle Q = —n with the axis Ox.
60. Given the two points Af, (1, —5) and M2 (4, —1).
Find the projection of the segment MXM2 on the axis which
makes an angle 0 = —~ with the axis Ox.
61. Given the two points P(—5, 2) and Q (3, 1). Find
the projection of the segment PQ on the axis which makes
an angle 0 = arctan ~ with the axis Ox.
62. Given the two points M,(2, —2) and M2 (7. —3).
Find the projection of the segment MtM2 on the axis passing
through the points 71(5, —4), B (—7, 1) and directed: 1)
from A to B\ 2) from B to A
63. Given the points 71(0, 0), B (3, —4), C(—3, 4),
D(—2, 2) and £(10, —3). Determine the distance d between
the points: 1) 71 and B\ 2) B and C; 3) 71 and C; 4) C
and D; 5) 71 and D; 6) D and E.
64. A (3, —7) and B(—1, 4) are two adjacent vertices
of a square. Compute its area.
65. P(3, 5) and Q(l, —3) are two opposite vertices of
a square. Compute its area.
66. Find the area of a regular triangle, two of whose
vertices are A (—3, 2) and B( 1, 6).
67. 71(3, —7), B(5, —7), C(—2, 5) are three vertices
of a parallelogram ABCD\ its fourth vertex D is opposne
 £ 4. A Directed Segment and Its Projections 25

to B. Find the length of the diagonals of the paral¬

lelogram.
68. A rhombus has its side equal to 5 l^fO; two opposite
vertices of the rhombus are at the points Pi4 9) and
Q(-2, 1). Find the area of the rhombus.
69. A rhombus has its side equal to 5 |/ 2; two opposite
vertices are at the points P(3, —4) and Q(l, 2). Find the
length of the altitude of the rhombus.
?™Ve lhat the P°inls >4(3.-5), B (—2, 7) and
C(18, 1) lie on a straight line.
71. Prove that the triangle with vertices A (1,1) A (2, 3)
and A, (5, —1) is a right triangle.
72. Prove that the points A (2, 2), B I — 1, 6), C(- -5, 3)
and D ( 2, —1) are the vertices of a square.
..73- whether the triangle with vertices M, (1, 1)
2( , 2) and 2, —1) has an obtuse angle among its
interior angles. &
7.4‘ Pr°ye that tlie interior angles of the triangle with
acute^angiesT" 3)’ ^ 2) aild ^ ■» of them
75. The points A (5, 0), B (0, 1) and C(3, 3) are the
vertices of a triangle. Calculate its interior angles
76 The points A(—Y 3, 1), B (0, 2) and C (-2 V'i 21

aPtteMTex"!0' * 'ria"S'e' Calci,late lhe exterior antfe’

from’lhen5oi„tPOW(2J'M-3) ImtltquaUo 5 ‘ “S <liS,a"Ce

fro7™ tof?."5 dis,ance

79. Given the two points M (2, 2) and N (5 —2V find

a fight aPngle. ^ *'aXiS SUCh <hat the angle ™PN will be

u ,CLrc*e ^anSent to both coordinate axes is drawn

radiufV of ibis circle4' ^ Delern,il,e the centre C and the
81. A circle of radius 5 and tangent to the axis Oy
cTthisr°ciSethe P°int M'(l’ ~2)■ Determine the centre
2f> Ch 1Element nr u Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

82. Determine the coordinates of the point M2 symmetric

to the point Afl (1, 2) with respect to the straight line
which passes through A(\f 0) and B (—1, —2).
83. Given two opposite vertices A (3, 0) and C(—4, 1)
of a square. Find its other two vertices.
84. Given- two adjacent vertices A (2, —1) and B (—1, 3)
of a square. Find its other two vertices.
85. Given the vertices A4, (—3, 6), M2(9, —10) and
yVf3(—5, 4) of a triangle. Find the centre C and the radius
R of the circle circumscribed about this triangle.

§ 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio

If a point At (a:, ij) lies on the straight line passing through two
given points M, (*,, //,), M2(x2, y2), and if k — is a given
/V1 /V1 ^

ratio in which the point Al divides the line segment Af1 At 2, then
the coordinates of A/ are determined by the formulas

v__V\ ~F
I+X f y~ l+k '

If the point Af is the midpoint of the segment Af,A42, its coordinates

are given by the formulas

j/i + y2
2

86. Given the end points A (3, —5) and B(—1, l)ofa
uniform rod. Determine the coordinates of its centre of
gravity.
87. A uniform rod has its centre of gravity at M( 1, 4),
and one of its end points at P(—2, 2). Determine the coor¬
dinates of the other end point Q of the rod.
88. Given the vertices A(\, —3), B (3, —5) and C (—5, 7)
of a triangle. Determine the midpoints of its sides. . ^
89. Given the two points A (3, —1) and B (2, 1). Find:
1) the coordinates of the point Al symmetric to A with ,
respect to B\ # s-
2) the coordinates of the point N symmetric to B with
respect to A.
90. The points M (2, —1), AM—1. 4) and P (—2, 2) are
the midpoints of the sides of a triangle. Find its vertices.
 ,\V 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio 27

91. Given three vertices A (3, — 5t, B{5, —3), C(—1, 3)

of a parallelogram. Find the fourth vertex D which’ is
opposite to B.
92. A ( 3, 5) and 6(1, 7) are two adjacent vertices of
a parallelogram, and M( 1, 1) the point of intersection of
its diagonals. Find the other two vertices.
93 Given three vertices A (2, 3). ' B (4, — 1) and
C (0, b) of a parallelogram ABCD. Find its fourth ver¬
tex D.
94. Given the vertices A( 1, 4), B( 3, — 9), C (— 5, 2) of
a triangle. Determine the length of the median drawn from
the vertex B.
95. 1 he segment bounded by the points A (1, —3) and
fl(4, 3) is divided into three equal parts. Determine the
coordinates of the trisection points.
96 Given the vertices 4 (2, —5), B( 1,-2), C(4, 7) of a
triangle. Find the point where the bisector of the interior
angle at the vertex B meets the side AC.
97. Given the vertices 71(3, -5), B (—3, 3) and
01 a triangle. Determine the length of the
bisector of the interior angle at the vertex A
98. Given the vertices A (—1, -1), B (3, 5), C (—4 1)
of a triangle. Find the point where the bisector of the
exterior angle at the vertex A cuts the extension of the
siae oL.
99. Given the vertices 71(3, —5), 5(1, —3) c (2 —2)
of a triangle. Determine the length of the bisector of the
exterior angle at the vertex B.
nnint°’ — and are three given
C (4’
whiA y‘ug °f" 3 stra'ght Hne. Determine the ratio X in
olher Iwo points m “ 'hC SCgme"t boimded b* ll>=
.
101 Determine the coordinates of the end points A and
Q(1 5) Segment whose trisection points are P (2, 2) and

/W1?2‘A St.raight , 1'”e Passes through the points

„ l(r b’ ~ ^ and M2(—2, —5). On this line find a
point whose abscissa is equal to 3.
I,03.; ,A straight line passes through the points M 12 —3i
is" =,ua'r.„ % °" ",iS li,,C' li,,d « ofdiJi
28 Ch. 1 Elementart/ Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

104. A straight line passes through the points A (7, —3)

and 6(23, —6). Find the point at which this line cuts
the x-axis.
105. A straight line passes through the points ,4(5, 2)
and 6 (—4, —7). Find the point at which this line cuts
the y-axis.
106. Given the vertices A (—3, 12), 6 (3, —4), C (5, —4)
and D (5, 8) of a quadrilateral. Determine the ratio in
which the diagonal AC divides the diagonal BD.
107. Given the vertices A (—2, 14), 6 (4, —2), C (6, —2)
and D{6, 10) of a quadrilateral. Determine the point of
intersection of its diagonals AC and BD.
108. Given the vertices A (xlt yx), 6 (x2, y2) and C (x3, y3)
of a uniform triangular plate. Determine the coordinates
of its centre of gravity.
Hint. The centre of gravity is situated at the point of intersection
of the medians.

109. The point of intersection M of the medians of a

triangle lies on the x-axis; two of its vertices are at
A( 2, —3) and 6(—5, 1), and the third vertex C
lies on the y-axis. Find the coordinates of the points M
and C.
110. A(xlt yx), B (x2t y2) and C (x3, y3) are the vertices
of a uniform triangular plate. If the midpoints of its sides
are joined, another uniform triangular plate is formed.
Prove that the centres of gravity of the two plates coincide.
Hint. Use the result of Problem 108.

111. A uniform plate has the shape of a square with

side equal to 12, in which a square cut is made so that
the cut-off lines meet at the centre of the plate; the coor¬
dinate axes lie along the edges of the plate (Fig. 4).
Determine the centre of gravity of the plate.
112. A uniform plate has the shape of a rectangle with
sides a and b, in which a rectangular cut is made so that
the cut-off lines meet at the centre; the coordinate axes lie
along the edges of the plate (Fig. 5). Determine the centre
of gravity of the plate.
113. A uniform plate has the shape of a square with
side equal to 2a, from which a triangular piece is cut so
 $ 5. The Division of a Segment in a Given Ratio 29

that the cut-off line joins the midpoints of two adjacent

sides; the coordinate axes lie along the edges of the plate
(Fig. 6). Determine the centre of gravity of the plate.

Alt4' J)TB(T7\ ™Anr?nd Vreplaced at the P°ints

a^tdanglf m^de^of’ u^Lm^re ’ Find" fhe

centre of gravity of this triangle. the
 _/. F lenient ary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

§ 6, The Area of a Triangle

For any three points A (xlt yt), B(x2, y2), C (x3, y3), the area 5
of the triangle ABC is given by the formula

U2 yi
y^—Ui

The right-hand member of tins formula is equal to -fS if the short¬

est rotation of the segment AB to the segment AC is in the positive
direction; it is equal to —S if the shortest rotation of AB to AC
is in the negative direction.

116. Calculate the area of the triangle whose vertices are:

1) A (2, -3), 6 (3, 2) and C(—2, 5);
2) AM— 3, 2), M2 (5, —2) and Af3(l, 3);
3) M (3,— 4), N (— 2, 3) and P (4, 5).

117. The vertices of a triangle are the points A (3, 6),

B (— 1, 3) and C (2, —1). Find the length of the altitude
drawn from the vertex C.
118. Determine the area of a parallelogram, given that
three of its vertices are A (—2, 3), B (4, —5) and C (—3, 1).
119. The points A (3, 7), 6(2, —3) and C(—1, 4) are
three vertices of a parallelogram. Find the length of the
altitude drawn from the vertex B to the side AC.
120. Given the consecutive vertices A (2, 1), 6(5, 3),
C(—1, 7) and D(—7, 5) of a uniform quadrilateral plate.
Find the coordinates of its centre of gravity.
121. Given the consecutive vertices A (2, 3), 6(0, 6),
C(—1, 5), D(0, 1) and 6(1, 1) of a uniform pentagonal
plate. Find the coordinates of its centre of gravity.
122. The area S of a triangle is 3, two of its vertices
are A (3, 1) and 6(1,—3), and the third vertex C lies on
the axis Oy. Determine the coordinates of the vertex C.
123. The area S of a triangle is 4, two of its vertices
are A (2, 1) and 6(3, —2), and the third vertex C lies on
the axis Ox. Determine the coordinates of the vertex C.
124. The area 6 of a triangle is 3, two of its vertices
are A (3, 1), 6(1, —3), and the centre of gravity of the
triangle lies on the axis Ox. Determine the coordinates
of the third vertex C.
 7. Transformation of Coordinates 31

125. The area S ot a parallelogram is 12 square units’

two of its vertices are the points A (—1, 3) and B (—2, 4)!
Find the other two vertices of the parallelogram, if the
point of intersection of its diagonals lies on the .v-axis.
126. The area S of a parallelogram is 17 square units; two
of its vertices are the points A (2, 1) and B (5, —3). Find
the other two vertices of the parallelogram, if the point
ot intersection of its diagonals lies on the y-axis.

§ 7. Transformation of Coordinates
a°! rec,an5uJar cartesian coordinates under a
translation of axes is determined by the formulas
x = x'-fa, </=(/'+ 6.

3re V16 coordinates of an arbitrary point M of the plane

reference fnTh 0 he °d aXesi A ’ V' are the coordinates of Af with
O' wUh V * T ®xes;, b are the coordinates of the new origin
of shift r; t0,the ° d„aXeS (a is also sPoke" as the amount
S the^ftectl,iond,on,r{/l,iS)e and * aS ,he of «»«»•
The transformation of rectangular cartesian coordinates under a

I?fimtadTtrforZl,?8" “ "nd"S'”d “ ln trieonomelry)

x = x' cos a — y' sin a,

y = x' sin a -j-y' cos a.
Here x y are the coordinates of an arbitrary
point M of the plane
wi h reference to Ihe old axes, and »' are
the coordinates of M
with reference to the new axes. J
The formulas
* = *' cos a — y' sin a 4-a,
y~x' sin a 4- y' cos a 4- b

?hf™'orb i»x,r:is,nlo,
amount OiA
. r,'!!n*f?
in the direction of
:nd"a
fniim ejdlkrec ,on and by an
°>
through an angle a ^ f°l,0Wed b* a rotati°n of the axes

riv,Se°,vr,ll'X fsaiitiKas.t-sr- »
don is also made in the problems that follow Th,s aSSUmp'

127. Write the coordinate transformation formulas if the

Chan,„6
32 Ch. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

points ,4(1, 3), B{—3, 0), and C(—1, 4) are determined

with reference to the new system. Calculate the coordinates
of A, B, C in the old coordinate system.
129. Given the points A (2, 1), B(—1,3) andC(—2,5).
Find their coordinates in the new system when the origin
is moved (without changing the direction of the axes):
1) to the point A\ 2) to the point B\ 3) to the point C.
130. Determine the old coordinates of the origin O' of
the new svstem if the coordinate transformation formulas
are as follows:
1) x — x +3, y = if +-5; 2) x = x' — 2, y=y' + 1;
3) x = x', y = y'—1; 4) x = x'—5, y = y'•

131. Write the coordinate transformation formulas if

the coordinate axes are rotated through one of the follow¬
ing angles:
1) 60°; 2) —45°; 3) 90°; 4) —90°; 5) 180°.

132. The coordinate axes are rotated through an angle

a —60°. The coordinates of the points ,4(21/3, —4),
B( |A3, 0) and C(0, —2j/3) are given with reference to
the new system. Calculate the coordinates of A, 6, C in
the old coordinate system.
133. Given the points M (3, 1), N (—1,5) and P (—3, —1).
Find their new coordinates when the axes are rotated
through the angle:
1) —45°; 2) 90°; 3) —90°; 4) 180°.
134. Determine the angle a through which the axes have
been rotated if the coordinate transformation formulas
are as follows:

135. Determine the old coordinates of the new origin O'

if the point A (3, —4) lies on the new axis of abscissas,
the point B (2, 3) on the new axis of ordinates, and the
 $ 7. Transformation of Coordinates 33

corresponding axes of the old and the new coordinate

system have the same direction.
136. Write the coordinate transformation formulas if the
point My (2, —3) lies on the new axis of abscissas, the
point Af2(l, —7) on the new axis of ordinates, and the
corresponding axes of the old and the new coordinate
system have the same direction.
137. Two systems of coordinate axes, Ox, Oy and Ox’
Oy' have a common origin 0; the transformation from one
system to the other is accomplished by a rotation through
a certain angle. The coordinates of the point A (3, —4)
are given with reference to the first system. Derive the
coordinate transformation formulas if the positive direction
of the axis Ox' is determined by the segment OX.
138. The origin is moved to the point O'(— 1, 2) and
the coordinate axes are rotated through the angle a =
= arctan . The coordinates of the points M1 (3,2), M, (2,-3)
and Af3 (13, —13) refer to the new system. Calculate the
C0<ru>mr-eS ° in the old coorclinate system.
r/,9 P°,ints ^5- 5)- fi(2. -1) and
It11 u’ . .0)- bind their coordinates in the new system when
the origin is moved to the point B and the coordinate
axes are rotated through the angle a = arctan -.

,nl4?;.Dete,;minemthe u'd coordinates of the'new origin

f ?hi nnonf ? tfhroufh which the have been turned
the coordinate transformation formulas are:
>) x = ~y' + 3, y=--x'~ 2; 2) * = 1, {/ = — (/' + 3;
V2
3) X — Lrx’
2 + K^-y'
2 + 5, y= V* , Vi 3.
~2~x H—o~y
141. Given the two points 44,(9, —3) and M (—6

mtateJ'To thatX F* the C0^dinate2Les' are

rotated so that the positive direction of the new axis of
abscissas agrees with the direction of the segment ATaT
Den? the coordinate transformation (ormX ' "

isSSBBS:
2-2250
34 Ch. 1. Elementary Problems of Plane Analytic Geometry

coordinates of the pole 0(1, 2) and the polar coordinates

of the points Mx f 7, M2 (3, 0), M3 ^5, —yj, M4^2, y

and M5 ^2, —y j; determine the rectangular cartesian coor¬

dinates of these points.
143. The pole of a polar coordinate system coincides
with the origin of rectangular cartesian coordinates, and
the polar axis lies along the bisector of the first quadrant.
Given the polar coordinates of the points >

2, determine their rectangular cartesian coor¬

dinates.
144. The polar axis of a polar coordinate system and
the x-axis of a rectangular cartesian system are parallel
and similarly directed. Given the rectangular cartesian
coordinates of the pole 0 (3, 2) and of the points M1 (5^ 2),
Af2 (3, 1), M3 (3, 5), M4 (3 + /2, 2 — 1/2) and M5 (3+K3, 3).
Find the polar coordinates of these points.
145. The pole of a polar coordinate system coincides
with the origin of rectangular cartesian coordinates, and
the polar axis goes along the bisector of the first quadrant.
Given the rectangular cartesian coordinates of the points
M, (—1, 1), AM 1/2, —1/2), M3( 1, 1/3), AM— 1/3, 1)
and M5(2 V 3, —2); determine their polar coordinates.
 Chapter 2

THE EQUATION OF A CURVE

§ 8. A Function of Two Variables

If a rule has been given according to which a number u is

associated with each point M of the plane (or of some portion of
the plane), then we say that “a function of a point” has been spec¬
ified for the plane (or for the portion of the plane), and we express
this symbolically by a relation of the form u = f(M). The number
u associated with a point M is called the value of the function at
the point A4. For example, if A is a fixed point in the plane, and
A1 an arbitrary point, then the distance from A to M is a function
of the point M. In this case, f (M) = AM.
Let there be given a function u=f(M), and let a coordinate
system be chosen. Then an arbitrary point M will be determined
by its coordinates *, y. Accordingly, the value of the given func¬
tion at AT will also be determined by the coordinates at, u, or (as
is also said) u=f(M) will be a function of two variables x and u
Af l!,^!,0nr0f two variables *. y is denoted by the symbol f (x uY
if [ (M) = f (x, y), then the formula u=f(x, y) is referred to as the
expression for the given function in the chosen coordinate system
Thus, f(M) = AM in the above example; if we introduce a rectan¬
gular cartesian coordinate system with origin at the point A, this
function will be expressed bv F '

u= x2 y2.

146. Given two points P and Q, a units apart, and

the function f(M)=d\-dl where d, = MP and d = MO
hind the expression for this function when the point P is
chosen as the origin, and the axis Ox is directed along the
segment PQ. s
147. Solve the_previous problem when: 1) the midpoint
of the segment PQ is taken as the origin, and the direc-
tion of the axis 0* agrees with that of the segment PQ-
2) the point P is taken as the origin, and the direction
0 the axis 0x agrees with that of the segment QP. (Find
2*
36 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve

the expression for the function f{M) first directly and

then by using the result of Problem 146 and transforming
the coordinates.)
148. Given the square ABCD with side a and the
function f(M) — d\ + d\ + d\ 4- d\, where d}
= MA, d2 MB,
=

d3 = MC, and dx=MD. Find the expression for this func¬

tion when the diagonals of the square are taken as the
coordinate axes (so that the axis Ox has the direction of
the segment AC, and the axis Oy the direction of BD).
149. Solve the previous problem when the point A is
chosen as the origin, and the sides of the square are taken
as the coordinate axes so that the axis Ox has the direc¬
tion of the segment AB> and the axis Oy the direction
of AD. (Find the expression for f(M) first directly and
then by using the result of Problem 148 and transforming
the coordinates.)
150. Given the function f(x, y) = x2 + y* — 6x+8f/.
Find the expression for this function in the new coordinate
system when the origin is moved (without changing the
direction of the axes) to the point O'(3, —4).
151. Given the function f(x, y)=x2— y2—16. Find the
expression for this function in the new coordinate system
when the coordinate axes are rotated through an angle
of —45°.
152. Given the function f(x, y)=x2+yz. Find the
expression for this function in the new coordinate system
when the coordinate axes are rotated through an
angle a.
153. Find a point such that, if the origin is moved to
that point, the transformed expression for the function
f(x, y) = x2 — 4y2 — 6x+8*/ + 3will be free from first-degree
terms (with respect to the new variables).
154. Find a point such that, if the origin is moved to
"that point, the function f (x, y)=x2 — 4xy + 4//2 + 2y + y — 7
will have an expression free from first-degree terms (with
respect to the new variables).
- 155. What is the angle through which the coordinate
axes must be rotated so that the transformed expression
for the function f (xt y)=x2 — 2xy + y2 — 6x-{- 3 will lack
the term in x'y'? , . -
 $ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curie 37

156. What is the angle through which the coordinate

axes must be rotated so that the function f(x, tj) = 3x*+
+ 2| ‘ixij + if will have an expression lacking the term
in jty?

§ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curve.

Curves Represented by Equations

An equality of the form F (x, y) — 0 is called ari equation in

two variables x, y provided that it is valid not for every pair of
numbers x, y. Two numbers x = x0, i/ = z/0 are said to satisfy an equa¬
tion of the form F (xt y) = 0 if the left-hand member of the equation
vanishes upon substitution of these numbers for the variables x, y.
The equation of a given curve (in a chosen coordinate system)
is defined as the equation in two variables which is satisfied by the
coordinates of all points lying on the curve and by the coordinates
of no other point.
Throughout the rest of the book, we shall often use the expres¬
sion “Given the curve F (x, y) = 0’' instead of the longer one: “Given
the curve whose equation is F (x, y) = 0”.
If F(x, y) = 0 and (D (x, y) = 0 are the equations of two given
curves, all their points of intersection are obtained by solving the
system
I E(x, y) = 0
I <l>(x, y)= 0

simultaneously. More precisely, each pair of numbers constituting

a simultaneous solution of the system represents one of the points
of intersection.

157. Given the points* M. (2, —2), M (2 2)

M,(2, -1), M (3, -3), Afs (5, -5), A/, (3, -2). D^teP
mnie which of the given points lie on the curve repre¬
sented by the equation x + y = 0. Identify and plot the
curve. r
2 ,l5f’ 9r the curve. represented by the equation
x, + y ~"5, find the points whose abscissas are equal to
the following numbers: a) 0, b) -3, c) 5, d) 7; on the
same curve find the points whose ordinates are equal to
the following numbers: e) 3, f) -5, g) -8. Identify and
plot the curve.

4 Rectangular cartesian coordinates are used in all cases when

the coordinate system is not specified.
38 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve

159. Identify and plot the curves represented by the

following equations:
1) x —y = 0; 2) x4-y = 0; 3) x —2 = 0; 4) x 4-3=0;
5) y — 5 = 0; 6) y-f 2 = 0; 7) x = 0; 8) y= 0;
9) x2 — xy = 0; 10) xy + y2 = 0; 11) x2 — y2 = 0; 12) xy=0;
13) y2-9 = 0; 14) x2-8x + 15 = 0; 15) y2 + 5y + 4 = 0;
16) x2y — 7xy+ 10y = 0; 17) y=|x |; 18) x = |y|;
19) y 4-1 x | = 0; 20) x-f|y| = 0; 21) y=| x— 1 |
22) y = |x + 2|; 23) x2 + y2=16; 24) (x — 2)2 + (y-1)2 =16;
25) (x -f 5)2 -f (y— 1 )2 = 9; 26) (x-l)2 + y2=4;
27) x2+(y + 3)2 = l; 28) (x-3)2 + y2 = 0; 29) x2 + 2y2=0;
30) 2x2+3y2 4-5 = 0; 31) (x-2)2 4- (y + 3)2 + 1 =0.
160. Given the curves:
1) x4y=0; 2) x —y = 0; 3) x2 4 y2 —36 = 0;
4) x2 4- y2 — 2x 4- y = 0; 5) x2 + y2 4 4x —6y — 1 =0.
Determine which of them pass through the origin.
161. Given the curves:
1) x2-\-y2 — 49; 2) (x — 3)2 (y + 4)2 = 25;
3) (x H- 6)2 + (y — 3)2 = 25; 4) (x !-5)2 + (y — 4)2 = 9;
5) a + y2—\2x + 16// = 0;
:2 6) x2 + y2 — 2x-\ 8y + 7 = 0;
7) x2 + ij2-6x~\- Ay + 12 = 0.
Find their points of intersection: a) with the axis Ox;
b) with the axis Oy.
162. In each of the following, find the points of inter¬
section of the two given curves:
1) x2 + y2=r8j x — y = 0\
2) x2 + y2—\6x + 4y+ 18 = 0, x + y=0;
3) x2 -\- y2 — 2x 4y — 3 = 0, x2+y2 = 25;
4) +y2 — 8x + 10f/ + 40 = 0, x2 + y2 = 4.
163. Given the points

7W, (l, M2 (2, 0), M,(2, -J-),

t) and
 $ 9. The Concept of the Equation of a Curve 39

in a polar coordinate system. Determine which of these

points lie on the curve represented by the polar equation
q = 2cos0. Identify and plot the curve.
164. On the curve represented by the equation q
cos 0 ’
find the points whose polar angles are equal to the follow¬

ing numbers: a) b) — c) 0, d) . Identify and

plot the curve.
165. On the curve represented by the equation q = ,

find the points whose polar radii are equal io the follow¬
ing numbers: a) 1, b) 2, c) J/T Identify and plot the
curve.
166. Identify and plot the curves represented, in polar
coordinates, by the following equations:

1) Q = 5; 2) 0=4; 3) 0=--£;
4) qcos0 = 2; 5) 6 sin 0 = 1; 6) 6 = 6 cos 0;
7) q=10 sin 0; 8) sin 0=4; 9) sin 0=4

167. Plot the following spirals of Archimedes:

1) Q = 20; 2)e-50; 3)e = -; 4)e=--.

ft Jl

168. Plot the following hyperbolic spirals:

»e=r. 2>8=|; 3)Q=i; 4) e=—5-

169. Plot the following logarithmic spirals:

,)e=2’ HD’
170. Determine the lengths of the segments into which
the spiral of Archimedes
q = 30
cuts the ray extending from the pole and making an
angle 0 = -5- with the polar axis. Draw the figure.
40 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve

171. A point C, whose polar radius is equal to 47, is

taken on the spiral of Archimedes
5 a
Q=— 0.
Jl

Determine into how many parts the spiral cuts the polar
radius of C. Draw the figure.
172. On the hyperbolic spiral
6
0=0
find the point P whose polar radius is equal to 12. Draw
the figure.
173. On the logarithmic spiral
q = 3°
find the point Q whose polar radius is 81. Draw the figure.

§ 10. Derivation of the Equation of

a Given Curve
The problems of the preceding section dealt with the determina¬
tion of curves from given equations. In this section, we shall have
problems of an opposite character; in each of them, a curve is defined
in purely geometric terms, and it fs the equation of the curve that
we are required to find.
Example 1. In a rectangular cartesian system of coordinates,
derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum of the squares
of whose distances from the two given points Ax (— a, 0) and
A2 (a, 0) is a constant equal to 4a2.
Solution. Let M denote an arbitrary point of the curve, and let
x and y be the coordinates of that point. Since the point M can
occupy any position on the curve, it follows that x and y are vari¬
ables; they are called the current coordinates.
Let us write the geometric property of the curve symbolically:
(MAx)2 + (MA2)2 = 4a2. (0
In this relation, the lengths MAX and MA2 will vary with the
motion of the point M. Expressing them in terms of the current
coordinates of M, we get

A1AX = V (x + a)2 + y2, MA2= V (* — a)2 + y2.

Substituting these expressions in (1), we obtain the equation con¬
necting the coordinates x, y of the point M:

{x + a)2 + y2 + (x — a)2 + y2 = 4a2. (2)

 § 10. Derivation of the Equation o\ a Given Curve 41

This is the equation of the given curve. For, the condition (1) is
fulfilled for every point M lying on the curve, and hence the coor¬
dinates of M will satisfy equation (2); on the other hand, the con¬
dition (1) is not fulfilled for any point Af not lying on the line,
and hence its coordinates will not satisfy equation'(2).
The problem is thus solved. But equation (2) can be simplified.
Removing the parentheses and collecting like terms, we obtain the
equation of the given curve in the form
x2 -\-i/ = a2.

It is now easy to see that the curve is a circle with centre at the
origin and radius a.
Example 2. In a polar coordinate system, derive the equation of
a circle with centre C (q0, 0o) and radius r (Fig. 7).

So ution. Let M denote an arbitrary point of the circle, and let

Q and 0 be its polar coordinates. Since the point M may occupy
any position on the circle, q and 0 are variables; as in the case of
a cartesian system, they are called the current coordinates.
All points of the circle are at a distance r from the centre;
writing this condition symbolically, we have
CM = r.

Let us express CM in terms of the current coordinates of the point M

(by applying the cosine theorem; see Fig. 7):

CM-V Q2 + Q20 — 2q0o cos (0 — 0O).

Substituting this expression in (1), we

the coordinates q, 0 of the point M:

hJlfiHeVf6 eq,lation of4 ‘he given circle For, the condition (1) is
fulfilled for every point M lying on the circle, and hence the coor-
 42 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve

dinates of M will satisfy equation (2); the condition (1) is not ful-
fi led for any point M not lying on the circle, so that the coordinates
ol all such points will not satisfy equation (2).
The problem is thus solved. By clearing radicals, the equation
may be reduced to the somewhat simpler form

Q2 — ZQoQ cos (0 — 0o) = r2 — q2 .

174. Derive the equation of the locus of points equi¬
distant from the coordinate axes.
175. Derive the equation of the locus of points which
are at a distance a from the axis Oy.
176. Derive the equation of the locus of points which
are at a distance b from the axis Ox.
177. From the point P(6, —8), all possible rays are
drawn to cut the x-axis. Find the equation of the locus
of their midpoints.
178. From the point C(10, —3), all possible rays are
drawn to cut the y-axis. Find the equation of the locus
of their midpoints.
179. Derive the equation of the path of a point which
moves so that it is always equidistant from the points:
1) A (3, 2) and B(2, 3); 2) A (5, -1) and 5(1, -5);
3) A (5, -2) and 5 (-3, -2); 4) A (3, -1) and 5(3, 5).
180. Write the equation of the locus of points, the
difference of the squares of whose distances from the points
A ( — a, 0) and 5 (a, 0) is equal to c.
181. Derive the equation of the circle with centre at
the origin and radius r.
182. Derive the equation of the circle with centre at
C (a, P) and radius r.
183. Given the equation x2-\-y2 = 25 of a circle.
Write the equation of the locus of the midpoints of those
chords of the circle whose length is equal to 8.
184. Find the equation of the locus of points, the sum
of the squares of whose distances from the points A ( — 3, 0)
and 5(3, 0) is equal to 50.
185. The points A (a, a), 5( —a, a), C( — a, —a) and
D (a, — a) are the vertices of a square. Find the equation
of the locus of points, the sum of the squares of whose
distances from the sides of the given square is a constant
equal to 6a2.
 § 10. Derivation of the Equation of a Given Curve 43

186. All possible chords of the circle (.* — 8)2 + y2 = E>l

are drawn through the origin. Write the equation of the
locus of the midpoints of these chords.
187. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the
sum of whose distances from the two given points
Fi ( 3, 0) and F2(3, 0) is a constant equal to 10.
188. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the
dillerence of whose distances from the two given points
r,( —5, 0) and F.,(5, 0) is a constant equal to 6.
189. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
distance from the given point F(3, 0) is equal to their
distance from the given straight line £+3 = 0.
190. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum
ol whose distances from two given points F,(-c, 0) and
Me, 0) is a constant equal to 2a. This locus is called
an ellipse, and the points Fv F., are called the foci of
the ellipse.
Pro\e that the equation of an ellipse is of the form

i: , £_
a2 *' l2 1,
where b2 = a2 — c .
,i91* Derivfe U;e equation of the locus of points, the
F (TTo, °'„7 T1 n,slan“s fr01" lwo S1™' poinls
l0™s" caled ar hyperbola, and the points F., F are
called the foci of the hyperbola. 2
Prove that the equation of a hyperbola is of the form
jr
a b2 -1,
where b2=c2 — a2
192. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
distance from a given point F (f, o) is equal to their

distance from a given straight line £= ___ (

y- This locus is
called a parabola, the point F is referred to as the focus

of the parabola'. ““ giVGI1 Slfaight Hne as the direc‘'''x

ntin3'nfDerLVe lhf- 4ecfuation °f <he locus of points the

whose distance from the given point F( —4, 0)
 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve

to 1 heir distance from the given straight line 4x + 25 = 0

is equal to ~ .
194. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the
ratio of whose distance from the given point F ( — 5, 0)
to their distance from the given straight line 5x:+16 = 0
is equal to
195. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
shortest distance from the circle (jc + 3)2 + f/2 = 1 is equal
to their shortest distance from the circle (x — 3)2 +y2 = 8l.
196. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
shortest distance from the circle (x + 10)2 -\- y2 = 289 is equal
to their shortest distance from the circle (x— 10)2 + j/2= 1.
197. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
shortest distance from the circle (x — 5)2 + //2 = 9 is equal
to their shortest distance from the straight line a:+ 2 = 0.
198. A straight line is perpendicular to the polar axis
and intercepts a segment equal to 3 on that axis. Write
the equation of the straight line in polar coordinates.
199. A ray is drawn from the pole at an angle y with
respect to the polar axis. Find the equation of this ray
in polar coordinates.
200. A straight line passes through the pole and makes
an angle of 45° with the polar axis. Find the equation
of this straight line in polar coordinates.
201. In polar coordinates, write the equation of the
locus of points 5 units distant from the polar axis.
202. A circle of radius R = 5 passes through the pole
and has its centre upon the polar axis. Find the equation
of the circle in the polar coordinate system.
203. A circle of radius R = 3 touches the polar axis
at the pole. Find the equation of the circle in the polar
coordinate system.

§ 11. Parametric Equations of a Curve

Let us denote the coordinates of a point M by the letters x, y
and consider the two functions of an independent variable t:
* = <P(0. I
(1)
 # 11. Parametric Equations of a Curve

The quantities x and y, in general, change with t\ it follows that

the point M moves in the plane. Relations (1) are called the para¬
metric equations of the curve which is the path traced by the
point A1; the independent variable t is called a parameter. If the
parameter t can be eliminated from relations (1), we obtain the
equation of the path of M in the form

F(x, y) = 0.

204. A rod AB slides with its ends A and B along the

coordinate axes. A point M divides the rod into two
parts AM=a and BM = b. Derive the parametric equations

Fig. 8.

of the path traced by the point M. using the angle

t — ^OBA (Fig. 8) as parameter. Next, eliminate the
parameter t and find the equation of the path of M in
the form F (x, y)=0.
205. The path of a point M is an ellipse having
x? y2
^2+-£T=l as its equation (see Problem 190). Derive the
parametric equations of the path of M, using the angle
of inclination of the segment OM (with respect to the
axis Ox) as the parameter t.
206. The path of a point M is a hyperbola having

1 as its ecluati0n (see Problem 191). Derive the

parametric equations of the path of M, using the angle
of inclination of the segment OM (with respect to the
axis Ox) as the parameter t.
46 Ch. 2. The Equation of a Curve

207. The path o[ a point M is a parabola having

y2 = 2px as its equation (see Problem 192). Derive the para¬
metric equations of the path of M, using as the parameter t:
1) the ordinate of the point M;
2) the angle of inclination of the segment OM (with
respect to the axis Ox)\
angle of inclination of the segment FM (with
3) the
respect to the axis Ox), where the point F is the focus
of the parabola.
208. Given the polar equations of the following curves:

1) q = 27?cos 0; 2) q — 2/? sin 0; 3) n = 2p-^|^.

Si fl v/

Find the parametric equations of these curves in rectan¬

gular cartesian coordinates, when the positive x-axis
coincides with the polar axis and the polar angle is taken
as parameter.
209. Given the parametric equations of the curves:

1) x=t2 — 2t + 1, | 2) x=acost, | 3) x = asect,

l
y = t — 1; | // = a sin /; J y=biant\ i
j 5) a: = 2/?cos2/, | 6) x=/?sin2/,
l y—R sin 2/; J y = 2Rs\n2t\

7) x = 2p cot2 /, |
y--=2pcott\ I

eliminate the parameter t and write the equations of these

curves in the form
F(x, y) = 0.
 Chapter 3

CURVES OF THE FIRST ORDER

§ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line.

The Slope-intercept Equation of a Straight Line.
The Angle Between Two Straight Lines.
The Conditions for the Parallelism
and Perpendicularity of Two Straight Lines
In cartesian coordinates, every straight line is represented by an
equation of the first degree and, conversely, every equation of the
first degree represents a straight line.
An equation of the form

Ax + By + C = 0 (1)

is called the general equation of a straight line.

The angle a, determined as shown in Fig. 9, is called the angle
of inclination of a given straight line (with respect to the axis Ox).

thle d!ngen! !hr angleJ of inc,ination of a straight line is called

the slope of that line and is usually denoted by the letter k:

R = tan a.

The equation y = kx + b is called the slope-intercept equation of

is hegvil mef’ !\ 1S here the S,0pe’ and 6 is the '/-intercept (that
Kirj hQ\
rig. yj. ° 10 segment cut off bJ' the line on the axis Oy, see

If a straight line is represented by its genera! equation

Ax + By + C=0,
48 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

then its slope is determined from the formula

The equation y— y0 — k(x—x0) is the equation of the straight

line with slope k and passing through the point M0 (*0, y0).
If a straight line passes through the points At, (*,, yx) and
M2(x2% y2), its slope is determined from the formula

k = y-^Mi.
X2 — Xl
The equation
_ y—yx
X2 X1 1/2 U\

is the equation of the straight line passing through the two points

M1 (xl9 yx) and M2{x2, y2).

Given the slopes 6, and k2 of two straight lines, one of the

angles cp between these lines is determined by the formula

tan cp =
1+W
The condition for the parallelism of two straight lines is the
equality of their slopes:
k — k2
K\ — k ‘

The condition for the perpendicularity of two straight lines is

given by the relation
1
k\k2= — 1, or k2 =
*1

In other words, the slopes of perpendicular lines are negative recip¬

rocals

210. Determine which of the points Atf,(3, 1), M2 (2, 3),

M,(6, 3), M4 (—3, —3), Af,(3, —1), Mt(—2, 1) lie on
the line 2x — 3y—3 = 0.
211. The points P,, P2, Pt, Pt and Pb are situated on the
line 3* — 2y—6 = 0; their respective abscissas are 4, 0, 2,
—2 and —6. Determine the ordinates of these points.
212. The points Q,, Q2, Qs, Q4 and Qs are situated
on the line x—2>y+2 = 0\ their respective ordinates are
1, 0, 2, —1 and 3. Determine the abscissas of these points.
213. Determine the points of intersection of the straight
line 2x—3y—12 = 0 with the coordinate axes and plot the
line.
 $ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line •19

214. Find the point of intersection of the two lines

3.v — 4y —29=0, 2.v -f5y + 19 = 0.
215. The equations of the sides* AB, BC, AC of a
triangle ABC are, respectively,
4x + 3y — 5 = 0, x—3t/+10 = 0, x—2 = 0.
Determine the coordinates of the vertices of the triangle.
216. Given the equations
8.v -f- 3y -f 1 = 0, 2.v -f y — 1 = 0
of two sides of a parallelogram and the equation
3x+ 2y -f3 = 0
of one of its diagonals. Determine the coordinates of the
vertices of the parallelogram.
217. The sides of a triangle lie on the lines
x + by—7=0, 3.v — 2t/ —4 = 0, 7* + y+19 = 0.
Calculate the area S of the triangle.
218. The area S of a triangle is 8 square units; two of
its vertices are the points ,4(1, —2) and B (2, 3), and
the third vertex C lies on the line
2x+y—2=0.
Find the coordinates of the vertex C.
219. The area S of the triangle is 1.5 square units; two
of its vertices are the points A (2, —3) and B (3, —2);
the centre of gravity of the triangle lies on the line
3.v—y—8 = 0.
Determine the coordinates of the third vertex C.
220. Write the equation of the straight line whose slope
6 and (/-intercept 6 are as follows:

1) k = ~, 6= 3; 2) 6 = 3, 6 = 0; 3) 6 = 0, 6 = -2;

4) k=~j> b=3\ 5) 6 = —2, b——5; 6) 6 = — 1,6 = - .

3 ’ 3
In each case, plot the line.

* The expression “the equations of the sides”, as used in this hook

means the equations of the straight lines on which the sides lie”!
50 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

221. Determine the slope k and the y-intercept b for

each of the lines:
1) 5x-y + 3 = 0; 2) 2x-\-3y — 6 = 0;
3) 5* + 3*/ + 2 = 0; 4) 3x + 2y=0\ 5) y — 3 = 0.
222. Given the line 5x + 3y — 3 = 0. Determine the
slope k of a straight line:
1) parallel to the given line;
2) perpendicular to the given line.
223. Given the line 2x + 3y-f4 = 0. Write the equation
of the straight line passing through the point M0 (2, 1) and:
1) parallel to the given line;
2) perpendicular to the given line.
224. Given the equations
2x — 3//-f-5 = 0, 3x-\-2y—7 = 0
of two sides of a rectangle, and one of its vertices
A (2, —3). Write the equations of the other two sides of
the rectangle.
225. Given the equations
x — 2y=0y x — 2y-\- 15 = 0
of two sides of a rectangle and the equation
7x-f y—15 = 0
of one of its diagonals. Find the vertices of the rectangle.
226. Find the projection of the point P (—6, 4) on the
line
4x — 5y + 3 — 0.
227. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P(—5, 13)
with respect to the line
2x — 3 y—3 = 0.
228. In each of the following, find the equation of the
straight line parallel to the two given lines and passing
midway between them:
1) 3x—2y— 1 =0, 2) 5x+ y+ 3=0, 3) 2x + 3y—6 = 0,
3x—2y—13=0; 5jc r/— 17 = 0; 4*+6 y+ 17 = 0;
4) 5x-\-7y+ 15 = 0, 5) 3x— \5y— 1=0,
5jc+7(/+3 = 0; x — 5y — 2 = 0.
 # 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line 51

229. In each of the following, calculate the slope k of

the straight line passing through the two given points:
1) Af, (2, -5), Af, (3, 2); 2) P (-3, 1), Q (7, 8);
3) A (5, -3), B(-1, 6).
230. Write the equations of the straight lines passing
through the vertices A (5, —4). B (—1, 3), C (—3, —2) of
a triangle and parallel to the opposite sides.
231. Given the midpoints Af, (2, 1), Af,(5, 3), A/, (3, —4)
of the sides of a triangle. Write the equations of its sides.
232. Given the two points P (2, 3) and Q (— 1, 0) Find
the equation of the straight line through the point Q per¬
pendicular to the segment PQ.
233. The point P(2, 3) is the foot of the perpendicular
dropped from the origin to a straight line. Write the equa¬
tion of this line.
234. Given the vertices Af, (2, 1), Af,(—-1, —1),
Af,(3, 2) of a triangle. Find the equations of its altitudes.
235. The sides of a triangle are given by the equations
4* — y—7 = 0, a:+3i/— 31=0, xT-5y — 7 = 0. Determine
the point of intersection of its altitudes.
236. Given the vertices A( 1, —1), B (—2, 1) and
C(3, 5) of a triangle. Write the equation of the perpen¬
dicular dropped from the vertex A to the median through
the vertex B.
237. Given the vertices A (2, —2), B (3, —5) and
C (5, 7) of a triangle. Find the equation of the perpendic¬
ular dropped from the vertex C to the bisector of the
interior angle at the vertex A.
238. Write the equations of the sides and medians of
the triangle with vertices A (3, 2), B (5, —2), C(l, 0).
239. A straight line is drawn through the points
Al|(—1, 2) and Af, (2, 3). Determine the points of inter¬
section of this line with the coordinate axes.
240. Prove that the condition for three points Af (x , u ),
y2) and Af,(.v,, yj to lie on a straight line can be
written in the form

*. y, •
W y2 1 0.
*. y, i
52 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

241. Prove that the equation of the straight line passing

through two given points M,(yj and yt) can be
written as
x y l
X, yt 1 =0.
*. y> i
242. Given the consecutive vertices A (—3, 1), 5(3 9),
C (7, 6), D (—2, -6) of a convex quadrilateral. Deter¬
mine the point of intersection of its diagonals.
243. A (—3, —1) and B (2, 2) are two adjacent vertices
of a parallelogram ABCD, and Q (3, 0) is the point of
intersection of its diagonals. Write the equations of the
sides of the parallelogram.
244. Given the equations

5*+ 2y—7 = 0, 5*4- 2y—36=0

of two sides of a rectangle and the equation
3*4-7 y— 10 = 0
of its diagonal. Write the equations of the remaining sides
and of the other diagonal of the rectangle.
245. Given the vertices A (l, —2), B (5, 4) and
C(—2, 0) of a triangle. Write the equations of the bisec¬
tors of the interior and exterior angles at the vertex A.
246. Find the equation of the straight line passing
through the point P (3, 5) and equidistant from the points
A (—7, 3) and fi(ll, —15).
247. Find the projection of the point P(—8, 12) on the
straight line passing through the points A (2, —3) and
B (—5, 1).
248. Find the point Af, symmetric to the point
M2 (8, —9) with respect to the straight line which passes
through the points A (3, —4) and B(—1, —2).
249. Find a point P on the x-axis such that the sum
of its distances from the points M(l, 2) and N(3, 4) will •
have the least value.
250. Find a point P on the y-axis such that the differ¬
ence of its distances from the points M (—3, 2) and
N (2, 5) will have the greatest value.
 § 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line_53

251. On the line 2x—y — 5 = 0, find a point P such

that the sum of its distances from the points A (—7, 1)
and B(—5, 5) will have the least value.
252. On the line 3x — y—1=0, find a point P such
that the difference of its distances from the points A (4, 1)
and B (0, 4) will have the greatest value.
253. Determine the angle cp between the two lines:
1) 5x--y + 7 ==0, 3x + 2y—0\
2) 3x--2y + 7 == 0, 2x 4 3y—3=0;
3) x—-2j/-4 ==0, 2x- Ay 4- 3 = 0;
4) 3.v 4- 2y-l:=0, 5.v —■2y 4-3 = 0.
254. Given the line
2jc + 3 y + 4 = 0.

Find the equation of the straight line passing through the

point M0(2, 1) and making an angle of 45: with the given
line.
255. The point A (—4, 5) is a vertex of a square, whose
diagonal lies on the line
lx — y + 8=0.
Write the equations of the sides and of the other diago¬
nal of the square.
256. A (—1, 3) and C(6, 2) are two opposite vertices
of a square. Find the equations of its sides.
257. The point £(1, —1) is the centre of a square, one
of whose sides lies on the line
x — 2 y-\- 12 = 0.
Find the equations of the straight lines which contain the
remaining sides of the square.
258. From the point M0(—2, 3), a ray of light is sent
at an angle a (tan a=3) to the axis Ox. Upon reaching the
axis Ox, the ray is reflected from it. Find the equations
of the straight lines which contain the incident and reflect¬
ed rays.
259. A ray of light is sent along the line x — 2y -\-5 = 0.
Upon reaching the line 3x—2y + 7=0, the ray is reflect¬
ed from it. Find the equation of the line containing the
reflected ray.
 54 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

260. Given that

3x + 4y 1 =0, x—7y—17 = 0, 7x-\-y f-31 = 0
are the equations of the sides of a triangle. Prove that
he triangle is isosceles. Solve the problem by comparing
the angles of the triangle.
261. Prove that the equation of the straight line pass¬
ing through the point Mx(xl% yx) and parallel to the line
Ax -f- By -f- C=0
can be written in the form
A (x — xx)+B(y — yx) = 0.
262. Find the equation of the straight line passing
through the point Af, (2, —3) and parallel to the line:
1) 3* — 7*/ + 3 = 0; 2) x + 9y— 11=0; 3) 16*—24*/—7=0;
4) 2x + 3 = 0; 5) 3y-l=0.
Solve the problem without calculating the slopes of the
given lines.
Hint. Use the results of the preceding problem.

263. Prove that the condition for the perpendicularity

of the lines

Atx + Bty + C, = 0. A.x + B^ + C^O

may be written as
AXA 2 -f- BXB2 = 0.
264. Determine which of the following pairs of lines
are perpendicular:

1) 3*—0 + 5 = 0, 2) 3x—4y-\- 1 =0, 3) 6x— I5y + 7=0,

x-\-3y— 1=0; 4^—34/4-7 = 0; 10 x + 4y—3 = 0;
4) 9x— \2y 4-5 = 0, 5) lx—2f/+l=0, 6) 5x—7y+3 = 0f
8x -\-6y— 13 = 0; 4x + 6y+ 17 = 0\ 3x + 2y—5 = 0.
Solve the problem without calculating the slopes of the
given lines.
Hint. Use the perpendicularity condition derived in Problem 263.
 $ 12. The General Equation of a Straight Line 55

265. Prove that the formula for determining the angle cp

between the lines
AlX + B,y + C, = 0, Atx + Bty + Ct=0
may be written in the form

266. Determine the angle cp formed by the two lines:

1) 3a—y + 5 — 0, 2) x\ 2 —y ] 3 —5 = 0,
2x-\-y—7 = 0; (3 + 1 2") a 4 (1 6-]'3)y + 7=0\
3) xV3 + yV'2—2 = 0,
x\ 6 — 3y+3 = 0.
Solve the problem without calculating the slopes of the
given lines.
Hint. Use the formula for determining the angle between two
lines which was derived in Problem 265.

267. Given two vertices Mx(—10, 2) and Af2 (6, 4) of

a triangle whose altitudes intersect in the point N (5, 2).
Find the coordinates of the third vertex Al3.
268. >4(3, —1) and B (5, 7) are two vertices of a triangle
ABC whose altitudes intersect in the point N(4, —1).
Write the equations of the sides of the triangle.
269. In a triangle ABC, the equations of the side >46,
of the altitude >4jV and of the altitude 6/Vare5x — 3(/ + 2~0,
4x—3t/+l=0 and 7x -f 2y —22 = 0, respectively. Write
the equations of the other two sides and of the third
altitude of the triangle.
270. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle >46C
with >4(1, 3) as a vertex, if
x~2y~\-1 =0 and y— 1 = 0
are the equations of two of its medians.
271. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle hav¬
ing 6(—4, —5) as a vertex, if
5* + 3y—4 = 0 and 3x + 8y+l3 = 0
are the equations of two of its altitudes.
56 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

272. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle having

A (4, —1) as a vertex, if 6 *
A'—1=0 and A' y—1-0
are the equations of two bisectors of its angles.
273. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle having
«(2, 6) as a vertex, if * — 7y+ 15 = 0 and 7x + y + 5 = 0
aie the respective equations of an altitude and an angle bi¬
sector drawn from one and the same vertex.
274. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle having
B(2} —1) as a vertex, if 3* — 4*/ + 27 = 0 and x + 20—5 = 0
are the respective equations of an altitude and an angle
bisector drawn from different vertices.
275. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle hav-
ing C (4, —1) as a vertex, if
2a: — 3y+ 12 = 0 and 2x-j-3y~0
are the respective equations of an altitude and a median
drawn from one and the same vertex.
276. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle having
B (2, —7) as a vertex, if
3* + 0+ll=O and * + 20 + 7 = 0
are the respective equations of an allitude and a median
drawn from different vertices.
277. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle hav¬
ing C(4, 3) as a vertex, if
x + 2y—5 = 0 and 4*4-13 y—10=0
are the respective equations of an angle bisector and a
median drawn from one and the same vertex.
278. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle having
A (3, —1) as a vertex, if
*—40 + 10 = 0 and 6* + 10 y — 59 = 0
are the respective equations of an angle bisector and a
median drawn from different vertices.
279. Write the equation of the line passing through
the origin and forming, together with the lines
* — 0+12=0, 2a:+0+9 = 0,
a triangle of an area equal to 1.5 square units.
 § 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines 57

280. From lines passing through the point P (3, 0),

select the line whose segment intercepted by the lines
2.v —y —2 = 0, .v + y-(-3 = 0
is bisected at the point P.
281. All possible straight lines are drawn through the
point P (—3, —1). Prove that the lines
a:—2 y—3 = 0, x— 2y-p5 = 0
cut from each of them a segment whose midpoint is at P.
282. All possible straight lines are drawn through the
point P (0, 1). Prove that the segments cut from them by
the lines
* — 2y — 3 = 0, x — 2y f 17 = 0
are not bisected at the point P.
. 283. Write the equation of a straight line through the
origin, if its segment intercepted by the lines
2x— y + 5 = 0, 2x — y + 10 = 0
is of length ] 10.
284. Write the equation of a straight line through the
point C (—5, 4), given that its segment intercepted by
the lines
x + 2y 4-1 = 0, x + 2y— 1 = 0
is of length 5.

§ 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines.

Discussion of a System of Equations Representing Two
or Three Straight Lines.
The Intercept Equation of a Straight Line
If, in the general equation

Ax + By -f* C = u
(I)
con^tanT'fprml*"6, 006 °r4uW0 of the ,hree coefficients (counting the
fohSg'Ss"re V£ib,ee. 6qUati0n is incomplete.^The

• ,0™ and rep,“n,i

ro ‘he equation has the form Ax + C-0 and ran
resents a straight line perpendicular to the axis ot This equatin'
58 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

may be written in the form x=a, where a=— — is the intercept

cut off by the line on the axis Ox.
3) B = 0, C = 0 (/I ^0); the equation, which can be written in
the form x = 0, represents the y-axis.
4) /1=0 (£ # 0); the equation assumes the form By + C = 0 and
represents a straight line perpendicular to the ax»s Oy. This equation
r
can be written in the form y = b, where b =-— is the intercept
B
cut off by the line on the axis Oy.
5) A= 0, C = 0 (B 0); the equation, which can be written in
the form y = 0, represents the x-axis.
If the coefficients of equation (1) are all different from zero,
then the equation is reducible to the form

£+£= 1 (2)
b ’

where a — and b = are the intercepts cut off by the line

A B
on the x- and y-axes, respectively.
Equation (2) is called the intercept equation of a straight line.
If two straight lines are represented by the equations
A |at + Bjf/ -f- Cj = 0 and Azx + Bzy + C2 == 0,
the following cases may arise:

a) — the lines have one point in common;

At U*
b) -y-=-jr- 7^^ —Ibe lines are parallel;
/i o /j 9 L/ 9

A\_Bt _C,
^■) ,1 n
— the lines coincide, that is, the two equations
B C
represent the same straight line.

285. Determine the values of a for which the line

(a + 2)x + (a2— 9) y + 3a2 — 8a + 5 = 0
1) is parallel to the Jt-axis;
2) is parallel to the y-axis;
3) passes through the origin.
In each case write the equation of the line.
286. Determine the values of m and n for which the
line
(m + 2ti — 3) xA- (2m — n+ 1) y + 6m+ 9=0
is parallel to the x-axis and has a ^/-intercept of —3.
Write the equation of this line.
 § 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines 59

287. Determine the values of m and n lor which the

line
(2m — n + 5) * + (m + 3n — 2) y + 2m f 7n + 19 = 0

is parallel to the y-axis and has an x-intercept of +5.

Write the equation of this line.
288. In each of the following, prove that the two given
straight lines intersect, and find their point of intersection:
1) x + 5y—35 = 0, 3* + 2y—27 = 0:
2) 14*—9y —24=0, 7*—2 y— 17 = 0;
3) 12*+ 15*/ —8 = 0, 16*4 9;/-7 = 0;
4) 8x —33y—19 = 0, 12* + 55 y— 19 = g;
5) 3x + 5 = 0, y-2 = 0.
289. In each of the following, prove that the two given
straight lines are parallel:

1) 3x + 5t/ —4 = 0, 6* + 10j/ + 7 = 0;
2) 2*-4(/+3 = 0, * — 2(/ = 0;
3) 2*-1=0, * + 3 = 0;
4) y + 3 = 0, 5r/ — 7 = 0.
290. In each of the following, prove that the two given
straight lines coincide:
1) 3x + 5i/ —4=0, 6*+ 1 Or/ — 8 0;
2) x-yV2“ = 0, * V' 2 2y=0-
3) *]/3-l=0, 3*- V 3=0.
^291. Find the values of a and b for which the two

ax 2y— 1 =0, 6*-4;/-^ = 0

1) have one common point; 2) are parallel; 3) coincide.

292. Find the values of m and n for which the two
ies
mx + 8y 4 n = 0, 2x -i- my— 1 =0
1) are parallel; 2) coincide; 3) are perpendicular.
60 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

293. Find the value of m for which the two lines

(m — 1) x -f- my — 5 = 0, rnx -f (2m — 1) y -f 7 = 0 *
intersect at a point lying on the x-axis.
294. Find the values of m for which the two lines
mx-\- (2m -\-3) y -\~ m + 6 = 0,
(2m -f l)x-j-(m— \ ) y + m—2 = 0
intersect in a point lying on the y-axis.
295. In each of the following, determine whether the
three straight lines intersect in a single point:
1) 2x + 3y—1 = 0, 4x — 5y-f5 = 0, 3x — y-f 2 = 0;
2) 3x — y-f3 = 0, 5x + 3y — 7 = 0, x — 2y — 4=0;
3) 2x — // +1=0, x + 2y— 17 = 0, x-\ 2y-3= 0.

296. Prove that, if the three lines

AiX-f- y ~F O| = 0,
A3x + B3y -F C3 = 0
intersect in a single point, then
Ax By C
Ao B2 C
A3 B3 C
297. Prove that, if
Ax B
A2 B
A3 B
then the three lines
A±x *F Bxy -(■ ^'i==0, A2x + B2y \-C2 = 0i
A 3x + B3y C3 = 0
intersect in a single point or are parallel.
298. Determine the value of a for which the three lines
2x—t/+3 = 0, x-\- y + 3=0, ax + y— 13=0 intersect in
a single point.
 $ 13. Incomplete Equations of Straight Lines 61

299. Given the lines:

1) 2x -+ 3y — 6 = 0; 2) 4x — 3^4-24 — 0;
3) 2x-\-3y — 9 = 0; 4) 3.v —5y—2 —0;
5) 5x-\- 2y— 1 = 0.

Write their intercept equations and plot the lines.

300. Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the
line 3x —4//—12 = 0 and the coordinate axes.
301. Write the equation of the straight line passing
through the point Mx(3, —7) and making equal (non-zero)
intercepts on the coordinate axes.
302. Write the equation of a straight line passing
through the point P (2, 3) and making intercepts of equal
absolute value on the coordinate axes.
303. Find the equation of a straight line passing through
the point C(1, 1) and forming with the coordinate axes a
triangle whose area is 2 square units.
304. Find the equation of a straight line passing through
the point B (5, —5) and forming with the coordinate axes
a triangle whose area is 50 square units.
305. Find the equation of a straight line passing through
the point P (8, 6) and forming with the coordinate axes a
triangle whose area is 12 square units.
306. Find the equation of a straight line which passes
through the point P (12, 6) and forms with the coordinate
axes a triangle whose area is 150 square units.
307. Through the point M (4, 3), a straight line is drawn
so as to form with the coordinate axes a triangle whose
area is 3 square units. Determine the points of intersec¬
tion of the line with the coordinate axes.
308. Through the point Ml(xli yx), where *,//,> 0, the
line

is drawn so as to form with the coordinate axes a triangle

of area S. Determine the relation between the quantities
f.y lJi anc* ^ for which the intercepts a and b will be of
like sign.
 62 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

§ 14. The Normal Equation of a Straight Line.

The Problem of Determining the Distance of a Point
from a Straight Line
Let a straight line he given in the plane xOij. Through the ori¬
gin, draw a line (called the normal) perpendicular to the given line.
Denote by P the point of intersection of the normal and the given
line, and choose the direction from the point 0 to the point P as
the positive direction of the normal.

If a is the polar angle of the normal, and p is the length of the

segment OP (Fig. 10), then the equation of the given straight line
can be written as
a:-cos a + f/-sin a — p — 0;

an equation of this form is called the normal equation of a straight

line.
Let there be given any straight line and an arbitrary point M*;
let d denote the distance of M* from the given line. The departure 6
of the point M* from the line is defined as the number -\-d when M*
and the origin lie on opposite sides of the given line, and as—d
when M* and the origin lie on the same sida of the given line.
(For points lying on the line itself, 6 = 0.)
If we are given the coordinates x*, y* of the point M* and the
normal equation x cos a + y sin a — p = 0 of a straight line, then the
departure 6 of /Vf* from this line can be calculated from the formula

6 = x* cos cc-j-y* sin a — p.

Thus, to find the departure of a point M* from a given straight
line, the coordinates of the point M* must be substituted for the
current coordinates in the left-hand member of the normal equation
of this straight line. The resulting number will be the required
departure.
 $ 14. The Normal Equation of a Straight Line 63

To find the distance d of a point from a straight line, we have

merely to calculate the departure and to take its modulus:
d = | 6 |.
Given the general equation Ax + By + C = 0 of a straight line; to
reduce this equation to the normal form, al! its terms must he
multiplied by the normalizing factor fi which is determined from
the formula
1
g — "f —V— ■ - — .
“ V A1 -\- Bz
The normalizing factor must be taken with the sign opposite to that
of the constant term of the equation to be normalized.

309. Determine which of the following equations of

straight lines are in the normal form:

n 3 4 3
n yx 3 = 0; 2) ±x
5 y o ~U
- 1 —0;
5 . 12 o
3) f3 x — u + 2 0; 4) 0;
13 y r 13*^ iz y 2
5) -x + 2 0; 6) x 2 = 0; 7) y + 2 = 0;
8) —y 2 = 0.
310. In each of the following, reduce the general equation
of the given straight line to the normal form:

1) 4x-3y 10=0; 2) ±-x—jU+10=0;

3) 12x — 5// + 13=0; 4) x -f- 2 = 0; 5) 2x—y — ]/5 = 0.
311. Given the equations of straight lines:
1) x—2 = 0; 2|x + 2=0; 3) r/—3 = 0; 4)<, + 3 = 0;
5) xV 3 4- y—6 = 0; 6) x—y + 2 = 0;
7) X4 1/1^3+ 2 = 0;
8) xcos0-ysin P — <7=0. q > 0; 0 is an acute angle;
9) xcosp + j, sin 0 +^ = 0, q > 0; 0 is an acute angle!
Determine the polar angle a of the normal and the
segment p for each of the given lines; from the obtained
RalU3no0f tj16 Parameters a and p, plot the lines (setting
0 = 30 and q~2 in the last two cases). S
,, 312- eacl' l*1e f°llow>ng. calculate the value of
the departure 6 and the distance d of the point from the
64 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

1) A (2, -1), 4A-f3y4- 10 = 0;

2) B(0, -3), 5,v— 12y —23 = 0;
3) P (—2, 3), 3 a— 4y — 2 = 0;
4) Q (1, —2), a — 2y—-5 = 0.

313. In each of the following, determine whether the

point M (U —3) and the origin lie on the same side or
on opposite sides of the given line:
1) 2a — y + 5 = 0; 2) a — 3y—5 = 0; 3) 3A + 2y-l=0;
4) a —3y + 2 = 0; 5) 10a + 24y v 15 = 0.
314. The point A (2, —5) is a vertex of a square, one
of whose sides lies on the line
a — 2 y — 7 = 0.
Calculate the area of the square.
315. Given that
3a — 2y— 5 = 0, 2a + 3 y + 7 = 0
are the equations of two sides of a rectangle, and that
A (—2, 1) is one of its vertices; calculate the area of the
rectangle.
316. Prove that the line 2a-f y + 3 = 0 cuts thesegment
bounded by the points A (—5, 1) and B (3, 7).
317. Prove that the line 2a — 3y [-6 = 0 does not cut
the segment bounded by the points (—2,—3) and
M2(l,— 2).
318. The points A (—3,5), B(—1,—4), C (7, —1) and
D (2, 9) are the consecutive vertices of a quadrilateral.
Determine whether the quadrilateral is convex.
319. The points A (—1,6), B( 1,—3), C(4, 10) and
D (9, 0) are the consecutive vertices of a quadrilateral.
Determine whether this quadrilateral is convex.
320. The vertices of a triangle are A (—10, —13),
B (—2, 3) and C(2, 1). Calculate the length of the perpen¬
dicular dropped from the vertex B to the median through C.
321. The sides ABy SC, C,4 of a triangle ABC are
given, respectively, by the equations
x + 2\y—22 = 0, 5a— 12y + 7 = 0, 4a—33 y+ 146=0.
 § \4. The Normal Equation of a Straight Line 65

Calculate the distance from the centre of gravity of this

triangle to the side fiC. •
322. In each of the following, calculate the distance d
between the given parallel lines:

1) 3* — Ay — 10 = 0, 2) 5* — \2y + 26 = 0,
. 6*-8// + 5 = 0; 5x—12//—13 = 0;
3) 4r_3y+15 = o, 4) 24*— 10//+39 = 0,
8*-6// + 25-0; 12*- 5//-26 = 0.

323. Two sides of a square lie on the lines

5*— 12y—65 = 0, 5*- 12// + 26 = 0.

Calculate the area of the square.

324. Prove that the line
5* — 2y — 1 =0

is parallel to the lines

5*—2y + -7 = 0f 5*—2// —9 = 0
and lies midway between them.
325. Given the three parallel lines
10*+ 15// —3 = 0, 2* + 3// + 5 = 0, 2* + 3// — 9 = 0.
Show that the first of them lies between the other two,
and find the ratio in which the first line divides the di¬
stance between the second and the third line.
326. Prove that two lines can be drawn through the
point P (2, 7) so that their distances from the point Q(l, 2)
will each be equal to 5. Write the equations of these lines.
327. Prove that two straight lines can be drawn through
the point P(2,5) so that their distances from the point
Q(5, 1) will each be equal to 3. Write the equations of
these lines.
328. Prove that one line only can be drawn through the
point C (7, —2) so that its distance from the point A (4, —6)
will be equal to 5. Write the equation of this line.
329. Prove that no line can be drawn through the point
B(4, —5) so that its distance from the point C (—2, 3)
will be equal to 12. .
3—225 0
 66
Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

330 Derive the equation of the locus of points whose

departure from the line 8^—15r/—25 = 0 is equal to -2
Ft‘ndtuthreqUoatl0"s of the stra'ght lines which are
parallel to the line 3*-4y-10=0 and lie at a distance
a = 6 from that line.
332. The points A (2, 0) and B (-1, 4) are two adjacent
vertices of a square. Find the equations of its sides.
333. The point A (5, —1) is a vertex of a square, one
of whose sides lies on the line

4.v—3y—7 = 0.

Write the equations of the lines containing the other sides

of this square.
334. Given that

4* — 3// + 3 = 0, 4x — 3y— 17 = 0

are the equations of two sides of a square and that

■*4 (2, —-3) is one of its vertices; find the equations of the
remaining two sides of this square.
335. Given that

5x+ \2y— 10=0, 5a: + 12*/ + 29 = 0

are the equations of two sides of a square and that the
point yVfj ( 3, 5) lies on one of its sides; find the equa¬
tions of the remaining two sides of this square.
336. The departures of a point M from the lines

5x— I2y— 13 = 0 and 3x — 4y—\9 = 0

are equal to —3 and —5, respectively. Find the coordi¬

nates of the point M.
337. Write the equation of the straight line passing
through the point P (—2, 3) and equidistant from the points
A (5, —1) and B (3, 7).
338. Find the equation of the locus of points equidistant
from the two parallel lines:

1) 3a:—y-\- 7 = 0, 2) x—2y + 3 = 0, 3) 5x—2y—6 = 0t

3x—£/ — 3 = 0; x — 2*/ + 7 = 0; 10a:—4y + 3=0.
 § 14. The Normal Equation of a Straight Line 67

339. Write the equations of the bisectors of the angles

formed by the two intersecting lines:
1) 30 + 5 = 0, 2) *—20 — 3 = 0, 3)3* + 40 —1=0,
3x-y—2 = 0; 2* + 40 + 7 = O; 5^+ 12t/ — 2=0.

340. Write the equations of the straight lines which pass

through the point P(2, —1) and form, together with the
lines
2*—0 + 5=0, 3*+ 60-1=0,

isosceles triangles.
341. In each of the following, determine whether the
point At (1, —2) and the origin are contained by the same
angle, by the supplementary angles, or by the vertical
angles formed by the two intersecting lines:

1) 2*—y— 5=0, 2) 4^ + 30—10 = 0, 3) x — 2y— 1 = 0,

3x + 0flO=O; 12* — by — 5=0; 3*-0-2=O.
342. In each of the following, determine whether the
points At (2, 3) and N (5, —1) are contained by the same
angle, by the supplementary angles, or by the vertical
angles formed by the two intersecting lines:

1) *-30-5=0, 2) 2*+ 70-5=0, 3) 12*+ 0-1=0,

2*+ 90—2=0; * + 30 + 7 = 0; 13* + 20-5 = O.
343. Determine whether the origin lies inside or outside
the triangle whose sides are given by the equations

7* — 50 11=0, 8* + 30 + 31 = 0, * + 80-19 = 0.
344. Determine whether the point M (— 3, 2) lies inside
or outside the triangle whose sides are given bv the
equations 3

*4-0 — 4 = 0, 3* —70 + 8 = 0, 4* —0—31=0.

345. Determine which of the angles (the acute or the
obtuse one) formed by the two lines
3* — 20 + 5 = 0, 2*+0—3=0
contains the origin.
3*
 68 Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

346. Determine which of the angles (the acute or the

obtuse one) formed by the two lines
3.v — 5y— 4 = 0, x + 2y + 3 = 0
contains the point M (2, —5).
347. Find the equation of the bisector of that angle
between the lines 3x-y~4 = 0 and 2x + 6</ + 3 = 0 which
contains the origin.
348. Find the equation of the bisector of that angle
between the lines x — 7y + 5 = 0, 5x + 5y—3=0 which is
the supplement of the angle containing the origin.
349. Find the equation of the bisector of that angle
between the lines x+2y — 11=0, 3x—6y—5 = 0 which
contains the point Af(l,— 3).
350. Write the equation of the bisector of that angle
between the lines 2x — 3y — 5 = 0, 6x — 4y + 7 = 0 which is
the supplement of the angle containing the point C(2, —1).
351. W rite the equation of the bisector of the acute angle
formed by the two lines 3x + 4y—5 = 0, 5x— \2y + 3 = 0.
352. Write the equation of the bisector of the obtuse
angle formed by thetwo lines x—3y + 5 = 0, 3x — y+ 15 = 0.

§ 15. The Equation of a Pencil of Lines

The totality of lines passing through a point S is called the
pencil of lines with vertex S.
If Atx -f- Bxy -f C, == 0 and A2x + B2y -f C2 =■=■ 0 are the equations of
two straight lines intersecting in a p>int S, then the equation
*(Alx + Bly + Cx) + P(A2x + B2y + Ci) = 0, (1)
where a, p are any numbers which are not both simultaneously
equal to zero, rt presents a straight line also passing through the point S.
Moreover, it is always possible to choose the numbers a, (5 in
equation (1) so as to make the equation represent any (previously
assigned) line through the point S, that is, any line of the pencil
with vertex S. An equation of the form (1) is therefore called the
equation of a pencil of lines (with vertex S).
If a ?= 0, then, dividing both members of (1) by a and letting
—=-X, we obtain
a
Axx + Bxy -f- C, -f- X (A2x -f- B2y + C2)= (2)
This equation can be made to represent every line of the pencil
with vertex S except the line corresponding to a = 0, that is, except
the line A2x + B2y -j- C2 = 0.
 § 15. The Equation of a Pencil of Lines 69

353. Find the vertex of the pencil of lines represented

by the equation
a(2x + 3j/—1) + P (at—2y—4) = 0.

354. Find the equation of the line belonging to the

pencil of lines a (x + 2y — 5) + (5 (3x—2y + 1)=0 and
1) passing through the point 4(3, —1);
2) passing through the origin;
3) parallel to the axis Ox;
4) parallel to the axis Oij\
5) parallel to the line 4x + 3y — 5 = 0;
6) perpendicular to the line 2x + 3(/ + 7 = 0.
355. Write the equation of the line passing through the
point of intersection of the lines
3x— 2(/ + 5 = 0, 4x + 2>y— 1 =0
and making an intercept b= — 3 on the (/-axis. Solve the
problem without determining the coordinates of the point
of intersection of the given lines.
356. Write the equation of the line which passes through
the point of intersection of the lines

2x+t/ —2 = 0, x— by- 23 = 0
and bisects the segment bounded by the points Ml{5, —6)
and M2(—1, —4). Solve the problem without calculating
the coordinates of the point of intersection of the given
lines.
357. Given the equation
u(3x — Ay—3) + P(2x + 3(/— 1) = 0

of a pencil of lines. Write the equation of that line of

the pencil which passes through the centre of gravity of
a uniform triangular plate whose vertices are the noints
^ (—1, 2), B (4, —4) and C (6, —1).
358. Given the equation
a(3x —2(/—l) + p(4x—5(/ + 8) = 0

of a pencil of lines. Find that line of the pencil which

bisects the segment cut from the line x-f-2u + 4=0 by the
lines 2x + 3(/ + 5=0, x-f 70—1=0.
 70
Ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

359. Given the equations

*4-2 y -1 = 0, 5.V + 4 y—17 = 0, x—4</-fll=0
of the sides of a triangle. Without determining the coor-
dinates of its vertices, find the equations of the altitudes
of the triangle.
360. Write the equation of the line passing through the
point of intersection of the lines
2x + 7y—8 = 0, 3x + 2y + 5=0
and making an angle of 45° with the line
2x-\-3y—7 = 0.
Solve the problem without calculating the coordinates of
the point of intersection of the given lines.
361. In a triangle ABC, the altitudes AN, BN and the
side AB are represented respectively by the equations
x + 5*/ —3 = 0, x+y—1=0 and x + 3y—1=0. Without
determining the coordinates of the vertices and of the
intersection point of the altitudes, write the equations of
the other two sides and the third altitude of the triangle.
362. Find the equations of the sides of a triangle ABC,
if A (2, —1) is one of its vertices and if 7x— I0y+ 1 =0
and 3* — 2*/ + 5=0 are the respective equations of an
altitude and an angle bisector drawn from one and the
same vertex. Solve the problem without computing the
coordinates of the vertices B and C.
363. Given that
a(2x + y + 8) + P(* + y + 3) = 0
is the equation of a pencil of lines. Find those lines of
the pencil whose segments intercepted by the lines
x — y—5 = 0, x—y—2 = 0
are equal to YW.
364. The equation of a pencil of lines is
a(3* + y— 1) + P (2x— y—9) = 0.
Prove that the line
x + 3y + 13=0
belongs to this pencil.
 .$ 15. The Equation of a Pencil of Lines 71

365. The equation of a pencil of lines is

a (5ac -f- 3y + 6) t § (3x—4y — 37) =0.
Prove that the line
7 a: 4-2 y— 15 = 0
does not belong to this pencil.
366. The equation of a pencil of lines is
a (3* + 2y-9) + p (2* + by + 5) = 0.

Find the value of C for which the line

4.v —3y + C = 0
will belong to this pencil.
367. The equation of a pencil of lines is
a (5x + 3y — 7) -f p (3x + 1 Oy + 4) = 0.
Find the values of a for which the line

ax + 5 y -f 9=0
will not belong to this pencil.
368. The vertex of the pencil of lines

a (2k—3y + 20) + p (3x + 5y -27) = 0

is one of the vertices of a square whose diagonal lies

along the line
x + 7y—16=0.
Write the equations of the sides and of the other diagonal
of the square.
369. Given the pencil of lines

a (2x + 5y + 4) + p (3*- 2y + 25) = 0.

Find that line of the pencil which makes equal (non-zero)
intercepts on the coordinate axes.
370. Given the pencil of lines

a(2* + i/+ l) + p (x—3y~ 10) = 0.

Find those lines of the pencil whose intercepts on the x
and y-axes are equal in absolute value.
 72 ch. 3. Curves of the First Order

371. Given the pencil of lines

a{2\x + 8y— 18)+ 0(11* + 3y+ 12)=0.

Find those lines of the pencil which form with the coor¬
dinate axes a triangle whose area is 9 square units.
372. Given the pencil of lines

a (2*4-1/4-4) 4-p(.v — 2y — 3) = 0.
Prove that, among the lines of the pencil, there exists
only one line whose distance from the point P (2, — 3) is
d = V 10. Write the equation of this line.
373. Given the pencil of lines
cx(2*—j/—6)4-p(x—4)=0.
Prove that, among the lines of the pencil, there is no line
situated at the distance d=3 from the point P(3, —1).
374. Find the equation of the line passing through the
intersection of the lines 3x-\-y — 5 = 0, x — 2#+10=0 and
situated at the distance d—5 from the point C(—1, —2).
Solve the problem without computing the coordinates of
the point of intersection of the given lines.
375. Given the pencil of lines
a (5* + 2y -p 4) -j- p (x -p 9y—25) = 0.
Write the equations of those lines of the pencil which,
together with the lines
2x—3</ + 5 = 0, 12x-(-8 ij — 7=0,
form isosceles triangles.
376. Find the equation of the straight line passing through
the intersection of the lines
1 \x-\-3y—7 = 0, \2x + y—19=0
and equidistant from the points A (3, —2) and B(—1, 6).
Solve the problem without determining the coordinates of
the point of intersection of the given lines.
377. Given the equations
<*! (5*4-3t/ — 2) -pp, (3*—y — 4) = 0,
a2 (*—y +1) + Pa (2x—y ~ 2)=o
 $ /£. The Polar Equation of a Straight Line 73

of two pencils of lines. Without determining their vertices,

find the equation of the line belonging to both pencils.
378. The sides AB, BC, CD, DA of a quadrilateral
ABCD are represented, respectively, by the equations
5.v + r/fl3 = 0, 2x—7y—17 = 0,
3x + 2t/—13 = 0, 3x — 4y + 17 = 0.
Find the equations of the diagonals AC and BD of
this quadrilateral without determining the coordinates of
its vertices.
379. The vertex of the pencil of lines
a (2x + ty 4- 5) + p (3x—y + 2) = 0

is a vertex of a triangle, two of whose altitudes are given

by the equations
x—40+1 = 0, 2.v + t/+l = 0.
Write the equations of the sides of this triangle.

§ 16. The Polar Equation of a Straight Line

The straight line drawn through the pole perpendicular to a given
straight line is called the normal to the given line. Denote by P
the point where the normal meets the line; take the direction from
the point 0 to the point P as the positive direction of the normal,
the angle through which the polar axis must_be turned to reach
coincidence with the direction of the segment OP is referred to as
the polar angle of the normal.
380. Derive the polar equation of a straight line, given
its distance p from the pole and the polar angle a of the
normal.
Solution First Method. On the given straight line s (Fig. 11)
take an arbitrary point M with polar coordinates o and 0. Let P
denote the point where the line s meets its normal. From the right
triangle OPM, we find: B

Q= (1)
cos (0 —a) '
is sZhilTh°vb\t]ed a,YeqU(ati0'! in two variables, o and 0, which
i/ni k ii by the,. coordinates of every point At lying on the line
m u thy hC c°ordln.al” of no °tber point. Consequently, equation
Sero5d Method cl the,stra,Kht( llne,s- The problem is thus solved.
whose positive x-axis coincides with the polar axis of the given
 Fig. 11.

polar system. In this cartesian system, the normal equation of the

line s is
x cos a + y sin a—p = 0. (2)

Recalling the formulas for transformation from polar to cartesian

coordinates,
x = q cos 0, y = q sin 0. (3)

and substituting the expressions (3) for x and y in equation (2),

we have
q (cos 0 cos a + sin 0 sin a) — p
or
P
Q~cos (0—a) ’

381. Derive the polar equation of a straight line, given:

1) the angle of inclination p of the line (with respect
to the polar axis), and the length p of the perpendicular
dropped from the pole to the line. Also, write the equation
of the line for the case

P-f. p = 3:
2) the intercept a cut off by the line on the polar axis,
and the polar angle a of the normal to the line. Also,
 $ 16. The Polar Equation of a Straight Line 75

write the equation of the line for the case

a — 2, a = —-|jx;

3) the angle of inclination p of the line (with respect

to the polar axis), and the intercept a cut off by the line
on the polar axis. Also, write the equation of the line for
the case

° = 6.

382. Derive the polar equation of the straight line passing

through the point M^q,, 0,) and making an angle 8 with
the polar axis.
383. Derive the polar equation of a straight line through
the point Af! (o,, 0t), if the polar angle of its normal is a.
384. Find the polar equation of the line through the
points M1(0l, 0,) and M,(o2, 0.,).
 Chapter 4
GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES OF CURVES OF
THE SECOND ORDER

§ 17. The Circle

The equation
(x—a)2 + (// — P)2 = R2 (1)

represents a circle of radius R with centre C (a, P).

If the centre of the circle coincides with the origin, that is, if
a = 0, P = 0, then equation (1) takes the form
*2-f-tf = R2. (2)

385. In each of the following, find the equation of the

circle determined by the stated conditions:
1) the centre of the circle is at the origin, and the
radius R = 3;
2) the centre is at the point C (2, —3), and the radius
R = 7;
3) the circle passes through the origin, and the centre
is at the point C (6, —8);
4) the circle passes through the point A (2, 6), and the
centre is at C(—1, 2);
5) A (3, 2) and B(—1, 6) are the end points of a dia¬
meter of the circle;
6) the centre is at the origin, and the line 3x—-4y + 20 — 0
is tangent to the circle;
7) the centre is at the point C(l, —1), and the line
5x —12#+ 9 = 0 is tangent to the circle;
8) the circle passes through the points A (3, 1), B (—1, 3),
and its centre lies on the line 3x—y — 2 = 0;
9) the circle passes through the three points A(\, 1),
B( 1, —1) and C(2, 0);
10) the circle passes through the three points Mx(—1, 5),
M2 (—2, —2) and M3(5, 5).
 $ 17. The Circle 77

386. The point C (3, —1) is the centre of a circle which

cuts off a chord of length 6 on the line 2x—5y -j- 18=0.
Write the equation of the circle.
387. Write the equations of the circles of radius R = \ 5
and tangent to the line x — 2y— 1 =0 at the point Ml(3, 1).
388. Find the equation of a circle tangent to the two
parallel lines 2x + y—5=0, 2x + y f- 15 = 0, if A (2, 1)
is their point of contact with one of the lines.
389. Find the equations of the circles passing through
the point ,4(1, 0) and tangent to the two parallel lines
2x-\-y + 2 = 0, 2x + y—18 = 0.
390. Find the equation of the circle with centre on the
line
2*-} y = 0

and tangent to the lines

— 3r/ H- 10 = 0, 4x—Oy— 30=0.

391. Write the equations of circles tangent to the two

intersecting lines 7x—y~5 = 0, x + y+13 = 0, if Mj
(1, 2) is their point of contact with one of the lines.
392. Write the equations of the circles passing through
the origin and tangent to the two intersecting lines
x+2y—9=0, 2x—y + 2=0.

393. Find the equations of the circles which have their

centres on the line
4x—5 y — 3 = 0
and are tangent to the lines
2x — 3y—10 = 0, 3*—2y + 5 = 0.
394. Write the equations of the circles passing through
the point A ( 1, 5) and tangent to the two intersecting

0x + 4y — 35 = 0, 4x + 3(/+14=0.
395 Write the equations of the circles tangent to the
three lines
4x—3y —10 = 0, 3x— 4y~5 = 0 and 3.v—4y— 15 = 0,
 Ch■ /■ Properties of Curves oj the Second Order

396. Write the equations of the circles tangent to the

three lines
3* + 4y — 35 = 0, 3x — Ay—35 = 0 and x—1=0.
397. Determine which of the following equations repre¬
sent circles, and find the centre C and the radius R of
each circle.
1) (x—5)2-f- (r/+ 2)2 = 25; 2) (x+2)2 + //2=64;
3) (x — 5)2 + (y + 2)2 = 0; 4) x2 + (y-5)2 = 5;
5) x2 -f- y2 — 2x + Ay—20 = 0; 6) x2-\-y2— 2.v + 4t/-f-14 = 0;
7) .v2 4- f/M Ax — 2y j 5 = 0; 8) x2 -j- y2 4- .v = 0;
9) x2-\-y2 + 6x—Ay -'r 14 = 0; 10) x2 + if + y = 0
398. Identify and plot the lines represented by the
following equations;

l) y= + V9 X2; 6) y = 15 — J/ 64 - x2;
2) </ = V 25 X2; 7) * = — 2— V9 -y1-
to

3) x = 8) x = -2 + V9--yl\
1

Il

4) x = + V 16 — y2\ 9) </=--3—V 21-— 4x—x2;

5) y= 15 + V 64 x2; 10 x = --5 4- V 40--6 y—y2-

399. Determine whether the point A (1, —2) is inside,

on, or outside each of the following circles;
1) x2 + y2= 1; 2) Ar2 + i/2 = 5; 3) x24-*/2 = 9;
4) x2 + y2—8x — Ay — 5 = 0; 5) x2 + y2—\0x + 8y = 0.
400. In each of the following, find the equation of the
line of centres of the two given circles;
1) (x—3)2 + t/2=9 and (x + 2)2 + (y- 1)2= 1;
2) (x + 2)2 + (t/— 1)2= 16 and (x + 2)2 + (y + 5)2 = 25;
3) x2-\-y2 — 4.v-f6r/=0 and x2-\- y2— 6jc = 0;
4) x2 -f- y2 — x + 2y = 0 and x2 4- y2 f 5a; + 2y—1=0.
401. Find the equation of that diameter of the circle
x2 + y2 4- 4.v—6y— 17 = 0
 17. The Circle 79

which is perpendicular to the line

5x-j- 2y — 13 = 0.
402. In each of the following, calculate the shortest
distance from the given point to the given circle:
1) A (6, -8), x2 + y2 = 9;
2) B (3, 9), x2 + j/2-26x-f30i/ +313 = 0;
3) C(—7, 2), x2-j-y2 — 1 Ox — 1 Ay — 151 = 0.
403. Determine the coordinates of the points of inter¬
section of the line lx—y + 12 = 0 and the circle (*—2)2 +
4- (y—1)2 = 25.
404. In each of the following, determine whether the
given line cuts, touches, or fails to meet the given circle:
1) y = 2x-3 and x2 + y2— 3x + 2y —3 = 0;

2) y = jX — ~ and x2 +y2 — 8x + 2y -j- 12 = 0;

3) i/= a:-f 10 and x2 + y2— 1 =0.

405. Determine the values of the slope k for which the

line y — kx
1) cuts the circle x2 + y2— lOx + 16 = 0;
2) touches this circle;
3) passes outside this circle.
406. Find the condition under which the line y = kx + b
touches the circle x2 + y2=R2.
407. Write the equation of that diameter of the circle

(x-2)2+(i/+l)2=16
which bisects the chord cut off by the circle on the line
x—2y — 3 = 0.
408. Find the equation of that chord of the circle
(x 3)2-f (y—7)2= 169
whose midpoint is at M (8.5, 3.5).
409. Determine the length of that chord of the circle
(x—2)2-f (t/ — 4)2 = 10
whose midpoint is at A (l, 2).
80 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

410. Given the pencil of lines

a (x - 8y + 30) + p (a + 5y - 22) = 0.

Find those lines of the pencil on which the circle

a2 + y2 — 2a -J- 2y — 14 = 0

cuts off chords of length 2\ 3

411. Given the two circles

(a— ml)2 + (y—nl)2 = R2u (a—m2)2 -f (y — n2)2= R\

intersecting at the points Mx(xlt yx) and M2(a2, y2).
Prove that, by a judicious choice of the numbers a and
P, an equation of the form

a [(a—m1)2+(//—nx)2 — /?;] + P [(a — m2)2+(y — n2)2— /?22]=0

can be made to represent every circle through the points

Mj, Af2, and also to represent the straight line M1M2.'
412. Find the equation of the circle which passes through
the point A (1, —1) and through the points of intersection
of the two circles
a2+ y* + 2x — 2y—23 = 0, x2 + y2 — 6x+ 12// —35 = 0.
413. Find the equation of the circle which passes through
the origin and through the points of intersection of the
two circles
(a + 3)2 + (y + 1 )2 = 25, (a - 2)2 + (y + 4)2 = 9.
414. Write the equation of the straight line passing
through the points of intersection of the two circles
a2 + y2 + 3a — y = 0, 3a24 3y2 + 2x + y= 0.

415. Calculate the distance from the centre of the circle

x2 + y2 = 2x to the straight line passing through the points
of intersection of the two circles
x2 + y2 + 5x — 8y+ 1 =0, x2 + y2— 3x + 7y—25 = 0.
416. Determine the length of the common chord of the
two circles
x2 + y2—\0x-\0y = 0, x2 + y2 + 6a + 2y — 40 = 0.
 $ 17. The Circle 81

417. Write the equation of the circle which has its

centre on the line x + y = 0 and passes through the points
of intersection of the two circles
(* — 1 )2 + ({/ + 5)2 = 50, (A+l)2 + (y+l)2=10.
418. Write the equation of the line tangent to the circle
a2-t-1/2 = 5 at the point A (—1, 2).
419. Write the equation of the line tangent to the circle
(a -4- 2)2 -f(y — 3)2 = 25 at the point A (—5, 7).
420 On the circle
16a:2 + 16y2 -f 48a— 8y —43 = 0,
find the point Mx nearest to the line
8a —4y + 73 = 0,
and calculate the distance d between /Vf, and the line.
421. The point Af, (At, y^ lies on the circle a2-py2 = R2.
Write the equation of the tangent line at to the circle.
422. The point M1{xl, yx) lies on the circle
(a—a)2-t-(i/—P)2=/?2.
Find the equation of the tangent line at to the circle.
423. Determine the acute angle at which the line
3a—y —1 = 0 intersects the circle (a—2)2-fy2 = 5. (The
angle of intersection of a straight line and a circle is
defined as the angle between the line and the tangent to
the circle at their point of intersection.)
424. Determine the angle of intersection of the two
circles
(a—3)2 + (y - 1 )2 = 8, (a- 2)2 + (y + 2)2 = 2.
(The angle of intersection of two circles is defined as the
angle between their tangents at a point of intersection.)
425. Find the condition under which the two circles
(A-a1)2 + (y-p1)2 = /?2, (A-a2)2 + (y-p2)2=/?2
will intersect at right angles.
426. Prove that the two circles
x2jry2—2tnx — 2ny—m2A- n2 = 0,
a2 -F y2 — 2nx + 2my + m2 — n2 = 0
intersect at right angles.
82 Cli. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

5
427. From the point A I = , tangent lines are
3
drawn to the circle x2 + i/2 = 5. Find their equations.
428. From the point A(\, 6). tangent lines are drawn
to the circle x2 + y2 + 2x—19 — 0. Find their equations.
429. Given the pencil of lines
a(3x + 4y—10) + |3 (3x — y—5) = 0.
Find those lines of the pencil which are tangent to the
circle
x2 + yiJr 2x — 4y = 0.
430. Tangent lines are drawn to the circle x2A~y2= 10
from the point A (4, 2). Determine the angle between
these tangent lines.
431. Tangent lines are drawn to the circle (x—1)24-
4- (y-F 5)2 = 4 from the point P (2, —3). Write the equation
of the chord joining the points of contact.
432. From the point C(6, —8), tangent lines are drawn
to the circle a -f-1/2 = 25. Calculate the distance d between
:2

the point C and the chord joining the points of contact.

433. From the point P (—9, 3), tangent lines are drawn
to the circle
x2 + y2 — 6*-f 4y—78 = 0.
Calculate the distance d from the centre of the circle to
the chord joining the points of contact.
434. From the point M (4, —4), tangent lines are drawn
to the circle
x2 + y2—6x + 2y + 5 = 0.
Calculate the length d of the chord joining the points of
contact.
435. Calculate the length of the tangent line from the
point A (1, —2) to the circle
x2 -j- y2 A~x—3y 3 = 0.
436. Find the equations of the lines tangent to the
circle
x2jry2+ \0x—2y + 6 = 0
and parallel to the line 2x~ry— 7 = 0.
 IR. The fillip*

437. Find the equations of the lines tangent to the

circle
x2 -}- y2 _ 2x + 4y = 0
and perpendicular to the line x—2y + 9 = 0.
438. Write the polar equation of a circle with radius R,
if the polar coordinates of the centre are C (R, 0O).
439. Write the polar equation of a circle with radius
/?, if the polar coordinates of its centre are:

l)C(/?f0); 2)C(/?,ji);

440. Determine the polar coordinates of the centre and

find the radius of each of the following circles:
1) q = 4cos0; 2) o = 3 sin 0; 3) q = —2cos0;
4) o = 5 sin 0; 5) o = 6 cos [ y — 0 ) ;

6) Q = 8 sin (() —y) ; 7) 0 = 8 sin ^ — oj .

441. In each of the following, a circle is represented

by its polar equation:
1) o = 3 cos0; 2) Q = 4 sin 0; 3) n = cosO — sin 0.
Write the equation of each circle in a rectangular carte¬
sian coordinate system whose positive x-axis coincides
with the polar axis and whose origin coincides with the
pole.
442. In each of the following, a circle is represented by
its cartesian equation: 1) x2 + t/2 = x; 2) x2 4- u- = — 3,r
3) x2 -I- y2 = 5 w; 4) x y* = y\ 5) x2 -f if- = x -f- y. Write
the equation of each circle in a polar coordinate system
whose polar axis coincides with the positive x-axis and
whose pole coincides with the origin.
443. Find the polar equation of the line tangent to the
circle q = R at the point Mt(R, 0).

§ 18. The Ellipse

An ellipse is the locus of points, the sum of whose distances
from two hxed points (called the foci) in the plane is a constant
greater than the distance between the foci. The constant sum of the
 84 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

distances of an arbitrary point of an ellipse from its foci is gener¬

ally denoted by 2a. The foci of an ellipse are designated as F F
and the distance between them as 2c. By the definition of the el¬
lipse, 2a > 2c, or a > c.
Let there be given an ellipse. If the axes of a rectangular car¬
tesian coordinate system are chosen so that the foci of the given
ellipse are symmetrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the
origin, then the equation of the given ellipse (referred to this coor¬
dinate system) has the form

where b — \ a2 — c2; obviously, a > b. An equation of the form (I)

is called the canonical equation of an ellipse.

Fig. 12.

When the coordinate system is chosen as indicated above, then

the coordinate axes are the axes of symmetry of the ellipse, and
the origin is its centre of symmetry (Fig. 12). The axes of sym¬
metry of an ellipse are referred to simply as its axes, and the centre
of symmetry simply as the centre of the ellipse. The points where
an ellipse cuts its axes are called its vertices. In Fig. 12, the ver¬
tices of the ellipse are the points A', A, B\ and B. The term “axes
of the ellipse” is often applied also to the segments A'A=2a and
B'B=2b\ the segment OA=a is then called the semi-major axis,
and the segment OB = b, the semi-minor axis of the ellipse.
If the foci of an ellipse are situated on the //-axis (symmetrically
with respect to the origin), then the equation of the ellipse still is
of the form (1), but in this case b > a\ hence, if a is still to denote
the semi-major axis, the letters a and b must be interchanged in
equation (1). However, for convenient formulation of subsequent
problems, we shall agree to let a always denote the semi-axis lying
on the x-axis, and b the semi-axis lying on the (/-axis, irrespective
of whether a is greater or smaller than b. If a = b, equation (1) rep¬
resents a circle, which is regarded as a special case of the ellipse.
 § 18. The Ellipse 85

The number
e ^ — ,
a
where a is the semi-major axis, is called the eccentricity of the el¬
lipse. Clearly, e< 1 (for a circle, e = 0). Let M (x, ;/) be an arbi¬
trary point of an ellipse; then the segments FvM=rl and F2M = r2
are called the focal radii of the point M (see Fig. 12). The focal
radii can be calculated from the formulas
rl = a + ex, r2=a — ex.
In the case of an ellipse represented by equation (1), where
a > b, the lines
_ a a
E ~ E

(Fig. 12) are called the directrices of the ellipse. If b > a, the

directrices are determined by the equations y = — =

Each of the directrices possesses the

following property: If r is the distance
from an arbitrary point of an ellipse to
one of its foci, and d is the distance |
from the same point to the directrix i ' \

-''/xs
/Ay.

Fig. 13. Fig. 14.

associated with that focus, then the ratio ~ is a constant equal

to the eccentricity of the ellipse:

= e.

Let two planes, a and p, make an acute angle rc, and let a
circ e of radius a lie in the plane a; then the projection of this circle
axis MX P„iS an *,lipsf *ith setr>i-rnajor axis a; the semi-minor
axis b of the ellipse (Fig. 13) is given by the formula
b = a cos tp.
 8fi Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of (he Second Order

Let a circular cylinder have a circle of radius b as its directing

anolp’ therth h(t sectl.on °f this cylinder by a plane (making an acutf
angle cp with the axis of the cylinder) will be an ellipse with its
semi-minor axis equal to b\ the semi-major axis of the ellipse (Fig. 14)
is determined by the formula eve /

sin cp

444. Find the equation of the ellipse whose foci are

* • | ^ on the x-axis with respect to the
origin, and which satisfies the following conditions:
1) the semi-axes are equal to 5 and 2;
2) the major axis equals If), and the distance between
the foci 2c = 8;
3) the minor axis equals 24, and the distance between
the foci 2c= 10;
4) the distance between the foci 2c = 6, and the eccen¬
tricity e = -5-;
o
5) the major axis equals 20, and the eccentricity

e ~5 ;

6) the minor axis is 10, and the eccentricity e = j|;

7) the distance between the directrices is 5, and the
distance between the foci 2c = 4;
8) the major axis equals 8, and the distance between
the directrices is 16;
9) the minor axis equals 6, and the distance between
the directrices is 13;
10) the distance between the directrices is 32, and e = y .
445. Write the equation of the ellipse whose foci are
symmetrically situated on the ^-axis with respect to the
origin, and which satisfies the following conditions:
1) the semi-axes are equal to 7 and 2;
2) the major axis equals 10, and the distance between
the foci 2c = 8;
3) the distance between the foci 2c = 24, and the eccen-
.tricity
. .. 12
e = j-g ;
3
4) the minor axis is 16, and the eccentricity e = j;
 § IS. The Ellipse 87

5) (he distance between the foci 2c = 6, and the distance

2
between the directrices is 16T;
u
2
6) the distance between the directrices is 10y, and ihe
3
eccentricity e=^-.
446. Determine the semi-axes of each of the following
ellipses:

u x . y _ i.
[} Tg * 9" ’ 2) j+y 3) x2 -p 25(/2 = 25;

4) x2 + 5if = 15; 5) 4x2 + 9y2 = 25; 6) 9a-* 4- 25/y

7) x2 -j- 4y 8) 16x2-j-</2=16; 9) 25x2-j-9y
10) 9x2 -f i/2 = 1.
447. Given the ellipse 9x2 -f-25//* = 225. Find: 1) the
semi-axes; 2) the foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the equations
of the directrices.
448. Calculate the area of the quadrilateral, two of
whose vertices lie at the foci of the ellipse
x2 + 5(/2 = 20,
and whose other two vertices coincide with the ends of
the minor axis of the ellipse.
449. Given the ellipse 9x2 + 5;/2 = 45. Find: 1) the semi-
axes; 2) the foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the equations of
the directrices.
450. Calculate the area of the quadrilateral, two of
whose vertices lie at the foci of the ellipse
9x2 4- 5//2 = 1,
and whose other two vertices coincide with the ends of
the minor axis of the ellipse.
451. Calculate the distance from the focus F (c, 0) of
the ellipse
r2 u2

a‘ ‘ b2 1

to the directrix associated with this focus (i. e., to the

directrix lying on the same side of the centre as the fo¬
cus F).
 88 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

452. Using a pair of compasses alone, construct the

foci of the ellipse ^ + 1 (assuming that the coordinale
axes have been drawn and a unit segment chosen).
453. On the ellipse
xz u*
—-t- — — 1
25 ^ 4 ~ 1 ’
find the points whose abscissa is equal to ■ 3.
454. Determine which of the points
AA- 2, 3),
> ,( ,
1 2 -2), A,(2, -4), At ( 1, 3), As (—4, -3),
>1.(3, - -1), A7 (3, -2), (2, 1). >1.(0, 15) A,
and
— 16) lie inside, on, or outside the ellipse
8x2 -f 5 y = 77.
455. Identify and plot the curves represented by the
following equations:

1) y=+ V16 — a:2;

3)

2
456. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is y , and one focal
radius of a point M on this ellipse is equal to 10. Calcu¬
late the distance from the point M to the directrix asso¬
ciated with the focus in question.
2
457. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is -r, and the
distance from a point M on the ellipse to one of the di¬
rectrices is equal to 20. Calculate the distance from the
point M to the focus associated with this directrix.
458. Given the point Mx ^2, —y^ on the ellipse

x± + y-=\-
9 ' 5 9

write the equations of the straight lines along which the

focal radii of the point Mx lie.
459. Verify that the point /Vf, (—4, 2.4) lies on the
ellipse
£! + ^=l
25 ' 16 ’

and determine the focal radii of the point Mx.

 § IS. The Ellipse 89

460. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is ~ , its centre

is at the origin, and one of its foci is F(—2, 0). Calcu¬
late the distance from a point M, of the ellipse to the
directrix associated with the given focus, if the abscissa
of Ml is 2. . j
461. The eccentricity e of an ellipse is y, its centre
is at the origin, and one of its directrices is given by the
equation x=16. Calculate the distance from a point Ml
of the ellipse to the focus associated with the given direc¬
trix, if the abscissa of M is —4.
.2 9

462. Determine those points of the ellipse j^ + ~ = 1

whose distance from the right-hand focus is equal to 14.
2 *>

463. Determine those points of the ellipse ^ + 1

whose distance from the left-hand focus is equal to 2.5.
2 2

464. Through a focus of the ellipse ^ + fr = l, a per¬

pendicular is drawn to its major axis. Determine the dis¬
tances from the foci to the points in which the perpen¬
dicular cuts the ellipse.
465. Write the equation of the ellipse with its foci sym¬
metrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the origin,
given:
1) the point /M,(—2\ 5, 2) of the ellipse and its semi¬
minor axis 6=^3;
2) the point Af»(2, —2) of the ellipse and its semi-major
axis a--= 4;
3) the points M,(4, — V"3) and M2(2j/2, 3) of the
ellipse;
4) the point /W,(V75, —1) of the elli pse and the dis¬
tance between its foci 2c = 8;
5) the point Af, i 2, —of the ellipse and its eccen¬
tricity e = |-;
6) the point At, (8, 12) of the ellipse and the distance
r, = 20 of At, from the jeft-hand focus;
7) the point M,(—V5, 2) of the ellipse and the dis¬
tance be.ween its directrices equal to 10.
90 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

466. Determine the eccentricity e of an ellipse, if:

1) the minor axis subtends an angle of 60° at each
focus;
2) the line segment between the foci subtends a right
angle at each of the vertices on the minor axis;
3) the distance between the directrices is three times
the distance between the foci;
4) the segment of the perpendicular from the centre of
the ellipse to a directrix is bisected at the corresponding
vertex.
467. Through the focus F of an ellipse, a perpendicular
is drawn to its major axis (Fig. 15). Determine that value
of the eccentricity of the ellipse for which the line seg¬
ments AB and OC will be parallel.

y
>3

468. Find the equation of an ellipse with semi-axes a,

b and centre C (xQl */0), if the axes of symmetry of the
ellipse are parallel to the coordinate axes.
469. An ellipse touches the x-axis at the point A (3, 0),
and the y-axis at the point 5(0, —4). Write the equation
of the ellipse, given that its axes of symmetry are parallel
to the coordinate axes.
470. The point C(—3, 2) is the centre of an ellipse
which touches both coordinate axes. Write the equation
 § 18. The Ellipse 91

of the ellipse, given that its axes of symmetry are paral¬

lel to the coordinate axes.
471. Show that each of the following equations repre¬
sents an ellipse, and find the coordinates of its centre C,
the semi-axes, the eccentricity, and the equations of the
directrices:
1) 5x* + 9y — 3(k+18t/-f 9=0;
2) 16x! + 25(/2-f-32x— lOOy — 284 = 0;
3) 4.v2 -f-3r/2 — 8x-f \2y— 32=0.

472. Identify and plot the curves represented by the fol¬

lowing equations:

!) y = — 7 + jV 16-j-6x—x2; 2) y=? 1—1J/—6x—x!;

3) 2/—5-6(/-i/J; 4) x = —5 + | 1/8+2y—yl

473. Write the equation of the ellipse satisfying the fol¬

lowing conditions:
1) the major axis equals 26, and the foci are F (—10 0)
and Fj (14, 0); 1 ’ ’
2) the minor axis equals 2, and the foci are F, (—1, —1),
2 (1• 1 )>

3) the foci are F, (-2, , F, (2, -|) , and the ec¬

centricity ;

4) the foci are F,(l, 3), Ft(3, 1), and the distance be-
tween the directrices is 121/2.
474. Find the equation of an ellipse, given the eccen¬
tricity 6— y , one focus F (2, 1), and the equation *-5 = 0
of the directrix corresponding to this focus.
475. Find the equation of an ellipse, given the eccen-
tricity e=y, one focus F (-4, 1), and the equation
i/ + 3 = 0 of the directrix corresponding to this focus
, 476‘ Ttle l°'n{ -5) lies on an ellipse which
as a focus F(—1,-4) and whose corresponding directrix
 92 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

is given by the equation

*-2=0.

Write the equation of the ellipse.

477. Find the equation of an ellipse, given the eccent-
ricity e = -i , one focus F(3, 0), and the equation x + y —
— 1=0 of the directrix corresponding to this focus.
478. The point M, (2, —1) lies on an ellipse which has
a focus F (1, 0) and whose corresponding directrix is given
by the equation
2x — y— 10 = 0.
Write the equation of the ellipse.
479. The point Mx(3, —1) is an end point of the minor
axis of an ellipse whose foci lie on the line y-\- 6 = 0.
Write the equation of the ellipse, if its eccentricity

480. Find the points of intersection of the line *4-2;/—

— 7 = 0 and the ellipse x2 -f 4y2 = 25.
481. Find the points of intersection of the line
2 2

3*4-10y— 25 = 0 and the ellipse ~4-^-= 1.

482. Find the points of intersection of the line 3x—4y —
— 40 = 0 and the ellipse
483. In each of the following, determine whether the
given line cuts, touches, or fails to meet the given ellipse:
1) 2x—y—3 = 0, 2) 2x -\-y—10=0,
*!_]_£ = i-
le+Q--1, 9+4 *’

3) 3x + 2y — 20=0,

40 ■ To
484. Determine the values of m for which the line
y^ — x + m: 2 t
1) cuts the ellipse ^4-2) touches the ellipse;
3) passes outside the ellipse.
 § 18. The Ellipse 93

485. Find the condition under which the line ij—kx-\-m

touches the ellipse —= i
a2 * b2
486. Write the equation of the tangent line to the el¬
lipse

at the point M,(xv yx).

487. Prove that the tangent lines to the ellipse

£,£ = 1
a2 "r 62

at the end points of a diameter are parallel (A diameter

of an ellipse is defined as a chord passing through the
centre.)
488. Write the equations of the tangent lines to the
ellipse
x2 , 2(/2
10
= 1

which are parallel to the line

3jt + 2(/ + 7 = 0.
489. Write the equations of the tangent lines to the
ellipse
x2 + 4 tf — 20
which are perpendicular to the line
2x— 2y— 13 = 0.
490. Draw the tangent lines to the ellipse
£ , £ __ 1
30 ^ 24 1

which are parallel to the line

4x—2y -f- 23 = 0.
and calculate the distance d between them
491. On the ellipse
94 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

find the point Mx nearest to the line

2x—3y 25 = 0,

and calculate the distance d from Ml to this line.

492. From the point j , tangent lines are

drawn to the ellipse

Write their equations.

493. From the point C(10, —8), tangent lines are drawn
to the ellipse

25 ' 16 1#

Write the equation of the chord joining the points of

contact.
494. From the point P(—16, 9), tangent lines are drawn
to the ellipse

Calculate the distance d from P to that chord of the el¬

lipse which joins the points of contact.
495. An ellipse passes through the point A (4, —1) and
touches the line ;c + 4y—10 = 0. Find the equation of this
ellipse, given that its axes coincide with the coordinate
axes.
496. Find the equation of the ellipse whose axes are
coincident with the coordinate axes and which touches the
two lines 3x — 2y — 20 = 0, * + 6// — 20=0.
497. Prove that the product of the distances from the
centre of an ellipse to the intersection point of any of its
tangents with the focal axis, and to the foot of the per¬
pendicular dropped from the point of contact to the focal
axis, is a constant equal to the square of the length of
the semi-major axis of the ellipse.
498. Prove that the product of the distances from the
foci to any tangent to an ellipse is equal to the square
of the length of the semi-minor axis.
 § 18. The Ellipse 95

499. The line x — y — 5 = 0 touches an ellipse whose foci

are at the points F, (—3, 0) and F, (3, 0). Write the equa¬
tion of the ellipse.
500. Find the equation of an ellipse, if its foci are
symmetrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the
origin, 3x-f-10i/ 25 = 0 is the equation of a tangent to
the ellipse, and if its semi-minor axis b— 2.
Prove that the tangent line to an ellipse at a point
M makes equal angles with the focal radii F./Vf, F M and
passes externally to the angle F,MF2.
502. From the left-hand focus of the ellipse
x*
‘L = \
is i
20 ’

a ray of light is sent at an obtuse angle a(tanct =_2)

to the axis Ox. Upon reaching the ellipse, the ray is
reflected from it. Write the equation of the straight line
along which the reflected ray travels.
503. Determine the points of intersection of the two
ellipses
x2 -f 9r/2 — 45 = 0, x2 4- 9i/2 — 6x - 27 = 0.
504. Verify that the two ellipses
nV + mV mV = 0, m!x2 -f nV 2
m n 2
0 (rn 4= n)
mtersect in four points which lie on a circle with centre
at the origin, and determine the radius R of this circle.
505. Two planes, a and p, make an angle a)=30°’
De ermine the semi-axes of the ellipse obtained by pro-
jecting a circle of radius /?= 10, lying in the plane a,
on the plane (5.
506. An ellipse whose semi-minor axis equals 6 is the
CZctl°rf * circle o{ radius /?=12- F'nd the angle cp
bet^en_Jhe Planes m which the ellipse and the circle lie
307 The directing curve of a circular cylinder is a circle
ih,rai?1US = Determine the semi-axes of the ellipse

an angie (p = 30° with the axis of the cylinder g

508. The directing curve of a circular cylinder is a circle
o radius R = y3. Determine the angle which a cutting
Plane must make with the axis of the cylinder in orde?
96 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

that the section should be an ellipse with semi-major axis

a = 2.
509. A uniform compression (elongation) of the plane
towards the x-axis is defined as the transformation of
points in the plane (Fig. 16) which carries an arbitrary
point M(xy y) into a point M'(x'y y') such that
— >

*'=*. y' = qy,

where </>0 is a constant called the coefficient of com¬
pression.

Fig 16. Fig. 17.

Similarly, a uniform compression of the plane towards

the y-axis is determined (Fig. 17) by the equations
x' = qx, y' = y-
Find the curve into which the circle
*’ + *,’ = 25

is transformed by a uniform compression of the plane to¬

wards the x-axis, if the coefficient of compression q=-g- .
510. Find the equation of the curve into which the el¬
lipse 1 is transformed by a uniform compression
of the plane towards the axis Oyt if the coefficient of
compression is equal to j.
 # 19. The Hyperbola 97

, 5n; Find the equalion of the curve into which the ellipse
49+9'= 1 is transformed by two consecutive uniform com¬

pressions of the plane (towards the jc-axis and then to¬

wards the (/-axis), if the respective coefficients of compres¬
sion are | and |.

• 5,2'c ?Lete™ine lhe coefficient q of the uniform compres¬

sion of the plane towards the axis Ox, under which the
ellipse gg-f + =i is transformed into the ellipse - + y-=\
r 36 1 16
513 Determine the coefficient q of the uniform compres¬
sion of the plane towards the axis Oy, under which the
ellipse +
81 + " = 1 is transformed into the ellipse ^ + £=1.
1 25
514 Determine the coefficients Ql and qof the two
consecutive uniform compressions of the plane'towards the
^ - *>

A- y
axes Ox and Oy, under which the ellipse '--f- 1 is
transformed into the circle x -\-y2= 16. 2 2° 9

§ 19. The Hyperbola

from tywornxed'S poiJu^ca’lle^'the’ foci^'hUhe^l^ W-h°Se d'Stances

tola'll roo?dln'|5l,s,vnjttmyf5b?hoJf "".JT '“Angular car-

hyperbola are symmetrically situated on h! J ' foc‘,of ihe given
the origin, then the equation of the hyperbola /referredht rfj!peCt t0
dinate system) has the form >Perbola (referrea to this coor-

il
_ a2 62 — 1* (1)

rca|re^w1iOTCorfhyAperbolaati°\v\1nthtLf0rm l” 'f Ca"ed the canon'

as indicated above, Then the coordin l S,.yStem is chosen
metry of the hyperbola nnrl th rd Ha!e axes are the axes of sym-
(Fig 18). The axPes oftymmefry o a°/;itnrho|itS
as its axes, and the centre of svmmitr l b It ^
referreti to simply
hola. A hyperbola intersects one of its^/L^he6™;6*0* I*'6 hyper‘

"I the hyperbola^..^ ^ ^%'^*'

1 0 Fi«- '»• “» ««rtta
4-2250
98 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

The rectangle with sides 2a and 2b, which is symmetrical with

respect to the axes of a hyperbola and tangent to it at the vertices,
is called the fundamental rectangle of the hyperbola.
The term “axes of the hyperbola” is also applied to the line seg¬
ments of lengths 2a and 2b, which join the midpoints of the opposite

sides of the fundamental rectangle. The diagonals (extended indefi¬

nitely) of the fundamental rectangle are the asymptotes of the hyper¬
bola; the equations of the asymptotes are

The equation

represents a hyperbola symmetrical with respect to the coordinate

axes and having its foci on the y-axis; like equation (1), equation
(2) is called the canonical equation of a hyperbola; in this case, the
constant difference of the distances from an arbitrary point of a hy¬
perbola to its foci is equal to 2b. )
Two hyperbolas represented, in the same coordinate system, by
the equations

a* 6* ’ a2^ b2

are said to be conjugate. .. . .

A hyperbola with equal semi-axes (a = b) is called an equilateral
hyperbola; its canonical equation is of the form

x2—y* = a2 or — x2-\-y2 = a2.

 § 19. The Hyperbola

The number
c
e=— ,
a

where a is the distance from the centre of a hyperbola to its vertex

is called the eccentricity of the hyperbola. Obviously, e > 1 for every
yperbola. Let M (x, #) be an arbitrary point of a hyperbola; then
the segments F MI and FtM (see Fig. 18) are called'the focal radii
o the point M. The focal radii of points on the right-hand branch
of a hyperbola are calculated from the formulas
r\ = ex~}~a, r2 = ex — a;

the formulas'' °f P°'ntS °n ^ left'hand branch are calculated from

r, = —ex — a r2= —ex-i a.

Ijng5 the case of 3 h>'Perbola represented by equation (I), the straight

x ___a x_ a

are called the directrices of the hyperbola (see Fig. 18) In the case
minedybPyerfh?eXti'onsted ^ eqUa,i°n (2)’ the direc,rices are deter‘

y=-
7-
Each of the directrices possesses the following property If r is «h»
rn arbi!rary P°int of a hVPerbS.i Toneofits foe
and d the distance from the same point to the directrix associated
with that focus, then the ratio 7 is a cons(ant equa| ,Q ,he ecee
A _• _ • a f i | . . ^

tricity of the hyperbola:

J = E-

515. Write the equation of the hvnerhola r •

are ^mmetricaHy situated on the *-axis with respect to the
0 ‘K111.’.and W1‘ch satisfies the following conditions-
1) the axes 2a = \0 and 26 = 8- Sl
^ the distance between the foci 2c-10. and the axis

3) the distance between the foci 2c=6, and the eccen

tricity e=|;

4) the axis 2a= 16 and the eccentricity e = -;

4*
100 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

5) the equations of the asymptotes are

, 4
y=±jx>
and the distance between the foci 2c=20;
6) the distance between the directrices is equal to 22^ ,
1 v)

and the distance between the foci 2c = 26;

oo
7) the distance between the directrices is y, and the
axis 2b = 6\
8
8) Ihe distance between the directrices is , and the
3
eccentricity e —
^ 3
9) the equations of the asymptotes are y=± — x, and

the distance between the directrices is 12 4.

o
516. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci are
symmetrically situated on the //-axis with respect to the
origin, and which satisfies the following conditions:
1) the semi-axes a — 6, b=18 (the letter a denotes here
the semi-axis of the hyperbola lying on the x-axis);
2) the distance between the foci 2c=10, and the eccen¬
tricity e = -|;
3) the equations of the asymptotes are

y=±

and the distance between the vertices equals 48;

4) the distance between the directrices is 7y, and the
7
eccentricity e = -g-1

5) the equations ol the asymptotes are y=±-j x> an^

2
the distance between the directrices is 6^-.
517. Determine the semi-axes a and b of each of the
following hyperbolas:

21 31
 S 19. The Hyperbola 101

4) x2 lJ2 — 1; 5) 4a:2-9y* = 25; 6) 25**— \6y2 = 1;

7) 9x2—64y2= 1.

518. Given the hyperbola 1 6at2—9//2 = 144. Find: 1) its

semi-axes a and b\ 2) its foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the
equations of the asymptotes; 5) the equations of the direct-
rices.
519. Given (he hyperbola 16x2 — 9/y2 = — 144. Find: 1) (he
semi-axes a and b\ 2) the foci; 3) the eccentricity; 4) the
equations of the asymptotes; 5) the equations of the direc¬
trices.
520. Calculate the area of the triangle formed by the
asymptotes of the hyperbola

*2 _J'2 - i
4 9
and by the line
9x + 2// — 24 =0.
521. Identify and plot the curves represented by the
following equations:

*) y= + T — 9, 2) //= —3 VxTfT,

3)x= — jVy, + 9. 4) y= + |yiT+25.

522. Given the point (10, — K5) on the hyperbola

2

i
80 20 1’
Find the equations of the straight lines along which the
focal radii of Mx lie.
523. Verify that the point Mx 9
5, j J lies on the hy-
perbola

16 n — 1»

and determine the focal radii of Mx

%3Z ,he *•
 102 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

525. The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is 3, the distance

from a point M of the hyperbola to a directrix equals 4.
Find the distance from the point M to the focus associated
with this directrix.
526. The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is 2, its centre
lies at the origin, and one of the'foci is Z7(12, 0). Calculate
the distance from a point of the hyperbola to the di¬
rectrix associated with the given focus, if the abscissa of
Mx is 13.
— Q
527. The eccentricity e of a hyperbola is y, its centre
lies at the origin, and one of the directrices is represented
by the equation x= — 8. Calculate the distance from a
point Mx on the hyperbola to the focus associated with
the given directrix, if the abscissa of Mx is equal to 10.

528. Determine those points of the hyperbola ^—|^ = 1

whose distance from the right-hand focus is 4.5.
x2 u1
529. Determine those points of the hyperbola-^— fg = 1
whose distance from the left-hand focus is 7.
530. Through the left-hand focus of the hyperbola
X2 n2
— 25=1’ a Perpendicular is drawn to the axis containing
the vertices. Determine the distances from the foci to the
points in which this perpendicular cuts the hyperbola.
531. Using a pair of compasses alone, construct the foci
<

of the hyperbola y 1 (assuming that the coordinate

16 25
axes have been drawn and a unit segment chosen).
532. Write the equation of a hyperbola whose foci are
symmetrically situated on the x-axis with respect to the
origin, given: _
1) the points Af, (6, -1) and M2(-8, 2\r2) of the
hyperbola;
2) the point Mx( — 5, 3) of the hyperbola and the eccen¬
tricity e = ]/2;
• 3) the point Mx{^9 — 1) of the hyperbola and the

equations y=± y * of the asymptotes;

 $ 19. The Hyperbola 103

4) the point Mx [ — 3, of the hyperbola and the equa¬

2
tions ± j of the directrices;

) the equations y~±—x of the asymptotes and the

.. 16
equations x = ^ — of the directrices.

533. Determine the eccentricity of an equilateral hyperbola'

534. Determine the eccentricity of a hyperbola, if the line
segment between its vertices subtends an angle of 60° at
each focus of the conjugate hyperbola.
535. The Joe i of a hyperbola coincide with the foci of
the ellipse Find the equation of the hyperbola
if its eccentricity e = 2.
536. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose foci lie
at the vertices of the ellipse + and whose direc-
tri® Pass through the foci of this ellipse.
537. Prove that the distance from a focus of the hyperbola

y
a 1
V
to its asymptote is equal to b

orfthe hyperbola* °'the dis,a"“s °< a"y Point

a bf — [

from its two asymptotes is a constant equal to a b

the^y /te hyperbola" ParaI,e'°gram by

a F=1

° 2 *

are a and 6* the ^enfr^sT fx hyp<rrbola’ if its semi-axes

’ Cen,re 1S CK- y0), and if the foci lie
104 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

on a line:
1) parallel to the axis Ox\
2) parallel to the axis Oy.

541. Verify that each of the following equations rep¬

resents a hyperbola, and find: the coordinates of its centre C,
the semi-axes, the eccentricity, the equations of the asym¬
ptotes, and the equations of the directrices:

1) 16x2 — 9y2 — 64* — 54y —161—0;

2) 9x2 — 16y2 + 90* + 32// — 367=0;
3) \6x2-9y2 -64x- 18//+ 199 = 0.

542. Identify and plot the curves represented by the fol¬

lowing equations:

1) y=-\+^Vx*-Ax-S, 2) y = 7-yJ/V-6*+13,

3) x = 9 — 2VV + 4r/ + 8, 4) x = 5 — jVy* -M«/—12.

543. Write the equation of the hyperbola satisfying the

following conditions:
1) the distance between its vertices is 24, and the foci
are Fx ( — 10, 2), F2 (16, 2);
2) the foci are (3, 4), F2( — 3, —4), and the distance
between the directrices equals 3.6;
3) the angle between the asymptotes is 9(V, and the foci
are F x (4, -4), F2(- 2, 2).
544. Find the equation of a hyperbola, given its eccen¬
tricity 8 = , one focus F (5, 0), and the equation 5a: — 16 = 0
of the directrix associated with this focus.
545. Find the equation of a hyperbola, given its eccen¬
tricity e = ||,one focus F(0, 13), and the equation 13y
— 144 = 0 of the directrix associated with this focus.
546. The point A ( — 3, —5) lies on a hyperbola which
has F( — 2,-3) as its focus and whose directrix corre¬
sponding to this focus is represented by the equation
*+1=0.
Find the equation of the hyperbola.
 § 19. The Hyperbola 105

547. Findjhe equation of a hyperbola, given its eccen¬

tricity e = ] 5, one focus F(2, —3), and the equation
3x—y f 3 = 0
of the directrix corresponding to this focus.
548. The point AT 1 (1, —2) lies on a hyperbola which
has F ( — 2,2) as its focus and whose directrix correspond¬
ing to this focus is represented by the equation
2x — y—\=0.
Write the equation of the hyperbola.
549. Given the equation *2 — r/2 = a2 of an equilateral
hyperbola. Find its equation in the new system when its
asymptotes are taken as the coordinate axes.
550. In each of the following, show that the equation
represents a hyperbola, find its centre, semi-axes, the equa¬
tions of the asymptotes, and draw the figure-
1) xy = 18; 2) 2xr/ —9 = 0; 3) 2*r/ + 25 = 0.
551. Find the points of intersection of the line 2x — y —
—10 = 0and the hyperbola £ —
__ 0
552. Find the points of intersection of the line 4x —3y —
— 16 = 0 and the hyperbola ^—— = 1.
25 16
553. Find the points of intersection of the line 2x — y+
+ 1=0 and the hyperbola— — — = 0
9 4
554. In each of the following, determine whether the
bola” mC CU^S’ ^0uc*ies’ or ^a'^s *° mee^ given hyper-
X
1=1
oo

«#o

1) JC-
i

II
1

12“ 3 lf
x2
2) X- -2y+\=0,
16
1=1
-

9
*2
3) 7x--5r/ = 0,
25 -y~=\
16 im

555. Determine the values of m for which the line

y = YX + m:

1) cuts the hyperbola 1; 2) touches this hyper-

bola, 3) passes outside the hyperbola.
 556. Find the condition under which the line y = kx\tn
touches the hyperbola ~ —|i=i.
557. ^Find2 the equation of the tangent line to the hyper-
boia at jts point
558. Prove that the tangent lines to a hyperbola at the
end points of a diameter of the hyperbola are parallel.
559. Write the equations of the tangent lines to the
hyperbola — — = 1 which are perpendicular to the line
4x + 3y — 7 = 0,
560. Write the equations of the tangent lines to the
hyperbola ~ — l^= 1 which are parallel to the line

lOx — 3y -|-9 = 0.
561. Draw the lines tangent to the hyperbola

16 8 “ 1
and parallel to the line
2x + 4y — 5 = 0;
compute the distance d between them.
562. On the hyperbola

24 18

find the point M1 nearest to the line

3x -f 2y -f- 1 = 0,
and compute the distance d from M1 to this line.
563. Find the equations of the tangent lines drawn from
the point A(—l, —7) to the hyperbola x2 — y2= 16.
564. From the point C( 1, —10), tangent lines are drawn
to the hyperbola y—J^=l. Write the equation of the
chord joining the points of contact.
565. From the point P( 1, —5), tangent lines are drawn
to the hyperbola f-= 1. Calculate the distanced from P
5
 $ 19. The Hyperbola io?

to that chord of the hyperbola which joins the points of

contact.
566. A hyperbola passes through the point A{V6 3)
and touches the line 9*+ 2y- 15 = 0. Write the equation
of this hyperbola, given that its axes coincide with the
coordinate axes.
567. Find the equation of the hyperbola whose axes are
coincident with the coordinate axes and which touches the
two lines 5x — 6//— 16 = 0, 13*- 1 Of/-48 = 0.
568. Show that the points of intersection of the ellipse
xz y* -2 2 *
2Q--|-y=l and the hyperbola ~—~ = 1 are the vertices
of a rectangle, and find the equations of the sides of this
rectangle.
2 2

569. Given the hyperbola 1 and any tangent

line to it; P is the point of intersection of this tangent
line with the axis Ox, and Q is the projection of the point
of contact on the axis Ox. Prove that
OP -OQ =a2.
570. Prove that the foci of a hyperbola lie on opposite
sides of any tangent line to the hyperbola.
571. Prove that the product of the distances from the
foci to any tangent line to the hyperbola

a b2 = 1
is a constant equal to b2.
572. The line
2*-// —4 0
tou,chf/Qa hyperbola whose foci are at the points F. (- 3, 0)
?\uWnte the eclualion of the hyperbola.
573. bind the equation of a hyperbola, given that its foci
nnaSyTe riK Y situated on the *-axis with respect to the
onbin, that 15*-16// — 36 = 0 is the equation of a tangent

vertte =r • “d thal lhe distance its

57(4'<,PrOV,e lllat the tangent line to a hyperbola at a
point M makes equal angles with the focal radfi F M F M
and passes within the angle FlMF.i. ’ ‘
 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

575. From the right-hand focus of the hyperbola

a ray of light is sent at an angle a

tan a = 2j to the axis Ox. Upon reachingthe hyperbola, the

ray is reflected from it. Find the equation of the straight
line along which the reflected ray travels.
576. Prove that an ellipse and a hyperbola which have
the same foci intersect at right angles.
577. Find the equation of the curve Into which the hy-
X*
perbola —g- = 1 is transformed by a uniform compression
of the plane towards the axis Ox, if the coefficient of com-
. 4
pression is -j.
Hint. See Problem 509.
578. Find the equation of the curve into which the hy-
X2 u2
perbola ^ —1-= 1 is transformed by a uniform compression
of the plane towards the axis Oy, if the coefficient of*com-
. 4
pression is .
579. Find the equation of the curve into which the hy¬
perbola x2—y2 — 9 is transformed by two consecutive uni¬
form compressions of the plane (towards the x-axis and
then towards the y-axis), if the respective coefficients of
2 ,5
compression are — and 7r.
580. Determine the coefficient q of the uniform compres¬
sion of the plane towards the axis Ox, under which the
hyperbola ^ transformed into the hyperbola
i
25 16 1’
581. Determine the coefficient q of the uniform compres¬
sion of the plane towards the axis Oy, under which the
hvperbola -A—= 1 is transformed into the hyperbola
 § 20. The Parabola 109

582. Determine the coefficients qx and q2 of the two con¬

secutive uniform compressions of the plane towards the axes
2 v

0x and Oy, under which the hyperbola ^ — ^=1 istrans-

2 •>

formed into the hyperbola

§ 20. The Parabola

( *ar£0\a 's ^ie ^ocus P0»nts whose distance from a fixed point
(called the focus) in the plane is equal to their distance from a fixed
straight line (called the directrix). The focus of a parabola is denoted
* and t,ie distance from the focus to the directrix by n. The
number p is called the parameter of a parabola.
Let there be given a parabola; let the x-axis of the chosen rect¬
angular cartesian system of coordinates pass through the focus of

the given parabola perpendicular to the directrix anH hp Hirct a

mm the directrix to the" focus, and let the o g n be p aced £

l.m. ,h. e,„„ parabola ^

y* —“y*.
v = 2px. (I j

Equation (1) is called the canonical equation of the Darahola inti,,

sn;q,r.r'' "»«»stft h1.?.;
 110
Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

u^thp0?1 rt^USf ?[ 3n arbitrary Point M (*» y) of the parabola (that

is, the length of the segment FM) may be calculated from the for-

f parab?^ has ?ne ^xis of symmetry, which is called the axis

of the parabola and which cuts the parabola in a single point; this
point ot intersection of the parabola and its axis is called the vertex
of the parabola. When the coordinate system is chosen as indicated
above the axis of the parabola coincides with the x-axis, the vertex
is at the origin, and the entire parabola lies in the right half-plane.
It the coordinate system is chosen so that the x-axis coincides
with the axis of the parabola, the origin coincides with the vertex,

Fig. 21.

but the parabola lies in the left half-plane (Fig. 20), then the equa¬
tion of the parabola is of the form
y2 —— 2 px. (2)
In the case when the vertex is at the origin and the axis of the
parabola is coincident with the //-axis, the parabola will be repre¬
sented by the equation
x* = 2 py
if the parabola lies in the upper half-plane (Fig. 21), and by the
equation
x2 = — 2 py (4)

if it lies in the lower half-plane (Fig. 22).

Each of equations (2), (3), (4), as well as equation (1), is referred
lo as the canonical equation of a parabola.
 § 20. The Parabola 111

583. Find the equation of a parabola with vertex at the

origin, if:
1) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the right
half-plane with respect to the axis Ox, and its parameter
P = 3;
2) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the left
half-plane with respect to the axis Ox, and its parameter
P=0.5;
3) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the upper
half-Diane with respect to the axis Op, and its parameter

p= r-
4) the parabola is symmetrically situated in the lower
half-plane with respect to the axis Op, and its parameter
P — 3.
584. Determine the value of the parameter and the
position (with respect to the coordinate axes) of the fol¬
lowing parabolas:

1) y2 = 6x; 2) x2 = 5y\ 3) y'2 = — 4.v; 4) x2 = y

585. Find the equation of a parabola with vertex at the
origin, if:
1) the parabola is symmetrically situated with respect
to the axis Ox and passes through the point A (9, 6);
2) the parabola is symmetrically situated with’ re¬
spect to the axis Ox and passes through the point
° ( 1 > 3);
3) the parabola is symmetrically situated with respect
to the axis Oy and passes through the point C(l, 1);
4) the parabola is symmetrical with respect to’the’axis
Oy and passes through the point D(4,-8).
586. A steel cable hangs from its two end supports;
these supports are at the same level, and the distance be-
ween them is 20 m. At a (horizontal) distance of 2 m
from each support, the sag of the cable equals 14.4 cm
Determine the dip of the cable (i. e„ the value of its sag
midway between the supports) if the cable approximately
forms an arc of a parabola. y

fo™/Vmrit%?e Tati°n the paraboia which the

axis^cnincil
axk coincides ]with
aHdrSSeS lhrough the orig‘n- and whose
the //-axis.
 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

588. Identify and plot the curves represented by the

following equations:

l)y= + 2}^, 2)y= + V~x, 3)// = -3^27,

4) y = - 2 | 7, 5) x = + Vby, 6) x =■ — 5 V^J,
7) x = — ] 37/, 8) a-=-f 4

589. Find tiie focus F and the equation of the directrix

of the parabola y2 = 24x.
590. Calculate the focal radius of a point M of the
parabola y2~- 20x, if the abscissa of M is equal to 7.
591. Calculate the focal radius of a point M of the pa¬
rabola y2 = \2xy if the ordinate of M is equal to 6.
592. On the parabola y2= \6x, find the points whose
focal radius is equal to 13.
593. Write the equation of a parabola, if its focus
is F(—7, 0) and the equation of the directrix is x—
—7 = 0.
594. Write the equation of a parabola, if its vertex is
at the point (a, P), its parameter equals py its axis is
parallel to the x-axis, and if the parabola opens:
1) in the positive direction of the x-axis;
2) in the negative direction of the x-axis.
595. Write the equation of a parabola, if its vertex is
at the point (a, (3), its parameter equals py its axis is
parallel to the //-axis, and if the parabola opens:
1) in the positive direction of the y-axis (that is, up¬
wards);
2) in the negative direction of the//-axis (that is, down¬
wards).
596. Show that each of the following equations repre¬
sents a parabola, and find the coordinates of its vertex A,
the value of the parameter py and the equation of the di¬
rectrix:
1) */2 = 4x—8, 2) y2 = 4 — 6x,
3) x2 = 6y + 2, 4) x2 = 2—y.

597. Show that each of the following equations repre¬

sents a parabola, and find the coordinates of its vertex A
 $ 20. The Parabola 113

and the value of the parameter p:

1) y = -~ x2 -j-A'-p2, 2) y = 4x2—8x-\-7y

3) y —— ^rx2-j-2x — 7.

598. Show that each of the following equations represents

a parabola, and find the coordinates of its vertex A and
the value of the parameter p:

1) x = 2y2-\2y -f 14, 2) x = -jij2 ,j,

3) x = -y*-+2y-l.

599. Identify and plot the curves represented by the

following equations:

1) i/ = 3-4 2) x = - 4 + 3/^+5,
3) x = 2-1/6-2//, 4) y = — 5-f V — 3jc—21.

600. Find the equation of the parabola with focus F (7, 2)

and directrix x—5 = 0.
601. Find the equation of the parabola whose focus is
F(4, 3) and whose directrix is i/4- 1=0.
602. Find the equation of the parabola with focus F (2,
— 1) and directrix x—;/—1=0.
603. Given the vertex A (6, —3) of a parabola and the
equation
3t —5y f 1=0

of its directrix. Find the focus F of the parabola.

604. Given the vertex A (—2, —1) of a parabola and
the equation
*+ 2y — 1 =0

of its directrix. Write the equation of the parabola.

605. Determine the points of intersection of the line
x-\-y—3 = 0 and the parabola x2 = 4y.
606. Determine the points of intersection of the line
oxA-4y— 12 = 0 and the parabola y2 = — 9x.
607 Determine the points of intersection of the line
ox 2f/-j-6 = 0 and the parabola y2 ~ 6x.
 114
Cfi. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

eivon’linp eafht 0f Kthe focllowing- determine whether the

g en line cuts, touches, or fails to meet the given parabola:
1) x—y + 2 = 0, f = 8x-
2) 8x + 3y~ 15 = 0,
x2 = ~ 3 if,
3) 5.v — // — 15 = 0, 5x.
y2 =

1 jn6e°^; =D/^eu2-ne the V3lueS °f the sl°Pe k for which the

1) cuts the parabola y2 = 4x;
2) touches the parabola;
3) passes outside the parabola.
61°. Find the condition for the line y = kx + b to touch
the parabola y2 = 2px.
611. Prove that one, and only one, tangent line of a
Pven slope k=/=0 can be drawn to the parabola y2 = 2px.
612. W rite the equation of the tangent line to the pa¬
rabola y2 = 2px at the point Ml(xl9yl).
613. Write the equation of the line tangent to the pa¬
rabola y2 = 8x and parallel to the line
2x-\-2y — 3 = 0.
614. Write the equation of the line tangent to the pa¬
rabola a:2 =16y and perpendicular to the line
2x+ 4y + 7 = 0.
615. Draw the line tangent to the parabola y2 = \2x and
parallel to the line
3x — 2y -f- 30 = 0;
calculate the distance d between this tangent and the given
line.
616. On the parabola y2 = 64xt find the point Mt
nearest to the line
4x + 3y—14 = 0,
and calculate the distance d from to this line.
617. Write the equations of the tangent lines drawn to
the parabola y2 = 36x from the point A (2, 9).
618. A tangent line is drawn to the parabola y2 = 2px.
Prove that the vertex of the parabola lies midway between
the point in which the tangent culs (he axis Ox and the
projection of the point of contact on the axis Ox.
 $ 20. The Parabola 115

619. From the point A (5, 9), tangent lines are drawn to
the parabola
if = 5x.

Find the equation of the chord joining the points of con-

tact.
620. From the point P (—3, 12), tangent lines are drawn
to the parabola
y2 = 10*.
Calculate the distance d from the point P to that chord
of the parabola which joins the points of contact.
621. Determine the points of intersection of the ellipse
X2 J72

100 + 225= 1 anc* Parabola if = 24.v.

622. Find the points of intersection of the hyperbola
X'} y2
2q —-g- = —1 and the parabola y2 = 3x.
623. Find the points of intersection of the two parabolas

y = x2 — 2x+l, x = y2 — 6y+7.

624. Prove that the tangent line to a parabola at a

point M makes equal angles with the focal radius of M and
the ray drawn from M parallel to the axis of the parab¬
ola in the direction in which the parabola opens.
625. From the focus of the parabola

t/2 = 12x,

a ray of light is sent at an acute angle a^tan a = to

the axis Ox. Upon reaching the parabola, the ray is re¬
flected from it. Find the equation of the straight line along
which the reflected ray travels.
626. Prove that two parabolas which have a common
axis and a common focus situated between their vertices
intersect at right angles.
627. Prove that, if two parabolas with mutually perpen¬
dicular axes intersect in four points, these points of in¬
tersection lie on a circle.
 lift Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

§ 21. The Polar Equation of the Ellipse,

Hyperbola and Parabola
a Daraeboralah-.!qfl,hpti?n °felIi|,se' one branch of a hyperbola, and
parabola has the form (common to all the three curves):

__ P
<? =
1 —e cos A ’ (1)

curve n U th ,P°,ar coordmftes of an arbitrary point of the

1 thn trenfocal Parameter (half the focal chord perpendicular
to the axis of the curve), and e is the eccentricity (in the case of
a parabo13, e= I). The p°,ar coordinate system is here chosen so
that the pole coincides with the focus, and the polar axis is directed
along the axis of the curve, away from the directrix associated with

628. Given the ellipse^+ = 1. Find its polar equation

if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the positive
direction of the x-axis and the pole is
1) at the left-hand focus of the ellipse;
2) at the right-hand focus of the ellipse.
629. Given the hyperbola ~ — ^=1. Find the polar
equation of its right-hand branch, if the direction of the
polar axis agrees with the positive direction of the x-axis
and the pole is
1) at the right-hand focus of the hyperbola;
2) at the left-hand focus of the hyperbola.
630. Given the hyperbola ^ —^=1. Find the polar
equation of its left-hand branch, if the direction of the
polar axis agrees with the positive direction of the x-axis
and the pole is
1) at the left-hand focus of the hyperbola;
2) at the right-hand focus of the hyperbola.
631. Given the parabola y2 = 6x. Find its polar equation .*
if the direction of the, polar axis agrees with the positive
direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the focus of the
parabola.
632. Identify the curves represented by the following
polar equations:
6
y
^ 1 —cos 0 ’
 § 21. The Polar Equation of the Ellipse 117

4) p ~ 2-cos 0’ P~3-4cos0’ P 3 — 3los0 '

144
633. Show that the equation p = 13_5l~7q represents
an ellipse, and find its semi-axes.
18
634. Show that the equation p = 4_5 - ^ represents the
right-hand branch of a hyperbola, and find its semi-axes.
2|
635. Show that the equation P = represents an
ellipse, and write the polar equations of its directrices.
1G
636. Show that the equation p = — () represents the
right-hand branch of a hyperbola, and write the polar
equations of the directrices and asymptotes of this hyper¬
bola.
19
637. On the ellipse p =-7=-, find the points whose
* r 3— / 2 cosO *
polar radius is 6.

638. On the hyperbola p = .3—4^()S j) , find the points

whose polar radius is 3.
639. On the parabola p = V07o » find lhe points:
1) with the smallest polar radius;
2) with a polar radius equal to the parameter of the
parabola.
640. Given the ellipse ~ + y,= l. Find its polar equa¬
tion if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the pos¬
itive direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the centre
of the ellipse.
641. Given the hyperbola 1. Find its polar
equation if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the
positive direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the centre
of the hyperbola.
642. Given the parabola if = 2px. Find its polar equa¬
tion if the direction of the polar axis agrees with the pos¬
itive direction of the x-axis and the pole is at the vertex
of the parabola.
 118
C/i. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

§ 22. Diameters of Curves of the Second Order

The midpoints of parallel chords of a second-order curve lie on
etr^^THil"16) hhtrr°f WlM be found in a course in analytic geom-
6 ry ' lu s straight line is called a diameter of the second-order
nfrsM |T(he dlameter bi?ect'ng a chord (and hence bisecting all chords
Pnra'ie i°
ttlls chord) is said to be conjugate to the chord (and to
all chords parallel to this chord). All diameters of an ellipse or a
thhePYqbu°aUonPaSS th® Centre> If 30 ell,>e is rePresenPed by

at+b*~ ’ 0)

then its diameter conjugate to chords of slope k is determined by the

equation J
b 1

y~ a2k X‘
If a hyperbola is represented by the equation

then its diameter conjugate to chords of slope k is determined by the

equation
b2

All diameters of a parabola are parallel to its axis. If a parabola

is represented by the equation
y2=2px,
then its diameter conjugate to chords of slope k is determined by the
equation

If one diameter of an ellipse or a hyperbola bisects the chords

parallel to a second diameter, then this second diameter bisects the
chords parallel to the first. Two such diameters are called conjugate
diameters.
If k and k' are the slopes of two conjugate diameters of the ellipse
(1), then

**' = -$• (3)

If k and k' are the slopes of two conjugate diameters of the hy-
perbola (2), then

(4)
 § 22. Diameters of Curves of the Second Order 119

Relations (3) and (4) are referred to as the conditions for conjugate
diameters of an ellipse and a hyperbola, respectively.
That diameter of a second-order curve which is perpendicular to
its conjugate chords is called a principal diameter of the curve.

643. Find the equation of that diameter of the ellipse

X2 y2
25 + 10=1 which bisects its chord lying on the line

2x — y — 3 = 0.

644. Find the equation of that chord of the ellipse

16 +f= 1 which passes through the point +1(1, —2) and

is bisected at this point.
645. Write the equations of two conjugate diameters of
the ellipse x2-f-4y2 = 1, if one of them makes an angle
of 45° with the axis Ox.
646. Write the equations of two conjugate diameters of
the ellipse 4.v2-4-9y2 = 1, if one of them is parallel to the
line

647. Write the equations of two conjugate diameters of

the ellipse x2-r 3;/2 = 1, if one of them is perpendicular to
the line
3x-f 2y — 7 = 0.

648. An ellipse has been drawn; construct its centre bv

ruler and compass. }
649. Proye that the axes of an ellipse form the onlv
pair of its principal diameters. ^
65° By using the properties of conjugate diameters
ameter Kat d'ameter of a circle is its Principal di-

651. (a) An isosceles triangle is inscribed in an ellipse

so that its ver ex coincides with one of the vertices of the
ellipse Prove that the base of the triangle is parallel to
one of the axes of the ellipse.
(b) Prove that the sides of a rectangle inscribed in an
ellipse are parallel to the axes of the ellipse

b/'r’ufe a"d'?o4at?W'l; C°"SlrilC' "S prindpal di““Klers

 120 Ch. 4. Properties of Curves of the Second Order

652. Prove that the chords of an ellipse which join its

arbitrary point to the ends of any diameter of the ellipse
arLr?\ent0 a Pairof conjugate diameters of the ellipse.
653. (a) Prove that the sum of the squares of two con¬
jugate semi-diameters of an ellipse is a constant (equal to
the sum of the squares of its semi-axes).
(b) Prove that the area of a parallelogram constructed
on two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse is a constant
(equal to the area of the rectangle constructed on the se¬
mi-axes of the ellipse).
654. Write the equation of that diameter of the hyper-
Jv If2 ‘

bola -jr which bisects its chord lying on the line

2x — y + 3 = 0.
2 2

655. Given the hyperbola y— f-=l. Find the equation

of its chord passing through the point A (3, — 1) and bi-
sected at that point.
656. Write the equations of two conjugate diameters of
the hyperbola x2 — 4y2 = 4, if one of these diameters
passes through the point ,4(8, 1).
657. Find the equations of two conjugate diameters of
the hyperbola ~— ~~ 1 which form an angle of 45°.

658. A hyperbola is drawn; construct its centre by ruler

and compass.
659. Prove that the axes of a hyperbola form the only
pair of its principal diameters.
660. A hyperbola is drawn; construct its principal di¬
ameters by ruler and compass.
661. Find the equation of that diameter of the parabola
y2 = I2x which bisects its chord lying on the line
3x -f y — 5 = 0.
662. Given the parabola y2 = 20x. Find the equation of
its chord passing through the point A (2, 5) and bisected
at that point
663. Prove that the axis of a parabola is its only prin¬
cipal diameter.
664. A parabola is drawn; construct its principal diam¬
eter by ru er and compass.
 Chapter 5

SIMPLIFICATION OF THE GENERAL EQUATION

OF A CURVE OF THE SECOND ORDER.
THE EQUATIONS OF SOME CURVES ENCOUNTERED
IN MATHEMATICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS

§ 23. The Centre of a Curve of the Second Order

A curve which is represented by an equation of the second degree

in a cartesian coordinate system is called a curve of the second order.
The general equation of the second degree (in two variables) is
customarily written in the form

Ax* + 2Bxy + Cy* + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0. (1)

The centre of a curve is defined as that point in the plane with

respect to which the points of the curve form symmetric pairs.
Curves of the second order which have a single centre are called
central curves.
A point S (x0, */0) is the centre of a curve represented by
equation (1) if, and only if, the coordinates of S satisfy the equations

Ax0 + By0 + D =0, I

B*o + Cy0 + E=0. f W
Denote by 6 the determinant of the system:

The quantity 6 is formed from the coefficients of the highest terms

of equation (1) and is said to be the discriminant of the highest
terms of this equation.
If 6 # 0, the system (2) is consistent and determinate i e it
has a unique solution. In this case, the coordinates of the centre’can
be determined from the formulas

B D\ D A
C E
Xy = — «i ___ E B
A B » yo — i A B
B C B C

The inequality 6^0 is the condition for a central curve of the

second order.
 122
Ch. 5. Simplification of tl,e General Equation

* V ^ 's *^e centre of a second-order curve then after

tranforming the coordinates by the formulas ’ ’

*=* + *<>. y=y+y0

the"equa'?[onS o^fhe ^curve'wHI tassiHnef'the0 form06*1^6 °f CUrVe)*

Ax* + 2B'xy + C~y*+F = 0,

where A, B, C are the same as in the given equation (1), and
r is determined from the formula

F = Dx0 + Ey0 + F.
In the case 6 ^ 0, we also have the following formula:

where
A B D
BCE
D E F
The determinant A is referred to as the discriminant of the left-hand
member of the genetal equation of the second degree

665. In each of the following, determine whether the

given curve is a central curve (that is, has a single centre),
has no centre, or has infinitely many centres:
1) 3x2 — 4xy—2y2 -f- 3a— I2y—7 = 0;
2) 4a2 -l- 5xy + 3y2 — * + 9y - 12 = 0;
3) 4x2 — 4xy y2—6a-f 8y -f 13 = 0;
4) 4x2—4xy + y2—12x + 6y—ll=0;
5) x2—2xy + 4y2 + 5x-7y-h 12 = 0;
6) x2 — 2xy f y2—6x + 6// —3=0;
7) 4x2— 20xy + 25y2— 14x + 2y-15 = 0;
8) 4x2—6xy—9y2 + 3x — 7y+12 = 0.

666. Show that each of the following curves is a central

curve, and find the coordinates of its centre:
1) 3x2 + 5xy -f y2—8x — 1 \y—7=0;
2) 5a2 -(- 4xy + 2y2 -f- 20x + 20y—18 = 0;
3) 9a:2 — 4xy— 7y2— 12 = 0;
4) 2a2—6xy + by2 + 22a—36y-)-ll = 0.
 § 23. The Centre of a Curve of the Second Order 123

667. Show that each of the following curves has an

infinite number of centres, and find the equation of the
locus of its centres:
1) x2 — 6xy + 9y- - 12a -]- 36y + 20 = 0;
2) 4x2 + 4.v'i/+ i/2 — 8 a — 4y — 21 = 0;
3) 25a2—10a{/ + i/2 + 40a—8y 4-7 = 0.
668. In each of the following, show that the given
equation represents a central curve, and transform the
equation by moving the origin to the centre of the curve:
1) 3.t2—6a(/4-2i/2—4a + 2i/ 4- 1 = 0;
2) 6a2 + 4ay + y2 + 4a—2y + 2 = 0;
3) 4a2-4 6aj/+ y2 — 10a— 10 = 0;
4) 4a2 + 2ai/ + 6(/2-4 6a-10(/ + 9 = 0.
669. Find the values of m and n for which the equation
mx2+ 12a(/ + 9;/2-|-4a + /2(/ — 13 = 0
represents:
1) a central curve;
2) a curve having no centre;
3) a curve having an infinite number of centres.
670. Given the curve
4A‘-4At/ 4«/2 + 6a + 1=0.
Determine the values of the slope k for which the line
y=k x
1) intersects the given curve in a single point-
2) touches the curve;
3) intersects the curve in two points;
4) has no points in common with the curve.
671 Write the equation of the second-order curve
which has its centre at the origin, passes through the
point M (6, —2) and touches the line
a—2 = 0
at the point N (2, 0).
672. The point P( 1, -2) is the centre of a second-
order curve which passes through the point Q (0, - 3) and

theC?urvethe aXIS 34 tHe °r'gin' F'nd the ec>uation of

 124 Ch. 5. Simplification of the General Equation

§ 24. Reducing the Equation of a Central Curve

of the Second Order to Its Simplest Form
Let there be given the equation
Ax* + 2Bxy + Cy2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0, (1)
which represents a central curve of the second order (6 = AC—B2 ^ 0).
After moving the origin to the centre S (*0, y0) of the curve and
transforming equation (1) by the formulas

x = x + x0, y = y + y0,
we obtain
Ax2 + 2Bxy + C y2 + F = 0. (2)
To determine F, we can use the formula

F=Dx0 + Ey0 + F
or

A further simplification of equation (2) is achieved by the

coordinate transformation

x = a'coscx — //'sin a, )
- , > (3)
y = x sm a + y cos a, |
which corresponds to a rotation of the axes through an angle a. If
the angle a is chosen so that

£tan2a — (C—A) tana — B =0, (4)

then the equation of the curve in the new coordinates will take
the form
A'x'* + C'y'* + F = 0, (5)
where A' ^ 0, C 0.
Note. Equation (4) permits us to find tan a, whereas formulas (3)
contain sin a and cos a. But sin a and cos a can be determined from
tana by using the trigonometric formulas
, tan a I
sin a =--77===., cos a =-A •
± V 1 -ftan2 a ± V l + tan*a
The coefficients of equations (I) and (5) are connected by the
important relations
A'C' = AC — B2,
A' + C' = A+C,
which enable us to determine the coefficients A’ and C" without
transforming the coordinates.
 § 24. Reducing the Equation of a Central Curve_V25

An equation of the second decree is said to be of the elliptic

type if 6 > 0, of the hyperbolic type if b < 0, and of the parabolic
type if 6 = 0.
The equation of a central curve can only be of the elliptic or
the hyperbolic type.
Every equation of the elliptic type represents either an ordinary
ellipse, or a degenerate ellipse (that is, a single point), or else an
imaginary ellipse (that is, no geometric object at all).
Every equation of the hyperbolic type represents either an
ordinary hyperbola or a degenerate hyperbola (that is, a pair of
intersecting straight lines).

673. In each of the following, determine the type of

the given equation*; reduce the equation to its simplest
form by a translation of the coordinate axes; determine
the geometric object represented by the equation and draw
this object, showing both the old and the new coordinate
axes.
1) 4*2 {- 9if- - 40.v-1- 36y | 100 = 0;
2) 9*2 — 16//'- - 54*- 64//-127 = 0;
3) 9*2 -| 4y2 -|- 18*—8y 49 = 0;
4) 4*2 — if 4 8* —2y-\ 3 = 0;
5) 2*2 -13y2 -| 8* — 6y 4 11=0.

674. In each of the following, reduce the given equation

to its simplest form; determine the type of the equation;
determine the geometric object represented by the equation
and draw this object, showing both the old and the new
coordinate axes.
1) 32*2 + 52*// — 7y2 + 180=0;
2) 5*2 —6*y + 5y2 —32 = 0;
3) 17*2—12*y I 8y2 = 0;
4) 5*2 -b 24*y— 5(/2=0;
5) 5*2 — 6*y + 5y2 -f 8 = 0.

675. Determine the type of each of the following

equations by calculating the discriminant of its highest

* That is, determine whether the equation is ot the elliptic

hyperbolic, or parabolic type. ’
 126 Ch. 5. Simplification of the General Equation

terms:

1) 2x2 + Wxy -+- \2y2— 7 a \8y— 15 0;

2) 3x2 — 8xy -f 7y2 -f 8x— 15y -f- 20 = 0;
3) 25x2 — 20xy + 4y2 12a: + 20y—17 — 0;
4) 5a2 + 14xy+ 11 y2 -f \2x 7y+ 19 0;
5) x2 — 4xy + 4y2 -f 7a— 12 = 0;

6) 3a2-2a</-3«2 + 12v- 1 £ A

676. In each of the following, reduce the given equation

to the canonical form; determine the type of the equation
and the geometric object represented by the equation;
draw this geometric object, showing the original, auxiliary
and new coordinate axes.

1) 3x2 + Wxy + 3y2 — 2x— 14y— 13 = 0;

2) 25a2 —14a«/ f 25i/2 -}-64x—64y—224 = 0;
3) 4xy + 3y2 -(-16x+l2y—36 = 0;
4) 7x2 + 6xy — y2 -j- 28a 4- I2y 4-28 = 0;
5) 1 9a:2 -f- 6xy + 11 y2 + 38a \ Oy + 29 = 0;
6) 5x2 —2xy -\-5y2 — 4a: + 20y 4-20 = 0.

677. The same as Problem 676 for the following:

1) 14a:2 +- 24xy -f 21«/2 —4a+18«/ — 139=0;
2) 1 lx2—20xy — 4y2 — 20x—8y+\=0;
3) 7a2 + 60aj/+ 32*/2 — 14a: — 60^+ 7=0;
4) 50a2—8xy + 35y2 f 100a—8y + 07=0;
5) 41a2 -{-24xy f 34y2 +34a— 1 \2y + 129=0;
6) 29a2 — 24xy + 30y2 + 82a—90>y—91=0;
7) 4x2+24xy 4-lly2 + 64x + 42y + 51=0;
8) 4lA2+24Ar/ + 9r/2-f-24A+ 18«/-36 = 0.

678. Without transforming the coordinates, show that

each of the following equations represents an ellipse, and
 $ 24. Reducing the Equation oj a Central Curve 127

find the values of its semi-axes:

1) 4lx2 -f 24xy 4- 9y'i -j- 24x + 18y — 36 = 0;
2) 8x2 4xy + 5y2 + 16x + 4 y — 28 = 0;
3) 13x2 + 18xy + 37y2 - 26x - 18t/ + 3 = 0;
4) 13x2 + 1 Oxy + 13y2 + 46x + 62y + 13 = 0.

679. Without transforming the coordinates, show that

each of the following equations represents a single point
(a degenerate ellipse) and find its coordinates:

1) 5x2 — 6xtj + 2y2 — 2x 4- 2 = 0;

2) x2+2xy4-2y2+6y+9 = 0;
3) 5x2 + 4xy -f y2 — 6x — 2y -(- 2 = 0;
4) x2 — 6.n/+ 10y2 4- lOx — 32y-f- 26 = 0.

680. Without transforming the coordinates, show that

each of the following equations represents a hyperbola and
find the values of its semi-axes:

1) 4x2 4- 24xy 4-11 y2 + 64x 4- 42*/ 4- 51 = 0;

2) 12x2 -f26xy 4- 12y2 — 52x —48y 73 = 0;
3) 3x2 -i-4xi/— 12x4-16 = 0;
4) x2 —6xy —7y2 + lOx —30y4-23 = 0.

681. Without transforming the coordinates, show that

each of the following equations represents a pair of inter¬
secting straight lines (a degenerate hyperbola) and find
their equations:

1) 3x2 4xy 4- f/2 — 2x — 1 = 0;

2) x2 — 6xi/-f 8y2 —4y— 4 = 0;
3) x2 —4xy4-3y2 = 0;
4) x24-4xy -f 3y2 —6x—12y4 9 = 0.

682. Without transforming the coordinates, determine

the geometric objects represented by the following
 128 Ch. 5. Simplification of the General Equation

eq uations:
1) 8x*-l2xy +- 17y2 + 16a:— 12 t/ + 3 = 0;
2) \7x2— \8xy — 7y2 -f-34x'— 18«/-(-7 = 0;
3) 2x2 + 3xi/ — 2y2 + 5,v+ 10*/ = 0;
4) 6x2 — e>Xy + 9y2 — 4x + 18*/4 14 = 0;
5) 5x2-2A'*/ + 5*/2-4;c-f 20t/ + 20 = 0. '
683. Prove that, for every elliptic equation, neither
of the coefficients A and B can vanish, and that these
coefficients agree in sign.
684. Prove that an elliptic (6>0) equation of the
second degree represents an ellipse if, and only if, A and
A differ in sign.
685. Prove that an elliptic (6 > 0) equation of the
second degree represents an imaginary ellipse if, and only
if, A and A agree in sign.
686. Prove that an elliptic (6>0) equation of the
second degree represents a degenerate ellipse (a point) if,
and only if, A = 0.
687. Prove that a hyperbolic (6 < 0) equation of the
second degree represents a hyperbola if, and only if,
A =7^ 0.
688. Prove that a hyperbolic (6<0) equation of the
second degree represents a degenerate hyperbola (a pair of
intersecting lines) if, and only if, A = 6.

§ 25. Reducing a Parabolic Equation

to Its Simplest Form
Let the equation
Ax* + 2Bxy + Cy* + 2Dx + 2ZTi/ -(- F = 0 (1)
be oi the parabolic type, that is, let it satisfy the condition
6= AC — B* = 0.
In this case, the curve represented by equation (I) either has no
centre, or else has an infinite number of centres. It is advisable to
begin the simplification of a parabolic equation by rotating the
coordinate axes; this means that equation (i) should first be trans¬
formed by using the formulas
x—x' cos a—y' sin
(2)
y = x' sin a 4- y' cos
 $ 25. Simplification of Parabolic Equation 129

The angle a is found from the equation

B tan2a — (C — A) tan a — B =0; (3)
then, in the new coordinates, equation (1) reduces to the form
A'x' + Wx' +2E'y' + F = 0, (4)
where A' ^ 0, or to the form

C'yf2 + 2D'x' + 2E'y' + F = 0,

where C' ^ 0.
Equations (4) and (5) are further simplified by a translation of
the (rotated) axes.

689. In each of the following, show that the given

equation is of the parabolic type; reduce the equation to
its simplest form; determine the geometric object repre¬
sented by the equation; draw this geometric object, showing
the original, auxiliary and new coordinate axes.
1) 9a2-24ai/+ 16i/2 —20a-}- 110// —50 = 0;
2) 9a2 + 12xy + 4y2 - 24a- - 16/y + 3 = 0;
3) 16x2 — 24ay -f 9y2 — 1 60a 4- 120 y -f 425 = 0.

690. The same as Problem 689 for the following:

1) 9a2 + 24aij h 16//2—18a-P226i/ +209 = 0;
2) a2 — 2xy + y°-— \2x+ I2y— 14 = 0;
3) 4a2 4-1 2ay + 9y2 — 4a — 6y -j- 1 = 0.
691. Prove that, for every parabolic equation, the
coefficients A and C cannot differ in sign and are not
both zero.
• Prove that every parabolic equation can be written
in the form
(ax + pi/)2 + 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0.

Prove also that elliptic and parabolic equations cannot be

put in this form.
693. In each of the following, show that the given
equation is of the parabolic type and write it in the form
indicated in Problem 692:

1) a2+4ai/ + 4i/2+4a + i/-15 = 0;

2) 9a2 6ai/ -(- y2 x -j- 2y — 14 = 0;
5-2250
130 Ch. 5. Simplification of the General Equation

3) 25a:2 — 20ay + Ay2 + 3x — y -f- 11 = 0;

4) 16a'2 -f- 16a'</ -f 4t/2 — 5a: + 7y = 0;
5) 9a:2 — A2xy + A9y2-\ 3x — 2y — 24 = 0.

694. Prove that, if an equation of the second degree

is a parabolic equation written in the form

(ax -f pt/)2 -f- 2Dx f 2Ey f- F = 0,

then the discriminant of its left-hand member is determined
by the formula
A = — (Dp — Ea)2.
695. Prove that the parabolic equation
(ax 4 P//)2 -f- 2Dx + 2Ey + F = 0
can be reduced, by means of the transformation
x = x' cos 0 — u' sin 0, . . a
/•A| / A t3n U — 77” t
y = x sin0-f(/ cos0, P
to the form
cy * + 2 D'x' + 2 E't/ +F' = 0,
where
C' = a2 -f p2, D' /.
+ P* ’
—A

A being the discriminant of the left-hand member of the

given equation.
696. Prove that a parabolic equation represents a parab¬
ola if, and only if, A=^0. Prove that, in this case, the
parameter of the parabola is determined by the formula

p = }^(A+C)’ •

697. Withoyt transforming the coordinates, show that

each of the following equations represents a parabola, and
find the parameter of the parabola:
1) 9x2 + 24xy+ \6y2— 120* + 90i/= 0;
2) 9x2 — 24xy+l6y2 — 54x—178y+l8\=0\
3) x2 — 2xy-j- i/2 -f 6a: — 14</ -f- 29 = 0;
4) 9x2 — 6xy 4- y2 — 50jc + 50y — 275 = 0.
 26 The Equations of Some Curves 131

698. Prove that an equation of the second degree is

the equation of a degenerate curve if, and only if, A = 0.
699. Without transforming the coordinates, show that
each of the following equations represents a pair of parallel
straight lines, and find their equations:
1) 4.v2 + 4xij + y2 — 12x — 6y + 5 = 0;

2) 4*2-12AU/ + 9i/2 + 2(k-30</-ll=0;

3) 25.v2 — 1 Oxy 4-y2 4 lO.v — 2y — 15 — 0.
700. Without transforming the coordinates, show that
each of the following equations represents a straight line
(a pair of coinciding lines), and find the equation of
the line:
1) x2 — 6xy + 9y2 + 4x — 12y + 4 = 0;
2) 9x2 + 30xy + 25y'1 + 42x 4- 70y -(-49 = 0;
3) 16x2 — 16xi/ + 4 !/2 — 72.V 36y + 81 =0.

§ 26. The Equations of Some Curves Encountered

in Mathematics and Its Applications
701. Find the equation of the locus of points, the
product of whose distances from the two given points

Fig. 23. Fig 24.

F,(—c, 0) and F2(c, 0) is a constant equal to a2 This

lccus is called the oval of Cassini (Fig. 23).
702. Find the equation of the locus of points, the
product of whose distances from the two given points
Fi(—a, 0) and F-,{a, 0) is a constant equal to a2. This
5*
J32 Ch. 5. Sitnpli fication of the General Equation

locus is called the lemniscate (Fig. 24). (Find the equation

of the lemniscate first directly, and then by considering
it as a special form of the oval of Cassini.) Find also the
polar equation of the lemniscate when the polar axis
coincides with the positive x-axis and the pole is at the
origin.
703. Find the equation of the locus of the feet of
perpendiculars dropped from the origin to straight lines,
each of which forms with the coordinate axes a triangle
of area S.

Hint. Write first the equation in polar coordinates, placing the

pole at the origin and making the polar axis coincide with the
positive *-axis.

704. Prove that the locus of Problem 703 is a lemniscate

(see Problem 702).
Hint. Rotate the coordinate axes through an angle of 45°.

705. A ray a, whose initial position coincides with

the polar axis, revolves about the pole O with constant
angular speed co. In the given
polar coordinate system, find
the equation of the path traced
by a point M which starts from
O and moves along the ray a
with uniform speed v. (The re¬
quired locus is the spiral of
Archimedes, Fig. 25.)
706. Given the line x = 2r
and the circle of radius r which
passes through the origin O and
touches this line. A ray drawn
from O cuts the given circle at
B and the given line at C (Fig.
26); a segment OM = BC is laid
off on this ray. As the ray
revolves, the length of the
segment OM varies and the
point M describesa curve called
Fig. 25. the cissoid. Write the equation
of the cissoid.
 $ 26. The Equations of Some Curves 133

707. Given the line x = a (n>0) and the circle of

diameter a passing through the origin 0 and touching
this line. A ray drawn from 0 cuts the circle at A and
the line at B (Fig. 27). From the points A and B,
straight lines are drawn parallel to the axes Oy and Ox,
respectively. As the ray revolves, the point of intersection
M of these straight lines describes a curve called the
versiera. Find its equation.

Fig- 26. f-ig. 97

708. A ray AB (Fig. 28) is drawn from the point

A (—a, 0), where u>0; from the point B, segments BM
and BN of a length b (6 = const.) are laid off in either
direction along the ray. As the ray revolves, the points M
and N describe a curve called the conchoid. Write its
equation in polar coordinates, with the pole placed at A
and the polar axis going in the positive direction of the
axis Ox, and then transform the result to the given
rectangular cartesian system of coordinates.
709. A ray AB (Fig. 29) is drawn from the point
A 0)’ where a>0; from the point B, segments BM
and BN, each equal to OB, are laid off in either direction
along the ray. As the ray revolves, the points M and N
describe a curve called the struphoid. Write its equation
in polar coordinates, with the pole placed at A and the
polar axis going in the positive direction of the axis Ox,
and then transform the result to the given rectangular
cartesian system of coordinates.
710. A ray is drawn from the origin to cut the given
circle *2-f y2 = 2ax (a> 0) at a point B (Fig. 30); from
the point fl, equal segments BM and BN of a constant

Fig. 29.

length b are laid off in either direction along the ray.

As the ray revolves, the points M and N describe a curve
called the limafon of Pascal. Write its equation in polar
coordinates, placing the pole at the origin and letting the
polar axis coincide with the positive x-axis, and then
transform the result to the given rectangular cartesian
system of coordinates.
711. A line segment of length 2a moves so that its end
points always lie on the coordinate axes. Write the polar
equation of the path traced (Fig. 31) by the foot M of
the perpendicular dropped from the origin to the segment
(placing the pole at the origin and letting the polar axis
coincide with the positive x-axis), and transform the result
to the given rectangular cartesian system of coordinates.
The point /Vf describes a curve called the four-leaved rose.
712. A line segment of length a moves so that its end
points always lie on the coordinate axes (Fig. 32). Through
 $ 26. The Equations of Some Curves 135

the end points of the segment, straight lines are drawn

parallel to the coordinate axes; these lines intersect at a
point P. Find the equation of the path traced by the
foot M of the perpendicular dropped from P to the seg¬
ment. This path is called the astroid.

Fig■ 30. Fig. 31.

Flint. Write first the parametric equations of the astroid,

choosing the parameter t as indicated in Fig. 32 (and then eliminate
the parameter t).

713. A ray OB meets the circle x2-\-y2 = ax at a

point B; from this point a perpendicular BC is dropped
to the axis Ox. Next, a perpendicular CM is drawn from
the point C to the ray OB. Derive the polar equation
of the path traced by the point M (placing the pole at
the origin 0 and letting the polar axis coincide with the
positive x-axis), and then transform the result to the given
rectangular cartesian system of coordinates.
714. A thread wound around the circle x2 + y2=a2 js
unwound so as to be always tangent to the circle at the
variable point B of contact (Fig. 33). Find the parametric
equations of the curve described by the free end of the
thread, if the initial position of this end is at the point
A (a, 0), where a>0. This curve is called the involute
of the circle.
715. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, on
the axis Ox; the path traced by a point M on the circum-
 136 C/i. 5. Simplification of the General Equntio*i

ference of the circle is called the cycloid (Fig. 34). Derive

the parametric equations of the cycloid, using as parameter
the angle t through which the rolling circle turns about

Fig. 32. Fig. 33.

Its centre, and letting the point M coincide with the origin
at the initial moment (/=0). Eliminate the parameter t
from the resulting equations.

Fig. 34.

716. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, o

the outside of the circle x2 + yi=a2< path traced y
a point M on the circumference of the rollingcircle is ca
the cardioid (Fig. 35). Derive the parametric equations of
the cardioid, using as parameter the angle t of mclinat
 § 26. The Equation of Some Curves 137

(with respect to the axis Ox) of that radius of the fixed

circle which is drawn to the point of contact with the
rolling circle. At the initial moment (t = 0), let the point
M be on the x-axis, to the right of 0. Transform the result
to polar coordinates, placing the pole at A and letting
the polar axis go in the positive direction of the x-axis.
Prove that the cardioid is a special form of the limagon
of Pascal (see Problem 710).

717. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, on the

outside of the circle x2-f «/2=&2; the path traced by a
point M on the circumference of the rolling circle is
called the epicycloid (Fig. 36). Derive the parametric equa¬
tions of the epicycloid, using as parameter the angle t of incli¬
nation (with respect to the axis Ox) of that radius of the fixed
circle which is drawn to the point of contact of the two
circles; at the initial moment (f=0), let the point M be
on the axis Ox, to the right of 0. Prove that the cardioid
(see Problem 716) is a special form of the epicycloid.
718. A circle of radius a rolls, without slipping, on the
inside of the circle x2 + i/2=62; the path traced by a point
M on the circumference of the rolling circle is called the
hypocycloid (Fig. 37). Derive the parametric equations of
138 Ch. 5. Simplification of the General Equation

the hypocycloid, using as parameter the angle t of incli¬

nation (with respect to the axis Ox) of that radius
of the fixed circle which is drawn to the point of contact

Fig. 37.

of the two circles; at the initial moment (/ = 0), let the

point M be on the axis Ox, to the right of 0. Prove that
the astroid (see Problem 712) is a special form of the
hypocycloid.
Part Two

SOLID
ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY
 Chapter 6

SOME ELEMENTARY PROBLEMS OF SOLID

ANALYTIC GEOMETRY

§ 27. Rectangular Cartesian Coordinates

in Space
A rectangular cartesian coordinate system in space is determined
by the choice of a linear unit (for measurement of lengths) and of
three concurrent and mutually perpendicular axes, numbered in any
order.

The point of intersection of the axes is called the origin of coor¬

dinates, and the axes themselves are called the coordinate axes. The
first coordinate axis is termed the x-axis or axis of abscissas, the
second, the y-axis or axis of ordinates, and the third, the z-axis or
axis of applicates.
The origin is denoted by the letter 0, and the coordinate axes
by Ox, Oy, and Oz, respectively.
Let M be an arbitrary point in space, and let Mx, M and Mz
be its projections on the coordinate axes (Fig. 38). y
The coordinates of the point M in the given system are defined
as the numbers
x = OMx, y=OMy, z=OMz
 142
Ch. G Elementary Problems of Solid Analytic Geometry

(Fig. 38), where 0MX is the value of the segment 0MX of thex-axis,
0My is the value of the segment OM of the y-axis, and 0MZ is the
the “gment 0MZ of the 2-axis. The number jc is called the
abscissa, y the ordinate, and 2 the applicate of the point M. The
notation M (x y, 2) means that the point M has coordinates a:, y, z.
I he plane Oyz divides all space into two half-spaces; the half¬
space containing the positive half of the axis Ox is termed the near
half-space, and the other half-space is termed the far half-space,
similarly, the plane Oxz divides space into two half-spaces, of which
the one containing the positive half of the axis Oy is termed the
right half-space, and the other, the left half-space. Finally, the
plane Oxy also divides all space into two half-spaces, of which the
one containing the positive half of the axis Oz is termed the upper
half-space, and the other, the lower half-space.
The three planes Oxy, Oxz and Oyz jointly divide space into
eight parts, called octants and numbered as shown in Fig. 39.

719. Construct (in axonomelric projection) the following

points from their cartesian coordinates: A (3, 4, 6), B (—5,
3, 1), C (1, — 3, —5), D (0, —3, 5), E (—3, —5, 0) and
F (— 1, — 5, — 3).
720. Given the points A (4, 3, 5), B (— 3, 2, 1), C (2,
— 3, 0) and D (0, 0, —3). Find the coordinates of their
projections: 1) on the plane Oxy; 2) on the plane Oxz;
3) on the plane Oyz; 4) on the *-axis; 5) on the y-axis;
6) on the z-axis.
721. Find the coordinates of the points symmetric to
the points A(2,3,1), B (5, —3, 2), C (— 3,2, — 1) and
D (a, b, c) with respect to: 1) the plane Oxy; 2) the plane
Oxz; 3) the plane Oyz; 4) the *-axis; 5) the y-axis; 6) the
z-axis; 7) the origin.
722. Given the following four vertices of a cube: A (—ay
—a, —a)y B (a, —ay —a)y C(—ay ciy —a) and D (ay ay a).
Determine its remaining vertices.
723. Which octants can contain the points whose coor¬
dinates satisfy one of the following conditions: 1) x—y=0;
2) *-H/=0; 3) *-z = 0; 4) *-f-z = 0; 5) y-z = 0; 6) y+
+ 2 = 0?
724. Name the octants that can contain the points for
which: l)xy>0; 2) *z< 0; 3) yz> 0; 4)xyz> 0; 5)xyz<0.
725. Find the centre of the sphere of radius R = 3
which touches all the three coordinate planes and is situat¬
ed: 1) in the second octant; 2) in the fifth octant; 3) in the
sixth octant; 4) in the seventh octant; 5) in the eighth octant.
 $ 28 The Distance Between Two Points 143

§ 28. The Distance Between Two Points.

The Division of a Line Segment in a Given Ratio
The distance d between two points yv zx) and A42(x2, j/2,
z2) is given by the formula

d = V (*2—xx)2 + (i/2—</,)* + (?2—z,)s-

The coordinates x, y, z of the point Af which divides the seg¬
ment MlM2 bounded by the points AT, (*,, //,, zx) and A42 (x2, y2, z2)
in a ratio X are determined from the formulas
*i + Xx2 yx + Xy2 e,_+X£2
1 -\-X ’ y~ \+X ’ \+X *

In particular, by setting X = \, we obtain the coordinates of the

midpoint of a given segment:

„ VK _ */l+*/2 -_2i+z2
2 ’ lJ 2 * 2

726. Given the points >1(1, —2, —3), R (2, —3,0),

C(3, 1, —9), D( —1, 1, —12). Calculate the distance be¬
tween: 1) A and C; 2) B and D; 3) C and D.
727. Calculate the distances from the origin 0 to the
points: >1(4, -2, -4), B (-4,12,6), C (12, —4, 3),
D (12, 16,-15).
728. Prove that the triangle with vertices A (3, —1,2),
B (0, —4, 2) and C( —3, 2, 1) is isosceles.
729. Prove that the triangle with vertices , (3, —1,6),
^2 ( — 1. 7, —2) and Aa (1, —3, 2) is a right triangle.
730. Determine whether any one of the interior
angles of the triangle Ml (4, —1,4), M, (0, 7, —4), M.A3,
1,-2) is obtuse.
731. Prove that the interior angles of the triangle M(3,
— 2,5), N (—2, 1, y3), P (5, 1, —1) are acute angles.
732. On the x-axis, find the points whose distance from
the point A ( — 3, 4, 8) is equal to 12.
733. On the y-ax\s, find the point equidistant from the
points >1(1, —3, 7) and B (5, 7, -5).
734. Find the centre C and the radius R of a sphere
which passes through the point P(4, — 1, — 1) and touches
all the three coordinate planes.
735. Given the vertices (3, 2, —5), M2 (1, — 4, 3),
^3 ( — 3,0, 1) of a triangle. Find the midpoints of its sides.
 144
£!ldLILementary Problems of Solid Analytic Geometry

736. Given the vertices A (2, — 1 4) B(3 2 —fi)rt — Z

from “the verilx%Ci"Cl"ale thC le"«lh of ,he ™dia" dra™

_?.37' The centre of gravity of a uniform rod is at Cl 1,
1, 5 . and one end of the rod is the point At —2, —1
7)7^eterrmine4the coordinates of the other end of the rod.’
/38. Cjiven two vertices A (2, —3, —5) B(—\ 3 2) nf
a parallelogram ABCD and the point E(4, -1 7)’of’inter¬
sec ion of its diagonals. Determine the other two vertices
ol the parallelogram.
7i39;JhD?e vrertJces of 3 Parallelogram ABCD are A (3,
t’pv h 3’ ~and 2’ ~3)- Finci the fourth
vertex Dy which is opposite to 5.
740 Three vertices of a parallelogram ABCD are A (3,
/ ~4) and C(—1,1,2). Find the fourth
vertex D.
u74!* iFm( tie coor(,ina<es of the points C, Dt E, F
wuch divide into five equal parts the line segment bound¬
ed by the points A ( — 1, 8, 3) and B (9, — 7, -2).
742. Determine the coordinates of the ends of the seg-
ment which is divided into three equal parts at the points
C(2, 0, 2) and D(5, -2, 0). P
743. Given the vertices A (1, 2, -1), 5(2, -1, 3),
4, 7. 5) of a triangle. Calculate the length of the
bisector of the interior angle at the vertex B.
744. Given the vertices A(lt—1,-3), 5(2, 1, -2),
C( 5,2, —6) of a triangle. Calculate the length of the
bisector of the exterior angle at the vertex A.
745. Equal masses are concentrated at the vertices A (xlf
y^zi)» B{x2> y*’ zi)> C (^3, y3» z3), D(x4y ij4, zA) of a tetra¬
hedron. Find the coordinates of the centre of gravily for
the system of these masses.
746. Masses m1 m2% m3 and m4 are placed at the ver¬
tices Al (Xi, //j, Zj), y42 (^2, f/2» ^2)’ ^3 (^3 i/3» ^3)’ (^4*
y^y z*) of a tetrahedron. Find the coordinates of the centre
of gravity for the system 6f these masses.
747. A straight line passes through the two points
Mi(— 1,6, 6) and M2(3, —6,—2). Find the points at
which the line pierces the coordinate planes.
 Chapter 7

VECTOR ALGEBRA

§ 29. The Concept of a Vector.

The Projections of a Vector
Directed line segments are also called geometric vectors, or simply
vectors. Inasmuch as a vector is a directed line segment, it will as
before be designated in the text by two capital letters with a bar
over them, the first letter denoting the initial point, and the second
letter, the terminal point of the vector. Another way of indicating
a vector will be by a single small letter in half-dark type; in dia^
grams this letter will be placed at the head of the arrow represent¬
ing the vector (see Fig. 40 showing a vector a with initial point A

Fig. 40.

beUK iniUal P°int °f a -.or wi.l often

ratlin6 rmber/?ual 1° 'uhe le^th of a vector (in a given scale) is

lfC|«V|="' S ai^caMed'/u^r^ec^;5

Sd"H andaisgranyeci0ernoa

»iCVc’iion'S rec!r.;!st.b'poini j»«* «.■»•>«.

 146 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

The projection of a vector AB on an axis u is designated as

pr°juAB. If the vector is denoted by a, then its projection on the
axis u is designated as projMa.
The projection of a vector a on an axis u is expressed, in terms
of its modulus and its angle of inclination q) with respect to the
axis u, by the formula
proj/za = | a |-cos cp. (1)

The projections of an arbitrary vector a on the axes of a given

coordinate system will henceforth be denoted by the letters
X, Yt Z. The equality
a = {X, Y, Z)

will mean that the numbers X, Y, Z are the projections of the vec¬
tor on the coordinate axes.

The projections of a vector on the coordinate axes are also cal¬

led its (cartesian) coordinates. If two given points Af, (Xy ylt z,) and
M9(x9, y2, z2) are, respectively, the initial and the terminal point of
a vector a, then the coordinates X, Y, Z of a are determined from
the formulas
X=^x2 x j, Y — y 2 y \ * Z = 22 Zj.
The formula
| a | = VX2 + Y2 + Z1 (2)

enables us to determine the modulus of a vector from its coordinates.

If a, p, v are the angles which a vector a makes with the coor¬
dinate axes (Fig. 41), then cos a, cos p, cos y are called the direc¬
tion cosines of the vector a.
 $ 29 The Concept of a Vector 147

In consequence of formula (1),

X = |a|cosa, K = |a|cosp, Z = |a|cosY-

Hence, from formula (2), it follows that

cos2 a -f cos2 p + cos2y = 1.

This last relation permits us to determine any one of the angles a

p, y when the other two an cries are known. ^

748. Calculate the modulus of the vector a={6, 3, —21.

749. Two coordinates of a vector a are X = 4, K =_12
Determine its third coordinate Z if |a|=13.
750. Given the points /I (3, — 1,2) and £( — 1,2.1).
Find the coordinates of the vectors ~AB and BA
751. Find the point N which is the terminal point of
the vector fl = {3,—1,4} whose initial point is at Mil
2, —3). v ’
752. Find the initial point of the vector a = {2, —3,
— 1} whose terminal point is at (1, — 1, 2).
753. Given the modulus \u | = 2 of a vector and the
angles a = 45°. P = 60°, Y=120°. Calculate the projections
oi the vector a on the coordinate axes.
754. Calculate the direction cosines of the vector
<*={12, -15, -16).
755.Calculate the direction cosines of the vector
4_
13 ’
756. Is it possible for a vector to make the following
angles with the coordinate axes: 1) a = 45° P = 60°,
Y = inoC 2) “ = 45°' P = 135°. Y = 60°; 3) a = 90< P = 150°,
Y = 60 ?
757. Is it possible for a vector to make the following
angles with two coordinate axes: 1) a = 30° P = 45°;
2) p = 60°, y = 60°; 3) a =150°, y = 30°?
758. A vector makes angles a=120° and
Y= 45° with
the axes Ox and Oz. What angle does it make
axis Oy? with the
759. A vector a makes angles a=60°, p = 120° with
the coordinate axes Ox and Oy. Calculate its coordinates
if I a 1 = 2.
 148 Ch. 1. Vector Algebra

760. Determine the coordinates of a point M if the radius

vector of M makes equal angles with the coordinate axes
and its modulus is 3.

§ 30. Linear Operations on Vectors

The sum a -p b of two vectors ci and b is defined as the vector
extending from the initial point of the vector a to the terminal
point of the vector b, provided that the vector b has been drawn
from the terminal point of the vector a (the triangle rule). The
construction of the sum a -f- b is shown in Fig. 42.

Fig. 42. Fig. 43.

Another rule often used is the parallelogram rule (which is equiv¬

alent to the triangle rule): if vectors a and b are drawn from
a common initial point and a parallelogram is constructed on them,
then the sum a-\-b is the vector coincident with that diagonal of
the parallelogram which extends from the common initial point
of a and b (Fig. 43). It follows at once that a + b =b + (*•

d
c

a
Fig. 44.

The addition of several vectors is carried out by successively

applying the triangle rule (see Fig. 44 showing the construction of
the sum of four vectors a, b, c, d). . _ , ..
The difference a — b of two vectors a and b is defined as tne
vector which, added to the vector b, gives the vector a. If two \ec-
 § SO, Linear Operations on Vectors 149

tors a and b are drawn from a common initial point, then their
difference a — b is the vector extending from the terminal point
of b (the subtrahend) to the terminal point of a (the minuend). Two
vectors of equal length which lie on the same straight line and have
opposite directions are called the negatives of each other: if one of
them is denoted by a, then the other is denoted by — a. It is easily
seen that a — b = a -j- (— b). Hence, the construction of a vector
difference is equivalent to the addition of the negative of the sub¬
trahend to the minuend.
The product aa (or aa) of a vector a by a number a is a vector
defined as follows: its modulus is equal to the product of the modu¬
lus of a by the modulus of a; it is parallel to the vector a or lies
on the same line as a; it has the same direction as a if a is a
positive number, or the opposite direct ion if a is a negative number.
Addition of vectors and multiplication of vectors by numbers are
called linear operation on vectors.
The two fundamental theorems on the projections of vectors are:
1. I he projection of the sum of vectors on an axis is equal to
the sum of their projections on this axis:
Pr°j„ K + +... + an) - proj„a, -j- proj,ia2 +... + projwa;I.
2. When a vector is multiplied bv a number, the projection of
the vector is multiplied by the same number:
proj„ (act) =aproj„a.
In particular, if
then a = {x„y„zl}, b {x2,y2.z2}.
and a + b = {xl + x2, y. + y,. Z,+Z2}

a-b = {Xl-X2, K, — Y2, Z,-Z2}.

If a = \Xt Y, Zj, then
cta=\aX, rxY, aZ)
for any number a
Vectors lying on the same straight line or on parallel lines
vectors collinear. The condition for the collinearity of two
a = {X„ Yx. Z,j, b = {X2. Z2j,
is that their coordinates should be proportional:

X, V, Z,-
The triad of vectors l, j, k is referred to as the coordinate
basis ,f these vectors satisfy the following conditions- C00rdmate
on ,h.

.1 £ SlI h * POi"'S lh« <”>««" direction

 150 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

(;3) *• J* * are unit vectors, that is, |/| = 1, \J\ = \t \k\ = \.

An} vector a can always be resolved into components with
respect to the basis /, jt k> that is, can always be represented in
the form
a=Xl + Yj+Zk\
the coefficients of this resolution are the coordinates of the vec¬
tor a (that is, X, Y, Z are the projections of the vector a on the
coordinate axes).

761. If a and b are two given vectors, construct each

of the following vectors: 1) a-\ b\ 2) a — b. 3) b — a\
4) -a-b.
762. Given that |a|=13, |ft|=I9 and \a + b | = 24;
calculate | a — b |.
763. Given that |a =11, |6| = 23 and la — 61 = 30;
find \a-\~b\.
764. Vectors a and b are perpendicular to each other;
|a| = 5 and \b\=\2. Evaluate \a-\-b\ and \a — b\.
765. Vectors a and b make an angle (p = 60°; ja| = 5
and \b\ = 8. Evaluate \a + b\ and \a — b\.
766. Vectors a and b make an angle <p=120°; |a| = 3
and |6| = 5. Evaluate \a + b\ and \a — b |.
767. What conditions must be satisfied by vectors a
and b in order that the following relations should hold:
1) | a-yb\ = \a — b\\ 2) \a + b\>\a — b\; 3) \a+b\<
< | a — b I?
768. What condition must be satisfied by vectors a
and b in order that the vector a + b should bisect the
angle between the vectors a and 6?
769. Given two vectors a and b\ construct each of the

following vectors: 1) 3a; 2) — 3) 2 a + y£;

4) ja-3b.
770. In a triangle ABC, the vector AB = m and the
vector AC = n. Construct each of the following vectors:
D 0+1; 2) 2*=«; 3) 4) -*±5. Using j|«| as
a unit segment, construct also the vectors: 5) \ n\ tn -\~\m\n\
6) \n\m — \m\n.
771. A point 0_is the_centre of gravity of a triangle ABC.
Prove that OA + OB + OC = 0.
 § 30. Linear Operations on Vectors 151

772. Given the following vectors, coincident with the

sides of a regular pentagonABODE: AB = m, BC = n,
CD = p, DE = q and EA—r. Construct the vectors:
1) m — n+p — q + r, 2) m^2p + jr; 3) 2m + jn-3p-
-q + 2r.
773. Given the following vectors, coincident with the
edges of a parallelepiped ABCDA' B'C'D' (Fig. 45):

D' Cf

Fig. 45.

AB m, AD — n and AA'=p. Construct each of the

following vectors: 1) m + n+p\ 2) m + «+ ip; 3) |m +

+ 2n+P4) m + n-p; 5) -m-n^\p.

774. Three forces M, N and P are applied at the same
point and have mutually perpendicular directions. Find
the value o their resultant R, if |VM| = 2 kg, |AT|=10kg
and |P|—11 kg weight. *
775. Given the two vectors a = {3, —2,6} and b =
= {-2, 10} Determine the projections (on the coordi-
nate axes) of the following vectors: 1) a + 6; 2) a — b\
3) 2a; 4) -I*; 5) 2a + 3&; 6)
776. Verify that a = {2, -1,3} and b = {-6, 3, -9} are
col linear vectors. Determine which of them has the greater
length and find how many times it is longer than the
 152
Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

°^T' determine whether the vectors are similarly or oppo¬

sitely directed.
111% Determine the values of a, (3 for which the vectors
+3/+P* and b = ai + 6j+2k are collinear.
778. Verify that the four points A (3, —1,2), 5(1,2, — 1),
C(—1, 1, — 3), D(3, — 5, 3) are the vertices of a trape¬
zoid.
779. Given the A (- 1, 5, - 10), 5(5, -7,8),
points
C(2, 2, —7) and D(5, — 4, 2). Verify that the vectors AB
and CD are collinear; determine which of them has the
greater length and find how many times it is longer than
the other; determine whether they are similarly or oppo¬
sitely directed.
780. Find the unit vector co-directional with the vec¬
tor a={ 6, —2, —3}.
781. Find the unit vector co-directional with the vector
a = {3, 4, -12}.
782. Determine the moduli of the sum and the difference
of the vectors a= (3, —5, 8} and b = {— 1, 1, —4}.
783. The resolution of a vector c with respect to the
basis /, j, k is c— 16/— 15y-f- \2k. Determine the resolu¬
tion, with respect to the same basis, of a vector d which
is parallel and opposite in direction to the vector c, if
Id 1 = 15.
784. The two vectors a = {2, — 3, 6} and b= { —1,2, —2}
are drawn from the same point. Determine the coordinates
of a vector c directed along the bisector of the angle
between the vectors a and b, if \c\ = 3Vjl2.
785. The vectors AB = {2} 6, -4} and AC={4, 2, -2}
form two sides of a triangle ABC. Determine the coordi¬
nates of the vectors drawn from the vertices of the tri¬
angle and coincident with its medians AM, BN, CP.
186*. Prove that, if p and q are any non-collinear vec¬
tors, then every vector lying in the plane of p and q can
be expressed in the form

a=ap + $Q'

* Problems 786 and 792 are essential for a proper understanding

of the other problems. We therefore give a detailed solution of
Problem 786.
 # 30. Linear Operations on Vectors 153

Prove that the numbers a and p are uniquely determined

by the vectors a, p and q. (The representation of a vec¬
tor a in the form a = ap + fiq is called the resolution of
a into components with respect to the basis /?, q\ the
numbers a and (5 are called the coefficients of this reso¬
lution.)

Proof. Let us draw the vectors a, p and q from a common ini¬

tial point. Denote this initial point by 0 (Fig. 46), and the termi¬
nal point of the vector a by A. Draw a straight line through A
parallel to the vector q. Let Ap denote the point of intersection of

Pig. 46.

this straight line with the line of action of the vector p. Similarly
by drawing a straight line through A parallel to the vector p, we
shall obtain Aq as the point of intersection of this straight line with
the line of action of the vector q.
According to the parallelogram rule,

a = OA = OAp + OAq. (i)

Since the vectors OAp and p lie on the same straight line, it fol¬
lows that the vector OAp can be obtained by multiplying the vec¬
tor p by some number a: 8
OAp = up. (2)
Similarly,
OAa = ^q. (3)
From relations (1), (2) and (3), we obtain: a = a/7-fRo. Thus, we
iroveThTlh Hat rVhe re,qUired ;easo,ution is Possible. It remains to
uniquely3* ^ coefflclents a and P of th>s resolution are determined
Suppose that the vector a has two resolutions:

a—ap-\~ P<7, a=a'p-\-f>'q,

 154 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

and, say, u' =£ a. A member-for-member subtraction of the first rela¬

tion from the second gives

(o'— a)/? + (P' — p) <7 = 0,

But this equality means the collinearity of the vectors p and q

which are non-col I inear by hypothesis. Hence, the inequality a' ^ a
is impossible. In similar fashion, we can prove that the inequality
p ^ p is impossible. Thus, a'=a, P' — p, which means that a vector
cannot have two diflerent resolutions.

787. If p=={2, —3}, <7={1, 2} are two given vectors in

the plane, find the resolution of the vector a= {9, 4} with
respect to the basis /?, q.
788. If a = {3, —2}, b={—2, 1} and c= {7,—4} are
three given vectors in the plane, determine the resolution
of each of them with respect to the basis formed by the
other two vectors.
789. Given the three vectors a = {3, —1}, b={ 1, —2},
c = {— 1, 7}. Determine the resolution of the vector p = a +
■j-b + c with respect to the basis a, b.
790. Determine the resolution of the vectors drawn from
the vertices of a triangle ABC and coincident with its
medians, when the vectors AB = b and AC = c (coincident
with the sides of the triangle) are taken as the basis of
the resolution.
791. If A(;i, —2), B (2, 1), C (3, 2), D(—2,3) are four
given points in the plane, determine the resolution of the
vectors ~ADy BD, CD and AD+ BD + CD, with respect to
the basis formed by the vectors AB and AC.
792. Prove that, if p, q and r are any non-coplanar *
vectors, then every vector a in space can be expressed in
the form
a = ap + 0<7 + yr.

Prove that the numbers a, p, y are uniquely determined

by the vectors a, pf q and r. (The representation of a

* Three vectors are said to be non-coplanar if, drawn from a

common initial point, they do not lie in the same plane.
 $ 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors 155

vector a in the form a = ap + |J*7 -{-yr is called the reso¬

lution of a into components with respect to the basis
/?, qy r. The numbers a, fi and y are called the coeffi¬
cients of this resolution.)
793. Given the three vectors p={ 3, —2, 1},
Q—{—1*1,—2}, r={2, 1, —3}. Find the resolution of
the vector c = {11, —6, 5} with respect to the basis /?, q, r.
794. Given the four vectors a = {2, 1,0}, b= {1, —1,2),
c = {2, 2, — 1} and d = {3, 7, —7). Find the resolution of
each of these vectors with respect to the basis formed by
the other three vectors.

§ 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors

The scalar product of two vectors is defined as the number equal

to the product of the moduli of these vectors bv the cosine of their
included angle.
The scalar product of vectors a, b is denoted bv the symbol ab
(the order in which the factors are written is immaterial, that is
ab = ba).
Designating the angle between vectors a, b as (p, we may express
their scalar product by the formula

ab = 1 a /-I b Tens (p. (1)

The scalar product of vectors a, b may also be expressed bv the
formula
ab = \a\- proja b or ab = | b | • proj& a.

From formula (1) it follows that ab > 0 if tp is an acute ancle*

ab <0 if cp is an obtuse angle; ab = 0 if, and only if, the vectors a
and b are mutually perpendicular. (In particular, ab =0 if a = 0
or b = 0.)
The scalar product aa is called the scalar sauare of the vector a
and is denoted by the symbol a2. From (I) it follows that the scalar
square of a vector is equal to the square of its modulus;
a2 = |a|2.

Given the coordinates of vectors a and b:

«={*,. Yy. 2,}. b = {X2, F2, Z2}.

their scalar product can be calculated from the formula

ofThe'vectorsTs^ ^ Sufflcient cond'ti°n for the perpendicularity

TjV 2 -\- ZxZt — 0*
 156 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

The angle cp between vectors

a-{A'„ Yt, Z,j and b = {Xt, Yt, Z,\

cib
is given by the formula cos rp = — or, in terms of coordinates,
a\-\b\
X,Xt + Y,YM + ZlZt
COS (p =

Vx\ + Y\ + Z\Vx\ + Y\+Zl

The projection of an arbitrary vector S={X, Y, Z} on an axis u

is determined by the formula

proju$=

where e is the unit vector whose direction is that of the axis u. If

the angles a, p, y which the axis u makes with the coordinate axes
are given, then e — [coscz, cos p, cos y}, and the projection of the
vector 5 may be calculated from the formula

proj„S — X cos a + K cos p + Z cos y.

2
795. Vectors a and ft make an angle <p = yjt; if|a| = 3,
b | = 4, calculate: aft; 2) a2; 3) ft2; 4) (a 4-ft)2;
1)
5) (3a —2ft) (a 4 2ft); 6) (a —ft)2; 7) (3a + 2ft)2.
796. Vectors a and ft are mutually perpendicular, and
*1
each of them makes an angle equal to ~ with a third
vector c\ if | a | = 3, | b | = 5, / cl —8, calculate: 1) (3a — 2b)x
x(b-\-3c)-, 2) (a + b + c)2\ 3) (a+2b — 3c)2.
797. Prove the validity of the identity
(a+b)2 + (a-b)2 = 2(a2 + b2),

and find its geometric meaning.

798. Prove that
— ab^ab^ab.

When does the equals sign hold?

799. If vectors a, b, c are each of them different from
zero, determine their relative position such that the con¬
dition
(ab)c = a (be)
is satisfied
800. Given the unit vectors o, b and c satisfying the
condition a-j-ft-j-c = 0. Evaluate aft -|- be -\ cu.
 § 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors 15 7

801. Given three vectors a, ft, c which satisfy the con¬

dition a+b+c= 0. If I a 1 = 3, \b\= 1 and \c\ = A,
evaluate ab + bc + ca.
802. Each of the angles between vectors a, b, c is
equal to 60°. If |a| = 4, |ft|=--2 and |c| = 6, find the
modulus of the vector p = a + b + c.
803. Given that I a 1 = 3, |ft| = 5. Determine the value
of a for which the vectors a + ab, a —aft will be mutually
perpendicular.
804. What condition must be satisfied by vectors a
and ft in order that the vector a-\ b should be perpendic¬
ular to the vector a — ft?
805. Prove that the vector p = ft (ac) — c (aft) is perpen¬
dicular to the vector a.
806. Prove that the vector p = b — ^^ is perpendicu¬
lar to the vector a. a
807. Given the vectors AB = b and AC = c, coincident
with two sides of a triangle ABC. Find the resolution
(with respect to the basis b, c) of the vector drawn from
the vertex B of the triangle and coinciding with the alti¬
tude BD.
808. Vectors a and b make an angle = if

|a 1 = 1/3, |6|=1, calculate the angle a between the vec¬

tors p — a-\-b and q = a — b.
809. Find the obtuse angle which is formed by the
medians drawn from the vertices of the acute angles of a
right-angled isosceles triangle.
810. Determine the locus of the terminal points of a
variable vector x drawn from a given origin A, if the
vector x satisfies the condition

xa =a,
where a is a given vector and a is a given number.
811. Find the locus of tie terminal points of a variable
vector j: drawn from a g'ven origin A, if the vector x
satisfies the conditions
xa=a xb = fi,
where a, b are given non-collinear vectors and a B are
given numbers.
 158 Ch. 7 Vector Algebra

812. Given the vectors a = {4. -2, -4}, b^{6, -3,2}

Evaluate:

1) ab\ 2) Va~*; 3) /F, 4) (2a - 3b) (a + 2b)\

5) (a -f ft)2; 6) (a — b)2.
813. Calculate the work done by the force/= {3, —5,2}
whose point of application is displaced from the initial
to the terminal point of the vector 5(2, —5, —7).*
814. Given the points A(- 1,3, —7), 5(2, -1, 5) and
C (0, 1, —5). Evaluate:

1) (2AB — CB)(2BC+BA)\ 2) VjF2; 3) Vj&\

4) find the coordinates of the vectors (AB AC) BC and
AB (AC 5C).
815. Calculate the work done by the force/= {3, —2, —5}
whose point of application is given a rectilinear displace¬
ment from A (2 —3, 5) to 5(3, —2, —1).
816. Given the three forces M = {3, —4, 2}, jV= {2, 3, —5}
and P=l—3, —2, 4} applied at the same point. Calcu¬
late the work done by the resultant of these forces when
its point of application experiences a rectilinear displace¬
ment from 1 (5, 3t —7) to A/2(4, —1, —4).
817. Given the vertices A(l, —2,2), 5(1,4,0),
C( — 4, 1, 1), D( — 5, —5, 3) of a quadrilateral. Prove that
its diagonals AC and BD are perpendicular to each other.
818. Determine the value of a for which the vectors
a = ai-3j-V^k and b = i -r2j— ak are mutually perpen¬
dicular.
819. Calculate the cosine of the angle formed by the
vectors a = {2, —4, 4} and b = { —3, 2, 6}.
820. Given the vertices A ( — 1, — 2, 4), 5( — 4, —2,0),
C (3, —2, 1) of a triangle. Determine the interior angle at
the vertex 5.
821. Given the vertices A(3, 2,—3), 5(5, 1, —1),
C(l, — 2, 1) of a triangle. Determine the exterior angle
at the vertex A.
* If a vector / represents a force whose point of application is
given a displacement from the initial to the terminal point of a
vector s, then the work w done by this force is determined by the
relation
w~fs.
 $ 31. The Scalar Product of Vectors 159

822. By calculating the interior angles of the triangle

A (1, 2, 1), B (3, — 1, 7), C (7, 4, —2), verify that the tri¬
angle is isosceles.
823. A vector x is collinear with the vector
fl = {6, —8, —7.5} and makes an acute angle with the
axis Oz. Find the coordinates of x if ( jc | = 50.
824. Find the vector x collinear with the vector
a = {2, 1,-1} and satisfying the condition

x a = 3.
825. A vector x is perpendicular to the vectors a = 3/-f-
-\-2j 2k and b=\8i— 22j—3k and makes an obtuse
angle with the axis Oy. Find the coordinates of x if
| jc | = 14.
826. Find the vector x perpendicular to the vectors
a = {2, 3, — 1} and b = {1, —2, 3} and satisfying the con¬
dition
x(2i—j-\- k) — — 6.
827. Given the two vectors a={3, —1,5} and
* = {1,2, — 3}. Find the vector x perpendicular to the
axis Oz and satisfying the conditions

xa = 9, xb= —4.
828. Given the three vectors
a = 2i—j+3k, b = i — Zj-\-2k and c = 3i + 2j— 4k.
Find the vector x satisfying the conditions
xa = —5, xb= —11, *c:=20.
829. Find the projection of the vector 5= {4, —3 2}
on the axis making equal acute angles with the coordi-
nate axes.
830. Find the projection of the vector 5={}/2, —3, —5}
on the axis which makes angles a=45°, y = 60° with the
coordinate axes Ox, Oz and an acute angle 6 with the
axis Oy.
831. Given the two points A (3, —4, —2), B (2, 5, —2)
Find the projection of the vector AB on the axis which
makes angles a=60°, p= 120° with the coordinate axes Ox
Oy and an obtuse angle y with the axis Oz.
 lf,0
Hi. 7. Vector Algebra

832. Calculate the projection of the vector a={5, 2, 5}

on the axis of the vector b={2, — 1, 2}.
833. Given the three vectors

a 3/ — 6j k, b = i + 4j—3k and c=3i—4j+12k.

Calculate projc(a + b).
834. Given the three vectors

a — {1 * —3, 4}, b=[3, —4, 2} and C—{—1,1,4}.

Calculate projb + ca.

835. Given the three vectors

a~—2i 'rjJrk, b — i-\-5j and c—4i-\-4j—2k.

Calculate proj,.(3a — 2b).
836. The force determined by the vector R= {1, —8, —7}
is resolved along three mutually perpendicular directions,
one of which is the direction of the vector a = 2i -\-2j -f- k.
Find the component of the force R in the direction of the
vector a.
837. Given the two points M (—5, 7, —6) and N (7, —9, 9).
Calculate the projection of the vector a = { 1, —3, 1} on the
axis of the vector MN.
838. Given the points A (—2, 3, — 4),_B (3, 2, 5),
C(l, —1, 2), D (3, 2, —4). Calculate proj^/15.

§ 32. The Vector Product of Vectors

The vector product of a vector a by a vector b is defined as the
vector denoted by the symbol [ab] and determined by the following
three conditions:
(1) the modulus of the vector [ab] is equal to \a\*\b\ sin <p,
where (p is the angle between the vectors a and b\
(2) the vector [ab] is perpendicular to each of the vectors a and b;
(3) the direction of the vector [ab] is determined by the “right-
hand” rule: if the vectors a, b and [ab] are drawn from the same
initial point, then the vector [ab] must be directed analogous to the
middle finger of the right hand whose thumb extends in the direc¬
tion of the first factor (i.e., the vector a), while its forefinger
extends in the direction of the second factor (i.e., the vector b).
The vector product depends on the order of its factors; namely,

[ab] =— [ba].
 8 32 The Vector Product of Vectors 161

The modulus of the vector product [afr) is equal to the area S of

the parallelogram constructed on the vectors a and b:

I [aft] I —S.
The vector product itself can be expressed by the formula

[ab] = Se,

where e is the unit vector co-directional with the vector product.

Vectors a and b have their vector product [a&] zero if, and only
if, they are collinear. In particular, [aa] = 0.
Given the coordinates of vectors a and b (in a right-handed coor¬
dinate system):
a = {Xl9 K1# Z,}, b = {X2, Yz, Z2\,
the vector product of the vector a by the vector b is determined
from the formula
V 1 X 7 A'.E,
y y » t
l 2^2 X2Z2 A'2E2

839. Vectors a and b make an angle (p— If |a| —6,

\b | = 5, evaluate | [ab] |.
840. Given that |a|=10, \b\ = 2 and ab = 12. Evalu¬
ate |[a6]|.
841. Given that |a| = 3, |6| = 26 and | [aft] 1 = 72.
Find ab.
842. Vectors a and b are mutually perpendicular. If
|a| = 3, |&| = 4, evaluate:

1) | [(a + b) (a — b)] |; 2) | [(3a — b) (a — 2b)] |.

843. Vectors a and b make an angle cp=|-jt. If |a|=l,
\b\ = 2, evaluate:
1) [ab]2\ 2) [(2a + b) (a + 2b)V\ 3) [(a + 3b) (3a—b)}2.
844. What condition must be satisfied by vectors a, b
in order that the vectors a + b and a—b should be col¬
linear?
845. Prove the identity
[■ab]2 + (aby-=a2b2.
6 -2250
 J 62 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

846. Prove that

[ab]2 < a2b2.
When does the equals sign hold?
847. Given four arbitrary vectors p, q, r, n. Prove that
the vectors
a = [pn], b=\qn), c=[rn}
are coplanar (i.e., will lie in the same plane when they
are drawn from a common initial point).
848. Vectors a, b and c satisfy the condition
a + 6 + c = 0.
Prove that
[ab} = [bc] = [ca].
849. Vectors a, b, c and d are connected by the rela¬
tions
[ab) = [cd\, [ac]^[bd].
Prove that the vectors a — d and b — c are collinear.
850. Given the vectors
a = {3, —I, —2} and b = { 1, 2, —1}.
Find the coordinates of the vector products:
1) [ab\, 2) [(2a+b)b]\ 3) [(2a-b)(2a+b)].
851. Given the points /I (2, —I, 2), B( 1, 2, —1) and
C(3, 2, 1). Find the coordinates of the vector products:

1) [ABBC]\ 2) \(BC—2CA)CB).
852. The force /={3, 2, —4} is applied at the point
A (2, —1, 1). Determine the moment of this force about
the origin *.
853. The force P = {2, —4, 5} is applied at the point
M0 (4, —2,3). Determine the moment of this force about
the point A (3, 2, —1).

* If/ is the vector representing a force applied at a point Af,

and a is the vector extending from a point 0 to the point Af, then
the vector [af] represents the moment of the force / about the
point 0.
 § 32. The Vector Product of Vectors 163

854. The force Q = {3, 4, —2} is applied at the point

C(2, —1, —2). Determine the value and the direction
cosines of the moment of this force about the origin.
855. The force P= {2, 2, 9} is applied at the point
A (4, 2, —3). Determine the value and the direction co¬
sines of the moment of this force about the point C(2, 4,0).
856. Given the three forces M — {2, —1, —3}, N =
— {3. 2, —1} and P — {—4, 1, 3}, which are applied at the
point C (—1, 4, —2). Find the value and the direction cosines
of the moment of the resultant of these forces about the
point A (2, 3, —1).
857. Given the points A (1, 2, 0), 5(3, 0, —3), C(5, 2, 6).
Compute the area of the triangle ABC.
858. Given the vertices A( 1, —l, 2), 5(5, —6, 2),
C(l, 3, —1) of a triangle. Find the length of the altitude
from the vertex B to the side AC.
859. Calculate the sine of the angle formed by the vec¬
tors a = {2, —2, 1} and b = {2, 3, 6}.
860. A vector x is perpendicular to the vectors a = {4,
—2, —3} and b = {0, 1, 3}, and makes an obtuse angle
with the axis Oy. Find the coordinates of x if | jc | = 26.
861. A vector m is perpendicular to the axis Oz and to
the vector a = {8, —15, 3}, and makes an acute angle with
the axis Ox. Find the coordinates of m if |m| = 51.
862. Find the vector x perpendicular to the vectors
fl=={2, —3, 1}, b = { 1, —2, 3} and satisfying the condi¬
tion
x = (l + 2j— 7A)=10.
863. Prove the identity

I*1 “bmi + ni) + nl) — (/,/2 4- mlm2 + ni«2)2 =

=(m,/i2-m2«1)2 + (/2n1_A

Hint. Use the identity of Problem 845.

864. Given the vectors

a=={2> 3, 1}, & = {—3, 1, 2} and c = {l, 2, 3}.

Evaluate [[ab] c\ and [a [be]J.
6*
 161 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

§ 33. The Triple Scalar Product

Three vectors designated as the first, second and third vector are
called a triad of vectors. The vectors of a triad are written in their
order; for example, when we write a, b, c, this means that a is
regarded as the iirst, b as the second, and c as the third vector of
the triad.
A triad of non-eoplanar vectors a, b, c is called right-handed if
its vectors, when drawn from a common initial point and taken in
their order, are directed analogous to the thumb, forefinger and
middle finger of the right hand; if the vectors a, b, c are directed
analogous to the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the left
hand, the triad is called left-handed.
I he triple scalar product of three vectors a, b, c is defined as
the number obtained by the scalar multiplication of tjie vector prod¬
uct \ab\ and the vector c, that is, [ab\c.
In virtue of the identity \ab]c = a be], the triple scalar prod¬
uct [ab\ c is denoted by a simpler symbol: cibc. Thus,

abc = [cib] c, abc = a \bc\.

The triple scalar product abc is equal to the volume of the paral¬
lelepiped constructed on the vectors a, b, c\ the sign of this volume
is positive or negative according as the triad a, b, c is right-han¬
ded or left-handed. If (and only if) the vectors a. b, c are coplanar,
the triple scalar product abc is zero; in other words, the relation

abc = 0
constitutes a necessary and sufficient condition for the coplanarity
of the vectors a, b, c.
Given the coordinates of vectors a, b, c:

a = {Xi,YvZl\, 6={A2, Y2,Z2}, c={X„Y„Zs},

the triple scalar product abc is determined from the formula

y, z,
y, z2
Y, 2,
It should be noted that the system of coordinate axes (as well as
the vector triad i, j, k) is assumed here to be right-handed.

865. In each of the following, determine whether the

triad a, b, c is right-handed or left-handed:

1) a = k, b=^i, c—j\ 2) a — i, b=k, c=j\

3) a=j, b=i, c=k. 4) a=i+j, b=j, c = k\
5) a=i+j, b=i—j, c=j\ 6) a=i-rj, b=i-j, c=k.
 $ 33. The Triple Scalar Product 165

866. Vectors a, b c are mutually perpendicular and form

aright-handed triad. Evaluate abc if |a| = 4, \b\=?2,
I ^ I — 3.
867. A vector c is perpendicular to vectors a and b\
the angle between a and b is equal to 30D. Evaluate abc
if | a | = 6, 161=3, | c |=3.
868. Prove that
|fl*c!<|a||6||c .
When does the equals sign hold?
869. Prove the identity

(a + b)(b + c)(c + a) = 2abc.

870. Prove the identity
ab(c + ka f \ib)=abc,
where X and are any numbers.
871. Prove that vectors a, b, c, which satisfy the con¬
dition
, [fl61 + [6c] + [ca] = 0,
are coplanar.
872. Prove that a necessary and sufficient condition for
the coplanarity of vectors a, b. c is given by the relation
aa + + yc-=0,
where at least one of the numbers a, p, y is different from
zcr o *
873. Given the three vectors
«={1. —1. 3}, b = {-2, 2, 1}, c= {3, -2. 5}.
Evaluate abc.
874. In each of the following, determine whether the
vectors a, b, c are coplanar:
1) a = {2, 3, -1}, b = {l. -E 3}, C = {1. 9. —11};
2) a = {3, -2, 1}, b = {2, 1, 2}, c = {3, -1, _2);
3) a={2, —1, 2}, b = { 1, 2, —3}, c={3, —4, 7}.
875. Prove that the four points
^(1. 2, -1), fl(0, 1, 5), C(—1, 2, 1), D(2, 1, 3)
lie in the same plane.
 J66 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

876. Calculate the volume of the tetrahedron whose ver¬

tices are at the points A (2, —1, 1), 5(5, 5, 4), C(3, 2, —1)
and D (4, 1, 3).
877. Given the vertices A (2, 3, 1), 5(4, 1, —2),
C(6, 3, 7), D(—5, —4, 8) of a tetrahedron. Find the
length of the altitude drawn from the vertex D.
878. A tetrahedron of volume v = 5 has three of its ver¬
tices at the points A (2, 1, —1), 5(3, 0, 1), C(2, —1, 3);
the fourth vertex D lies on the axis Oy. Find the coordi¬
nates of D.

§ 34. The Triple Vector Product

Suppose that the vector multiplication of two vectors a and b is

followed by the vector multiplication of the resulting vector [ab]
and a third vector c. This gives the so-called triple vector prod¬
uct \[ab\c\ (clearly, [[ab]c] is a vector). The vector multiplica¬
tion of the vectors a and [be] gives the triple vector product [a [bc]\.
In general,
[[ab] c] ^ [a[bc]].

Let us prove the identity

[[ab] c] = b (ac) — a (be).

Proof. For convenience in calculations, let us place the axes of

the (rectangular cartesian) coordinate system as follows: let the
axis Ox be directed along the vector a, and let the axis Oy lie in
the plane of the vectors a and b (drawn from a common initial
point). We then have:

a={Xt, 0, 0}, b=\X2, K2, 0}, <■ = {*„ Z,}.

We next find
[ab] = (0, 0, X,Y2\,
\[ab]c\ = {~XiY2Y„ X.Y.X,, 0}. (D

On the other hand,

ac^XtX„ b(ac) = {X,X2X„ X,Y2X„ 0},

bc = X2X, + Y2Y3, a(bc) = {X,X2X, + XlY2Y„ 0, 0}.

Hence,
b (ae) — a (be) = XlY2Y3f XxY 2Xv 0}. (2)
 § S4. The Triple Vector Product 167

Comparing the right-hand members of (1) and (2), we have:

\\ab\ c\ — b (ac) — a (be),

as was to be shown.

879. Prove the identity

[a [bc}] = b(ac)-c(ab).
880. Solve Problem 8G4 by using the identities given at
the beginning of this section and the identity of Prob-
lem 879.
*

881. Given the vertices A (2, —1, -3), B( 1, 2, -4),

C (3, —1, —2) of a triangle, Calculate the coordinates of
a vector a col linear with the altitude drawn from the ver-
tex A to the opposite side, if the vector h makes an ob-
tuse angle with the axis Oy and if the modulus of h is
equal to 2 j/34.
882. If vectors a, b, c are each of them different from
zero, determine their relative position for which the con-
dition

la 1*01 = \\ab] c\
is satisfied.
883. Prove the identities:

1) la \bc\\ + [b [can + [c [a6]]=0;

2) [ab\{cd\ = (ac)(bd) — {ad)(bcy,
3) 1 ab\ [cd\ + rtf| \db\ -f \ad\ \bc\ =0;
4) \\ab\ \cd\\=c(abd)—d (abc)\
5) la&| \bc\ \ca\ — (abc)2\
6) \a \a [a \ab\\\\ = a'b, if the vectors a and b are

mutually perpendicular;

7) \a\b[cd]]] = [ac)(bd)-[ad\(bcy,
8) la \b {cd\])=(acd)b~(ab) \cd\\
9) lab\z \ac\2 — (\ab\ lac\)2=a'2 (abef-,
168 Ch. 7. Vector Algebra

10) [1 ab] 1 bc\\ 1 \bc\ [ca]] [|ca\ (ab)\ = (abc)*\

11) (ab) \cd\ -)-(ac) \db) + (ad) (bc]=a (bed),
abd abe
12) (abc)(ade) =
acd ace

884. Three non-coplanar vectors a, b and c are drawn

from a common initial point. Prove that the plane pass¬
ing through the terminal points of these vectors is per¬
pendicular to the vector

[ab\ + [bc]-\-[ca\.
 Chapter 8

THE EQUATION OF A SURFACE

AND THE EQUATIONS OF A CURVE

§ 35. The Equation of a Surface

The equation of a given surface (in a chosen coordinate system)

is defined as the equation in three variables,

y, z) = 0,
which is satisfied by the coordinates of all points lying on the sur¬
face and by the coordinates of no other point.

885. Given the points M,(2, —3, 6), Af2(0, 7, 0),

AM3, 2, -4), M4 (2 V2, 4, -5), Afs(l, —4, -5), Me(2,
6, —1/5). Determine which of them lie on the surface
represented by the equation x2 +y2 -fz2 = 49. Identify the
surface.
886. On the surface x2+y2 + z2 = 9, find the points:
1) with abscissa 1 and ordinate 2; 2) with abscissa 2 and
ordinate 5; 3) with abscissa 2 and applicate 2; 4) with
ordinate 2 and applicate 4.
887. Identify the geometric objects represented by the
following equations in rectangular cartesian coordinates in
space:
I) x = 0; 2) £/—0; 3) z= 0; 4) x-2 = 0;
5) y + 2 = 0\ 6) z + 5 = 0; 7) x2 +y2 + z2=25;
8) (x—2)2 + (y + 3)2 + (z_5)2 = 49;
9) x2 + 2y2 + 3z2 = 0; 10) x2 + 2y2 4-3z2 + 5 = 0;
II) x y—0; 12) x + z = 0; 13) r/—z=0; 14) xr/=0;
15) xz = 0; 16) yz=0; 17) x//z^0; 18) x2-4x=0;
19) xy — y2 = 0; 20) //z z2 = 0.
888. Given the two points F,(—c, 0, 0) and F2(c, 0, 0).
Derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum of
 170 Ch. 8. The Equations of a Surface and of a Curve

whose distances from the two given points is a constant

equal to 2a, provided that a> 0, c>0; a>c.

Solution. Let M denote an arbitraty point in space, and let x, y, z

be its coordinates, Since the point M may occupy any position, it
follows that y and z are variables; they are called the current
coordinates.
I he point M lies on the given surface if, and only if,

MFl + MF2 = 2a. (I)

This is the definition of the surface, expressed in symbolic language.

Let us express MT, and MF2 in terms of the current coordinates
of the point M:

M F, = V(* + c)2 + if + MFt— y'(x-c)* +,/ + 2*.

Inserting these expressions in (1), we obtain the equation

V (x + c)* + y2 + z2 +y (x—c)2 + y2 + z2=2a, (2)

which connects the current coordinates x, y, z, and which is the

equation of the given surface.
For, the condition (1) is fulfilled for every point M lying on the
given surface, and hence the coordinates of such a point satisfy
equation (2); on the other hand, the condition (1) is not fulfilled
for any point not lying on the surface, and hence the coordinates of
such a point do not satisfy equation (2). The problem is thus solved;
the purpose of the remaining operations is to reduce the equation
of the surface to a simpler form.
Transpose the second radical in (2) to the right-hand side:

V (x + c)2 + y2-\-z2 = 2a — 1r(x — c)2 + y2 + z2;

squaring both sides of this equation and removing the parentheses,

we obtain

x2 + 2 cx + c2 + y2 + z2 =
= 4a2 — 4a V (x — c)2 + y2 + z2 + x2 — 2cx + c2 + y2 + z2,
or
a y (x — c)2y2z2 = a2—cx.

Clearing of radicals once again, we find

a2x2—2a2cx + a2c2 + a2y2 + a2z2 = a*—2a2cx + c2x2t

or
(a2 — c2) x2 Jta2y2 -\-a2z2 = a2 (u2—c2). (3)
 § 35. The Equation of a Surface 171

Since a > c, it follows that a2 — c2 > 0; let us denote the positive

number a~ — c2 by b2. Equation (3) will then assume the form

b2x2 + a2y2 + a2z2 = a2b2t

or
•>

x~
—[- _(_?!. _ 1i •
n2 1 A2
a 1 £,2 H)

This surface is called an ellipsoid of revolution. Equation (4) is

referred to as the canonical equation of this ellipsoid.

889. Derive the equation of a sphere with centre at the

origin and radius r.
890. Derive the equation of a sphere with centre at
C (a, p, y) and radius r.
891. From the point P (2, 6,-5), all possible rays are
drawn to intersect the plane Oxz. Find the equation of the
locus of their midpoints.
892. From the point A (3, —5, 7), all possible rays are
drawn to intersect the plane Oxy. Find the equation of the
locus of their midpoints.
893. From the point C(—3, —5, 9), all possible rays are
drawn to intersect the plane Oyz. Find the equation of the
locus of their midpoints.
894. Derive the equation of the locus of points, the
difference of the squares of whose distances from the points
an? Fz (2, ~~7' ~5) is a constant equal to 13.
895. Derive the equation of the locus of points the
sum of the squares of whose distances from two points
and ^2 (a, 0, 0) is a constant equal to 4a2
896. The points A( a, — a, —a), B(a, -a, -a),
ft, ., a’a’ a) and D(a, a, a) are the vertices of a cube.
W rite the equation of the locus of points, the sum of the
squares of whose distances from the faces of this cube is
a constant equal to 8a2.
897 Find the equation of the locus of points equidis-
tasos r0n He r P°'nts M'(1> 2’ and **2 0. 2, 1).
898 Derive the equation of the locus of points, the sum
° arm dlstances from the two given points Pj (0, 0 —
and F2(0, 0, 4) is a constant equal to 10.
899. Derive the equation of the locus of points the
difference of whose distances from the two given points
i( . 5, 0) and P2(0, 5, 0) is a constant equal to 6.
 172 Ch. 8. The Equations of a Surface and of a Curve

§ 36. The Equations of a Curve.

The Problem of the Intersection of Three Surfaces
A space curve is represented by two simultaneous equations,
I F(x, y, z) = 0,
| ® (x, y, z) = 0,

as the intersection of the two surfaces F(x,u,z) = 0 and

O (x, y, z) = 0. '
,}[F(x,y,z) = 0, <p(x,y,z) = 0, W (x, y, z) = 0 are the equations
oi three surfaces, their points of intersection are found by solving
simultaneously the system
| F (x, y, z) = 0,
\ <b(x,y,z) = 0,
l V(x,y,z) = 0.

Each solution of this system for x, y, z gives the coordinates of

one of the intersection points of the given surfaces.

900. Given the points Af, (3, 4, —4), Mt (—3, 2, 4),

A4a (—1,—4, 4) and —3). Determine which of
them lie on the curve
I (x— 1 + + 2j=36,
t y + z=0.
901. In each of the following, determine whether the
given curve passes through the origin:
x* -\- y* -{-z2—2z = 0,
1)
y=0;
(x-3)2 + (y+iy + (z-2)2 = 25,
2)
x + y = 0;
(x-l)2 + (y f 2)2 + (2 + 2)j = 9,
3)
x—z = 0.
902. On the curve
( x2 + y2 + z*=49,
( x*-\- y2 + z2—4z — 25 = 0,
find the points: 1) with abscissa 3; 2) with ordinate 2;
3) with applicate 8.
 § 37. The Equation of a Cylindrical Surface 173

903. Identify the curves represented by the following

equations:

I jc—2 = 0.
1 </ = 0;
| ,+ 2=°, j,-5=0, | y + 2 — 0,
l y—3 = 0; 1 2 f 2 = 0; t 2-5 = 0;
| x* -f y2 + z2 —9, I x2 + y2 + z2=:49,
\ 2 = 0; i y=0;
jx’ + y2 + z2 = 25, | x* + y* + z! = 20,
\ at = 0; 2-2 = 0.
904. Find the equations of the curve of intersection of
the plane Oxz and the sphere with centre at the origin and
radius 3.
905. Find the equations of the curve of intersection of
the sphere with centre at the origin and radius 5 and the
plane parallel to the plane Oxz and situated in the left
half-space at a distance of two units from Oxz.
906. Find the equations of the curve of intersection of
the plane Oyz and the sphere with centre at C(5,-2, 1)
and radius 13.
907. Write the equations of the curve of intersection of
two spheres, one of which is of radius 6 and with centre
at the origin, and the other of radius 5 and with centre
at C (1, —2, 2).
908. Find the points of intersection of the three surfaces
x2 + t/2 + z2 = 49, y — 3 = 0, 2 + 6=0.
909. Find the points of intersection of the three sur-
faces
x2 + t/2 + z2 = 9, x2 + t/2 + (z —2)2 = 5, y-2 = 0.

§ 37. The Equation of a Cylindrical Surface

with Elements Parallel to a Coordinate Axis
An equation in two variables of the form
F(x, y) = 0
represents, in a space coordinate system, a cylindrical surface* with
elements parallel to the axis O*. In a plane Coordinate system (w,!E
 174 Ch. 8. The Equations of a Surface and of a Curve

ax°s Ox Oy) the equation F(x,y) = 0 represents a curve, namely

he directing curve of the cylinder under consideration. In a space
coordinate system, however, the same curve must be represented by
two equations: J
I y) = o,
I 2 = 0.
In like manner, the equation F(x,z) = 0 represents (in space) a cy¬
lindrical surface with elements parallel to the axis Oy\ the equation
F(yiz) = Q represents a cylindrical surface with elements parallel to
the axis Ox.

910. Identify the geometric objects represented, in a

space coordinate system, by the following equations:

I) x2 4-z2 = 25; 2) ML _1 1; 3) r = 1; 4) x2 = 6z\

' 25 1 IG 1G 9
5) x2 — xy = 0; 6) *2-z2 = 0; 7) ij2 + z2 = 0;
8) x2 + 4y2 -\- 4 = Q\ 9) ,v2 + z2 = 2z; 10) y2 + z2 = — z
911. Find the equation of the cylinder which projects
the circle
\x2 + {y -f- 2)2 4- (z— l)2 = 25,
t x2 + y* + z*= 16
on the plane: 1) Oxy, 2) Oxz\ 3) Oyz.
912. Find the equations of the projection of the circle
j (x+\)2 + (y + 2y i-(z —2)2 = 36.
| x2 + (y + 2y + (z-\y = 25
on the plane: I) Oxy, 2) Oxz\ 3) Oyz.
 Chapter 9

THE EQUATION OF A PLANE.

THE EQUATIONS OF A STRAIGHT LINE.
THE EQUATIONS OF QUADRIC SURFACES

§ 38. The General Equation of a Plane.

The Equation of the Plane Passing Through a Given Point
and Having a Given Normal Vector

In cartesian coordinates, every plane is represented by an equation

of the first degree and every equation of the first degree represents
a plane. '
Every (non-zero) vector perpendicular to a given plane is called
its normal vector. The equation

A (*—*0) + B(y-iJo) + C (z-20) = 0 (1)

represents the plane passing through the point M

(*o> !/0> ?o) a'id
having n = \A, B, C} as its normal vector.
By removing the parentheses and denoting the number Axa~
#!/„—Cz0 by the letter D, we can put equation (1) in the form

Ax + Bu + Cz + D = 0.

An equation of this form is called the general equation of a plane.

913. Write the equation of the plane passing through

the point /VI, (2, 1, —1) and having n = {l, —2, 3} as its
normal vector.
914. Write the equation of the plane passing through
the origin and having n = {5, 0,—3} as its normal vector
915. The point P(2, -1, —1) js the foot of a perpen¬
dicular dropped from the origin to a plane. Find the
equation of this plane.
916. Given the two points M,(3. -1,2) and /VI (4
—2,-1). Find the equation of the plane through 'the
point At, and perpendicular to the vector
917. Write the equation of the plane through'the point
i 4, 5) and parallel to the two vectors a = IT 1
— lj and a2 = {1, —2, 1}. 1 1 ’ *
 176 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

918. Pr°ve that the equation of the plane passing through

he point M0 (x0, y0, zo) and parallel to the two vectors

and at = {litmt,n2}
can be written in the form

y—yo z~zo\
mx «, =o.
m2 n2 I

919. Find the equation of the plane passing through the

points Af, (2, 1, 3) and Mt (3, 1,2) and parallel to the
vector a= {3, — 1, —4}.
920. Prove that the equation of the plane passing
through the points Mt (*,, yx, z,) and Mi{x1,yt,zi) and
parallel to the vector

«= {/, m, n}
can be written in the form

*—■*, y—yt z-z,

*i y*—y^ Z2 z,
/ m n

921. Find the equation of the plane passing through

the three points M, (3,—1,2), /W,(4. — I,— 1) and
Af s (2, 0, 2).
922. Prove that the equation of the plane passing
through the three points
M, (*,, yt, z,), A4, (Jf,, yt, z,) and M,(x„y„z,)
can be written in the form
X- y--y, z--z,
*r~ y,~-y, Z,--z, = 0
y»- z,--z,
923. In each of the following, find the coordinates of
a vector normal to the given plane and write the general
expression for the coordinates of its arbitrary normal
 § 38. The General Equation of a Plane 17?

vector:
1) 2x — y — 2z + 5 = 0; 2) x + 5y — z = 0;
3) 3x—2y — 7 = 0\ 4) 5y —3z = 0; 5) x + 2 = 0;
6) y — 3 = 0.
924. Determine which of the following pairs of equations
represent parallel planes:
1) 2x — 3y-f 5z —7 = 0, 2x — 3y + 5z + 3 = 0;
2) 4x + 2y — 4z -(-5 = 0, 2x + y + 2z — 1 = 0;
3) x — 3z + 2 = 0, 2x— 6z — 7 = 0.
925. Determine which of the following pairs of equa¬
tions represent perpendicular planes:
1) 3x—y — 2z— 5 = 0, x + 9y — 3z-f-2 = 0;
2) 2x + 3y — z — 3 = 0, x—y—z\ 5 = 0;
3) 2x — 5y + z = 0, x + 2z —3 = 0.
926. Determine the values of / and m for which the
following pairs of equations represent parallel planes:
1) 2x -\-ly -f 3z —-5 = 0, nix — Gy — 6z + 2 = 0;
2) 3x— y + lz —-9 = 0, 2x + my + 2z — 3 = 0;
3) mx + 3y — 2z--1=0, 2x— 5y — /z = 0.
927. In each of the following, determine the value of
for which the given pair of equations represents perpen
dicular planes:
1) 3-v—5y-\- Iz --3 = 0, a -f 3y -(- 2z —(— 5 = 0;
2) 5a: + y — 3z --2 = 0, 2x + ly—3z-\- 1 =0;
3) 7x-2y-— z = 0, /x + y — 3z —1=0.
928. In each of the following, determine the dihedral
angles formed by the two intersecting planes:
1) X—yV2 + z--1=0, A-fyj/2 —2 + 3 = 0;
2) 3y—z = 0, 2y + z =0;
3) 6a + 3y — 2z = 0, a + 2 y +62—12 = 0;
4) x-\-2y + 2z--3 = 0, 16a+ 12 y— 152— 1 =0.
 178 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

929. Write the equation of the plane passing through

the origin and parallel to the plane 5x -3y-f 2^ —3 = 0.
M

930. Write the equation of the plane passing through

the point A1t (3, —2, —7) and parallel to the plane 2x—
— 3z + 5 = 0.
ii
931.. Find the
t
equation
1
of the
- plane
r —w passing through
the origin and perpendicular to the two planes
2x' — y-f-3z—1 =0, x + 2y + z = 0.
932. Find the equation of the plane which passes through
the point Ml(2,—1, 1) and is perpendicular to the two
planes
2x — z+l=0, y = 0.
933. Prove that the equation of the plane which passes
through the point M0 (x0, yQy z0) and is perpendicular to
the planes
A.x + B.y + C.z + D^ 0, A2x + B2y + C2z + D2 = 0
can be written in the form
A'0 y-yo
Ai Bx
A2 B2
934. Find the equation of the plane which passes through
the two points Ml(li—1,—2) and M2 (3, 1, 1) and is
perpendicular to the plane x-2y j-3z—5 = 0.
935. Prove that the equation of the plane which passes
through two points M 1(xl,yl,z1)t M2(x2, y2t z2) and is
perpendicular to the plane
Ax + By + Cz + D = 0
can be written in the form
* — y —yi ^ — Zj

X2 X1 f/2 y\ Z2 Z1
ABC

936. Show that the three planes * — 2y + z — 7 = 0,

2x -f- y — z + 2 = 0, x — 3y +■ 2z— 11 = 0 have a point in
common, and calculate the coordinates of this point.
 $ 39. Incomplete Equations of Planes 179

937. Prove that the three planes 7x-\~4y -f 7z f 1 =0,

2x — y—z 4-2 = 0, x + 2y + 3z— 1 =0 pass through the same
straight line.
938. Prove that the three planes 2x — y + 3z—5 = 0,
3x fy + 2e—l=0, 4x + 3y + z + 2 = 0 intersect in three
distinct and parallel lines.
939. Determine the values of a and b for which the
planes
2x — y 3z— 1 =0, x + 2y — z+ b = 0, x + ay — 6z + 10 = 0:
1) have a common point;
2) pass through the same straight line;
3) intersect in three distinct and parallel lines.

§ 39. Incomplete Equations of Planes.

The Intercept Equation of a Plane

Every first-degree equation

Ax-\- By -\~Cz + D = 0

(in cartesian coordinates) represents a plane. If this equation lacks

the constant term (D = 0), then the plane passes through the origin.
If the equation lacks a term containing one of the current coordi¬
nates (that is, if any one of the coefficients A,B,C is zero), then the
plane is parallel to a coordinate axis, namely, to the axis of the
lacking coordinate; if the constant term is also lacking, the plane
passes through this axis. If the equation lacks two terms containing
the current coordinates (that is, i any two of the coefficients A, if,
C are zero), then the plane is parallel to a coordinate plane, namely,
to the coordinate plane that passes through the axes of the lacking
coordinates; if the constant term is also lacking, the plane coin¬
cides with this coordinate plane.
If the equation of a plane

Ax + By + Cz + D = 0,

has all its coefficients A, B, C, D different from zero, it can be re¬

duced to the form

where

are the respective intercepts cut off by the plane on the

and z- axes. Equation (1) is called the intercept equation of a plane
 180 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

940. Find the equation of the plane-

pi a1.!etl0.n/;gh ^ ^ /Wl(2’ ~3’ 3) and para,lel to the

planeOv? ^ P°'nt M2<1, ~2, 4) and Para,lel to the

3) through the point Ma{—5, 2,-1) and parallel to
tne plane Oyz.
941 Find the equation of the plane which passes:
J) through the axis Ox and the point /W, (4, —1,2);
~) through the axis Oy and the point M2( 1, 4, —3);
d) through the axis Oz and the point M3(3,-4, 7).
942. Find the equation of the plane:
1) through the points/W, (7, 2,-3) and M2 (5, 6, —4),
and parallel to the axis Ox\
2) through the points Px (2, —1, 1) and PA3, 1,2), and
parallel to the axis Oy\
3) through the points Q, (3, —2, 5) and Q2(2,3, 1), and
parallel to the axis Oz.
943. Find the points of intersection of the plane 2x —
— % — 4z — 24 = 0 with the coordinate axes.
944. Given the equation x + 2y — 3z — 6 = 0 of a plane.
Write its intercept equation.
945. Find the intercepts cut off by the plane 3x—4y —
— 24^-1-12=0 on the coordinate axes.
946. Calculate the area of the triangle cut by the plane
5x — 6y 4- 32 + 120 = 0
from the quadrant Oxy.
947. Calculate the volume of the pyramid formed by
the plane 2 x — 3y + 6z—12 = 0 and the coordinate
planes.
948. A plane passes through the point M1(6, —10, 1)
and has the intercepts a = — 3 and c=2 on the x- and
z-axes, respectively. Write the intercept equation of the
plane.
949. A plane passes through the points M1( 1,2, —1),
M2(—3,2, 1) and has the intercept b = 3 on the y-axis.
Write the intercept equation of the plane.
950. Write the equation of the plane which passes
through the point Mt(2,—3,—4) and makes equal (non¬
zero) intercepts on the coordinate axes.
 $ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane 181

951. Write the equation of a plane which passes through

the points Mj (— 1, 4, — 1), M2 (—13, 2, —10) and whose
(non-zero) intercepts on the x- and z-axes are equal in
absolute value.
952. Write the equations of the planes which pass
through the point (4, 3,2) and whose (non-zero) inter¬
cepts on the x-y y- and z-axes are all equal in absolute
value.
953. Find the equation of the plane which has the in¬
tercept c = — 5 on the z-axis and is perpendicular to the
vector n= {—2, 1, 3}.
954. Find the equation of the plane which is parallel
to the vector / = {2, 1,—1} and has the intercepts a = 3,
b = — 2 on the x- and y-axes, respectively.
955. Find the equation of the plane which is perpendic¬
ular to the plane 2x — 2y-f4z — 5 = 0 and has the inter-
2
cepts a = — 2, b = — on the x- and y-axes, respectively.

§ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane.

The Distance of a Point from a Plane

The normal equation of a plane is its equation written in the form

xcosa-ff/cos p -fz cos y —p = 0, (1)

where cos a, cos p, cosy are the direction cosines of the normal to
the plane, and p is the distance of the plane from the origin. When
calculating the direction cosines of the normal, we assume it to be
directed from the origin to the plane. (If the plane passes through
the origin, the positive direction of the normal may be chosen at
will.)
Let AT be any point in space, and let d denote the distance
of M* from a given plane. The departure 6 of the point M* from
the given plane is defined as the number +d if the point M* and
the origin are on opposite sides of the plane, and as the number —d
if M* and the origin are on the same side of the plane. (If M* lies
in the plane itself, the departure is equal to zero.)
For a point M* having coordinates x\y*, z* and a plane repre¬
sented by the normal equation

x cos a -f y cos p -f-zcos y— p = 0,

the departure of the point AT from the plane is given by the formula

6 = x* cos a 4-1/* cos p-t-z* cos y—p.

Clearly, d = 16 |.
 182 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

The general equation of a plane,

Ax + Bij + Cz + D^-. 0,
LrefdU(Ced ft0 ^normal form (1) by multiplication by a normaliz
mg factor foutid from the formula
1
rLI = -i-
4- -
V /12 + B2 + C2 ’
the normalizing factor must be taken with its sign opposite to that
of the constant term of the equation to be normalized.

956. Determine which of the following equations of

planes are in the normal form:
1 2 2
^ 3 X 3 lJ~ JZ~5== 0; 2) lX-\- L y—LZ-3 = 0;

3) jx—j y+y 2 + 5 = 0; 4) — j-x + j y— jz—5 = 0;

5> 4^-4 ^-3-0;

^ ~ f3 ^ 132 ^ ^=
n\ 5 12 . „
) i3y~i3z~^=0; 8) l.t-|t/ + 3 = 0;
9) x— 1 = 0; 10) </ + 2 = 0;
11) -y-2 = 0; 12) 2-5 = 0.

957. In each of the following, reduce the given equation

of a plane to (he normal form:

1) 2x-2y-\-z- 18 = 0; 2) y.*—^ !/+y 2 + 3 = 0;

3) 4x — 6y—\2z—U = 0; 4) — 4x — 4 r/ + 22 + 1 = 0;
5) 5</—122 + 26 = 0; 6) 3x—4t/-l =0;
7) y+ 2 = 0; 8) —at + 5 = 0;
9) —2+3 = 0; 10) 22—1=0.

958. For each of the following planes, calculate the

angles a, (3, y which its normal makes with the coordinate
axes, and the distance p from the origin:
1) x + yV2-\-z—10 = 0; 2) x-y-zV2+16 = 0;
3) x-\-z — 6 = 0; 4) y — z-f- 2 = 0; 5) xp 3 + </ +10 = 0;
 $ 40. The Normal Equation of a Plane 183

6) z — 2 = 0; 7) 2a + 1=0; 8) 2y+\ = 0;
9) x — 2y 2z — 6 = 0; 10) 2a' + 3i/-6z + 4 = 0.

959. In each of the following, calculate the departure 6

and the distance d of the given point from the given plane:
1) /VI, (-2, -4, 3). 2a — y 4- 2z + 3 = 0
2) M2 (2, ■1, -1), 16a — 12i/ 4- 15z -4 = 0
3) M3(l, 2, -3), 5a — 3y 4- z 4-4 = 0
4) M4 (3, 6, 7), 4 a — 3z ■-1=0
5) Mb (9, 2, -2), 12 y — 5 z -f 5 = 0

960. Calculate the distance d of the point P (— ] 1,

— 2) from the plane passing through the three points
(1, —1, 1), M2 (—2, 1,3) and M, (4, -5, -2).
961. In each of the following, determine whether the
point Q (2, —1, 1) and the origin lie on the same side or
on opposite sides of the given plane:
1) 5a —3// + z— 18 = 0; 2) 2x + 7y + 3z+ 1 =0;
3) x + 5t/+ 12z— 1 =0; 4) 2x—y-\-z-\-11 = 0;
5) 2x -)-3(/ —6z + 2 = 0; 6) 3a — 2y + 2z — 7 = 0.

962. Prove that the plane 3a-4(/-2z + 5 = 0 cuts the

line segment bounded by the points /VI, (3, -2,1) and
442 ( 2, 5, 2).
963. Prove that the plane 5a-21/ + z-1=0 does not
cut the line segment bounded by the points M, tl 4 —31
and M2 (2, 5, 0). ’ ’ '
964. In each of the following, calculate the distance
between the parallel planes:

1) x — 2y — 2z — 12 = 0, 2) 2a — 3y + 6z— 14 = 0,
a-2(/-2z — 6 = 0; 4a-6i/+ 12z + 21 =0;
3) 2a i/4-2z 4-9 = 0, 4) 16a + 12r/— 15z + 50 = 0,
4a—2y + 4z-21=0; 16a + 12 y— 15z + 25 = 0;
5) 30a-32i/ + 24z-75 = 0 6) 6v— 18(/ — 9z—28 = 0,
15a—16y-f 12z —25 = 0 4a- 12y — 6z — 7 = 0.
 184 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

965. Two faces of a cube lie in the planes

2x-2y + z— 1 =0, 2x — 2y f z-f-5 = 0.
Find the volume of the cube.
966. On the axis Oy, find a point situated at a distance
d = A from the plane x + 2y — 2z — 2 = 0.
967. On the axis Oz, find a point equidistant from the
point M( 1,-2, 0) and the plane 3x — 2y -f 6z—9 = 0.
968. On the axis Ox, find a point equidistant from the
two planes
\2x— 16(/+ 15z-|- 1 =0, 2x + 2y—z— 1 =0.
969. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
departure from the plane Ax — Ay — 22 + 3 = 0 is equal to 2.
970. Derive the equation of the locus of points whose
departure from the plane bx + 3y + 2z —10 = 0 is equal
to —3.
971. Write the equations of the planes parallel to the
plane 2x — 2y — z — 3 — 0 and situated at a distance d= 5
from it.
972. In each of the following, find the equation of the
locus of points equidistant from the two parallel planes:
1) Ax — y — 2z— 3 — 0, 2) 3x -f 2y — z + 3 = 0,
A x — y — 2 z — 5 = 0; 3x + 2y — z— 1 =0;
3) 5x — 3y-\-z 4-3 = 0,
1 Ox — 6y + 2z + 7 = 0.
973. In each of the following, write the equations of
the planes which bisect the dihedral angles formed by the
two intersecting planes:
1) x — 3y *F 2z — 5 = 0, 2) 5x — by — 2z—3 = 0,
3x—2y—2 + 3 = 0; * 4- ly-2z + 1 = 0;
3) 2x— y-\-3z-\-3 = 0,
2x— \0y-\-Az — 2 = 0.
974. In each of the following, determine whether the
point M (2, — 1, 3) and the origin lie inside one dihedral
angle, or in two complementary angles, or in two vertical
 § 41. The Equations of a Straight Line 185

dihedral angles (formed by the two intersecting planes):

1) 2x— j/ + 3z — 5 = 0, 2) 2,v-p3(/ — 5z — 15 = 0,
3* -+ 2y — z + 3 = 0; 5x — y — 3z — 7 = 0;
3) x-\-5y— z + 1 =0,
2.x\7y + z + 2 = 0.
975. In each of the following, determine whether the
points M (2, —1, 1) and N (1, 2, —3) lie inside one
dihedral angle, or in two complementary angles, or in two
vertical dihedral angles (formed by the two intersecting
planes):
1) 3x — y + 2z — 3 == 0, 2) 2x — y + 5z — 1 = 0,
x — 2y — z 4 4 = 0; 3x — 2y + 6z — 1 =0.
976. Determine whether the origin lies inside the acute
or the obtuse angle formed by the two planes* — 2y -j-3z — 5 =
=0 2x — y — z -f 3 = 0.
977. Determine whether the point M (3, 2, —1) lies
inside the acute or the obtuse angle formed by the two planes
5x — t/ + z + 3 = 0, 4x — 3y 2z + 5 = 0.
978. Write the equation of the plane bisecting that
dihedral angle between the two planes 2x— 14// + 6z — 1 =0.
3* + 5(/ — 5z + 3 = 0 which contains the origin.
979. Write the equation of the plane bisecting that
dihedral angle between the two planes 2x — y+ 2z — 3 = 0,
3a: + 2// — 6z — 1 =0 which contains the point M (1, 2, —3).
980. Write the equation of the plane which bisects the
acute dihedral angle formed by the two planes 2x — 3y —
— 4z —3 = 0, 4x —3// —2z —3 = 0.
981. Write the equation of the plane which bisects the
obtuse dihedral angle formed by the two planes 3x — 4w —
— 2 + 5 = 0, 4x — 3// + z + 5 = 0.

§ 41. The Equations of a Straight Line

A straight line is determined (as the intersection of two planes) bv

two simultaneously considered equations of the first degree, 1

I ■V + Bl!/ + C12 + D1 =0,

\ Atx + Bty + C2z + D2 = 0, (1)
 186 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

provided that the coefficients A„ B,, C, of the first equation are

not propor lonal to he coefficients A2, B2, C2 of the second (otherwise
these equations will represent parallel or coincident planes)
Let a straight line a be represented by equations (1) and let
a and p be any numbers, not both zero; then the equation
i

/ 4 i r> * /s ■ *-v . ^

a(Alx + B,y + CIz + Dl) + p(A2x + B2y + C2z + D2) = 0 (2)

represents a plane through the straight line a.
3y an appropriate choice of the numbers a, p, an equation of
the form (2) can be made to represent every plane passing through
the line a.
The totality of planes passing through the same straight line is
called a pencil of planes. An equation of the form (2) is called the
equation of a pencil of planes.

If a ^ 0, then equation (2) can be reduced, by letting

to the form

A i* + Bty + Cxz + D, +1 ( A2x + B2y+ C2z + D2) = 0. (3)

This form of the equation of a pencil of planes is used more
widely than equation (2); note, however, that equation (3) can be
made to represent every plane of the pencil except the plane correspond¬
ing to a = 0, that is, except the plane A2xB2ij-\-C2z-\-D2 = 0.

982. Write the equations of the straight lines in which

the plane 5x — 7y-\-2z — 3 = 0 intersects the coordinate
planes.
983. Write the equations of the straight line in which the
plane 3x — y — 7z + 9 = 0 intersects the plane passing through
the axis Ox and the point E (3, 2, —5).
984. Find the points in which the line
12x + y—z — 3 = 0,
\x + y+z— 1 =0
pierces the coordinate planes.
985. Prove that the line
j 2x—3y + 5z — 6 = 0,
\x + 5y— 7z-\r 10 = 0
meets the axis Oy.
986. Determine the value of D for which the line
j 2x + 3y—z -f D = 0,
[3*—2y+2z — 6 = 0
meets: 1) the axis Ox\ 2) the axis Oy\ 3) the axis Oz.
 $ 41. The Equations of a Straight Line 187

987. Find the conditions which must be satisfied by the

coefficients of the equations

jA1x + Bly + Cl2 + Dl = 09

\ A 2x + B2y + C2z + Do = 0

of a straight line in order that the line should be parallel:

1) to the axis Ox; 2) to the axis 0y\ 3) to the axis Oz.
988. Find the conditions which must be satisfied by the
coefficients of the equations

\ A \XBxy -\- Cxz -{-Di = 0,

\ A2x -F B2y -F C2z -F =0

of a straight line in order that the lineshould: 1) meet the

*-axis; 2) meet the y-axis; 3) meet the e-axis; 4) coincide
with the x-axis; 5) coincide with the y-axis; 6) coincide
with the e-axis.
989. In the pencil of planes

2x-3y Fe —3 -F A (x + 3y-p2e + l) = 0,

find the plane which: 1) passes through the point M1 (1,

2, 3); 2) is parallel to the axis Ox; 3) is parallel to the
axis Oy\ 4) is parallel to the axis Oz.
990. Write the equation of the plane which passes through
the line of intersection of the planes 3x — y + 2e + 9 = 0,
A'+2’ —3 = 0 and: 1) passes through the point Aij (4, —2!
~3); 2) is parallel to the axis Ox; 3) is parallel to the
axis Oy\ 4) is parallel to the axis Oz.
991. Write the equation of the plane which passes through
the line of intersection of the planes 2x — y + 3z — 5 = 0,
x4 2y — z + 2 = 0 and is parallel to the vector /= {2, —l*
2}.
992; U rite the equation of the plane which passes through
the line of intersection of the planes 5x — 2y — z — 3 = 0
^ + ^~22J-5 = 0 and is parallel to the vector l={l\
^9 A / /.

993. Write the equation of the plane which passes through

the line of intersection of the planes 3*—2y + 2 — 3 = 0 x —
7f and is Perpendicular to the plane x — 2y4z +
 188 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

e^ua^on Plane which passes through

15x— y—2z—3 = 0,
\ 3x — 2y—5z -+•2 = 0

and is perpendicular to the plane x+19y — 7z—11 = 0.

995. Find the equation of the plane which passes through
the line of intersection of the planes 2x + y—z +1 =0,
* ~h y ~h 2z ± 1 = 0 and is parallel to the segment bounded
by the points At, (2, 5, -3) and Af2 (3. —2. 2).
996. Find the equation of the plane belonging to the
pencil of planes

a(3x-4y + z + 6) + p(2x—3y + z + 2) = 0
and equidistant from the points M, (3, -4, -6), Af,(I,
2, 2). P 11
997. Determine whether the plane

4x-8y-\-172-8 = 0
belongs to the pencil of planes

a(5x—y + 4z— 1) +13 (2x -F 2y — 3z -f 2) = 0.

998. Determine whether the plane
5x-9y — 2z+ 12 = 0
belongs to the pencil of planes
a(2x — 3«/ + z — 5) + P (x — 2y — z— 7) = 0.
999. Determine the values of l and m for which the
plane
3x-\-ly-\-4z + m = 0
belongs to the pencil of planes
a (3x—7y -f z — 3) + P (x—9y — 2z + 5) = 0.
1000. Write the equation of the plane which belongs to
the pencil of planes
a (x—3y + 7z + 36) -f P (2x-\- y—z— 15) = 0
and is situated at a distance p = 3 from the origin.
 $ 41. The Equations oj a Straight Line 189

1001. Write the equation of the plane which belongs

to the pencil of planes

a (l(k — 8y — 152 + 56) -f- P (4x-f y + 3z — 1) = 0

and is situated at a distance d = l from the point C(3,

-2, -3).
1002. Find the equation of the plane which belongs to
the pencil of planes

a (4x+ 13y—2z — 60) -f-p (4.v + 3y + 32 — 30) = 0

and cuts a triangle of area 6 from the quadrant Oxy.

1003. Find the equations of the planes which project the
line
j2x — y + 2z — 3 = 0,
\x+2y—z— 1 =0

on the coordinate planes.

1004. Write the equations of the projections of the line

\x + 2y — 32 — 5 = 0,
l2*-(/-t-z + 2 = 0

on the coordinate planes.

1005. Write the equation of the plane which projects
the line

[2>x + 2y—z— 1 =0,

\2x—3y + 2z —2 = 0

on the plane x + 2i/ + 3z — 5 = 0.

1006. Write the equations of the projections of the line

\5x — Ay — 2z — 5 = 0,
\jc + 2z-2 = 0
on the plane
2x — y^z—\=, U.
 190 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

§ 42. The Direction Vector of a Straight Line. The

Canonical Equations of a Straight Line. The Parametric
Equations of a Straight Line

Every non-zero vector lying on a given straight line or parallel

to it is called the direction vector of that straight line.
In what follows, the direction vector of an arbitrary straight
line will be denoted by the letter a, and its coordinates by /, m, n:

a = {/, m, n,j.

Given one point M0(x0, y0, z0) of a straight line and its direction
vector a — {/, m, n\, the line can be represented by (two) equations
of the form
x~xo y—y<> z — zQ nx

Equations of a straight line written in this form are called its

canonical equations.
The canonical equations of the straight line passing through two
given points Ml(xlt ylt zx) and M2(x2, y2t z2) have the form

x — X\ = u—yx =z—zx
x2 X\ y2—y\ z2—zx
Denoting by t each of the equal ratios in the canonical equations
(1), we obtain

/ m n
Hence
(x=x0 + lt,
y = y0 + mt, (3)
z=z0 + n/.

These are the parametric equations of the straight line passing

through the point M0(x0, tj0,z0) in the direction of the vector a = {/. m,
n). In equations (3), t is regarded as an arbitrarily varying parameter,
and x, y, z as functions of t\ the quantities x, y, z vary with t so
that the point M (x, y, z) moves along the given straight line.
If the parameter / is taken as the variable tune, and equations
(3) are considered to be the equations of motion of the variable point yvl,
then these equations will determine the uniform rectilinear motion
of the point M. When / = 0, the point M coincides with the point
M0. The speed v of the point M is a constant given by the formula

v= /24-m2 + n\
 §42. The Direction Vector of a Straight Line 191

1007. Write the canonical equations of the straight line

passing through the point Mx (2, 0, —3) and parallel:
1) to the vector o = {2, —3, 5};
2) to the straight line
5 2 —1
3) to the axis Ox\ 4) to the axis Or/; 5) to the axis Oz.
1008. Write the canonical equations of the straight line
passing through the two given points:
1) (1, -2, 1), (3, 1, -1); 2) (3, —1, 0), (I, 0, -3);
3) (0, -2, 3), (3, -2. 1); 4) (1,2, —4), (—1,2,—4).
1009. Write the parametric equations of the straight line
passing through the point Mj(l, —1, —3) and parallel:
1) to the vector a = {2, —3, 4};
2) to the line^==*±2=^;
3) to the line* = 3/— 1, y = — 2/+3, z=5/ + 2.
1010. Write the parametric equations of the straight line
passing through the two given points:
1) (3, -1, 2), (2, 1, 1); 2) (I, 1, -2), (3, -1, 0);
3) (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, -2).

1011. A straight line is drawn through the points

6 -5) and M, (12, -6, 1). Find the points in
which this line pierces the coordinate planes.
1012. Given the vertices 4 (3, 6, —7), B (—5, 2, 3),
7,—2)of a triangle. Write the parametric equations
ol the median drawn from the vertex C.
1013. Given the vertices A (3, —1, —1), £(1, 2, —7)
Cr(T75, T3^ °l a tr‘anS'e- F>nd the canonical equations
ol the bisector of the interior angle at the vertex B.
1014. Given the vertices 4(2, —1, —3), B(5, 2, -7)
mm \1’ 6,r°La trianSle- Find the canonical equations of
the bisector of the exterior angle at the vertex A
1015. Given the vertices 4(1, -2, -4), B (3, 1, -3),
argle' u‘nd the Parametric equations
ol the altitude drawn from the vertex B
1016. Given the line
12.v 5y z — 3 = 0,
\* -F2t/-z + 2 = 0.
 192 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

Calculate the projections on the coordinate axes of a direc¬

tion vector a of this line. Find the general expression for
the projections on the coordinate axes of any direction
vector of this line.
1017. Given the line
j 2x — y -1- 3z + 1 = 0,
\3x y—z — 2 = 0.
Find the resolution (with respect to the basis i, j, k) of
a direction vector a of this line. Write the general
expression for the resolution (with respect to the basis i,
j, k) of any direction vector of this line.
1018. Write the canonical equations of the straight line
through the point M1(2, 3, —5) and parallel to the line
I3x— y-1- 2z— 7 = 0,
\x-\-3y— 2z + 3 = 0.
1019. Write the canonical equations of the following
lines:
1) | x — 2y + 3z—4 = 0, 2) f 5xJry + z=0,
\ 3x-\-2y — 5z — 4 = 0; \ 2x + 3y — 2z + 5 = 0;
3) ( x—2y + 3z + 1 = 0,
) 2x + y — 4z — 8 = 0.
1020. Write the parametric equations of the following
lines:
1) 2x-\-3y— z — 4 0, 2) i x + 2y—z—6 = 0,
3x — by + 2z -F 1 0, \ 2*— y + z+ 1=0.
1021. In each of the following, prove that the given
lines are parallel:
x+2 t/— I x + y-
1) y and
y — 5z —

2) x=2t +5, y t-\-2, z=t — 7 and

x + y—3z+ 1 =0, , x + 2y — 5z— 1 =0,

0 _ and
x—y+ z + 3 = 0 x-2y + 32—9 = 0.
 S 42- The Direction Vector of a Straight Line 193

1022. In each of the following, prove that the given

lines are mutually perpendicular:

1) ~ = = ~ and / 3*+
1 ~2 3 1 2* + 3y-82 + 3 = 0;
2) * = 2/ + l, y = 3t—2, 2=—6/ -f- 1 and
f 2x+y — 424-2 = 0,
\ 4-V —y — 52 + 4 = 0;
x+y 32— !=°. j 2x+ y 4 22 + 5 = 0,
3)
2x — u 92-2 = 0 and \ 2x — 2y— 2 + 2 = 0.
1023. Find the acute angle between the lines
x 3 __ y + 2 2 * -f 2 _ y — 3 z +5
1 1 v~2’ •
1024. Find the obtuse angle between the lines
x = 3/ — 2, y = 0, 2= —/ + 3;
x = 2/—1, i/ = 0, z = t — 3.
1025. Determine the cosine of the angle between the
lines
I * y —5 = 0, | v — 6// —62
62 + 2 = 0,
l 2x + y — 2z — 4 = 0;
\ 2x+ 2*/ + 92— 1=0.
92-1-0.
1026. Prove that the lines represented by the parametric
equations * = 2/-3, £/ = 3/ —2, 2=-4/ + 6 and* = ; + 5,
^-4^ — 1, z = t— 4 intersect.
1027. Given the lines
*+2 y z—1
*~3- g-7 .
2 -3 4 / 4 2 *
find the value of / for which they intersect
1028. Prove that the condition for the two lines
x — a,
-— «
y-bl z—c,
' 1,
and = Lz£
L n
to lie in the
same plane can be written in the form
a2 — a1 b2 — bi c2—cl
li ml n, =0.
/, m., n
?~2250
194 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1029. Write the equations of the straight line which

passes through the point — 1, 2, —3), is perpendicular
to the vector a = {6, —2, —3} and cuts the line
*—1 y+\ 2-3
3 ~ 2 ~ -5 -

1030. Write the equations of the straight line which

passes through the point Atx( — 4, —5, 3) and cuts the
two lines
x-fl y+ 3 z— 2 x—2 y-\-1 z—1
IT ~ ~ "=T ’ ~Y~ ~ 3 ~ —5 •
1031. Write the parametric equations of the common
perpendicular to the two straight lines
x — 3t — 7, y = — 2t + 4, z = 3t 4
and
x=t + 1, y=2t — 9, z = — t —12.
1032. Given the equations of motion of the point
M(x, y, z):
x = 3 — 4t, y = 5 + 3t, z=—2+l2t.
Determine the speed v of M.
1033. Given the equations of motion of the point
M (*, y, z):
x = 5 — 2t, y= —3 + 2/, z = 5—t.
Determine the distance d covered by M in the interval
•of time from ^ = 0 to /2 = 7.
1034. Write the equations of motion of the point Af (x, y, z)
which starts from M0( 3, — 1, -5) and moves recti linearly
and uniformly in the direction of the vector s— { 2, o, o/,
with a speed v = 2l. . .. „
1035. Write the equations of motion of the point M (x, yy z)
which is in uniform rectilinear motion and has covered
the distance from M1( — 7, 12, 5) to M2 (9, 4, 3) in
the interval of time from /i = 0 to <a = 4.
1036. The point M (x, y, z) starts from M0(20, 18, 32)
and moves rectilinearly and uniformly in the direction
opposite to that of the vector s = {3, — 4 —12}, with a
 § 43. Miscellaneous Problems 195

speed u = 26. Write the equations ot motion of M and find

the position of M at the instant t = 3.
1037. The points M(x, y, z) and N (x, y. z) are in uni¬
form rectilinear motion: M starts from A40( —5, 4, —5) and
moves with a speed 0^=14 in the direction of the vector
s = {3, —6, 2}, and N starts from 7V0(—5, 16, —6) and
moves with a speed vN= 13 in the direction opposite to
that of the vector r = { — 4, 12, —3}. Write the equations
of motion for each of these two points; show that their
paths intersect, and find:
1) the point of intersection P of their paths;
2) the time in which the point M travels from M0 to P\
3) the time in which the point N travels from N0 to P\
4) the lengths of the segments M0P and N0P.

§ 43. Miscellaneous Problems Involving the Equation

of a Plane and the Equations of a Straight Line
1038. Prove that the line
x = 3t—2, y = — 4/ + 1, z = 4t — 5
is parallel to the plane 4x — 3y — 62 — 5 = 0.
1039. Prove that the line
| 5x — 3y -)- 2z — 5 = 0,
\ 2x— y— 2—1 =0
lies in the plane Ax — 3y + 72 — 7 = 0.
1040. In each of the following, find the point of inter¬
section of the given line and the given plane:
* — 1 ^_y+ 1 z_
1) 1 —2 6’
2x-\-3y A- 2— 1=0;
* 4~ 3_y — 2_2+1
2) 3 ~~ — 1 ’
x—2y+ 2—15 = 0;
* 4~ 2_y — 1 _z — 3
3) x+2y — 2z+ 6 = 0.
— 2 ~~ 3 ’

1041. Write the canonical equations of the straight line

passing through the point M0(2, -4, -l)and the midpoint
Ol that segment of the line
I 3x + 4(/+52 — 26 = 0,
\ 3a: — 3r/ — 2z — 5 = 0
7*
196 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

intercepted by the planes

5*+3 y—4z+ll=0, 5*+ 3 y—4z — 41 = 0.
1042. Find the equations of the straight line passing
through the point /Vf0(2, —3, —5) and perpendicular to the
plane 6*—3r/ — 5z + 2 = 0.
1043. Find the equation of the plane passing through
the point A40(l, —1, — 1) and perpendicular to the straight
line
x+3 y— l e+2
2 ~ —3 ~ 4 •

1044. Find the equation of the plane passing through

the point M0( 1, —2, 1) and perpendicular to the straight
line
j x — 2y + z—3 = 0,
\ * + y—z + 2 = 0.
1045. Find the value of m for which the line
x+ 1 y—2_ z + 3
—3“ ~ m —2
~

is parallel to the plane

x—3 y+ 6z -F 7 = 0.
1046. What is the value of C for which the line
j 3x—2y+ z+ 3 = 0,
\ 4x—3y+ 4z+ 1=0
is parallel to the plane
2x—y + Cz — 2 = 0?
1047. What are the values of A and D for which
line
* = 3 + 4/, y= 1 — 4/, z= —3 + /
lies in the plane
Ax + 2y—4z + D =0?
1048. What are the values of A and B for which the
plane
Ax + By + 3z—5 = 0
 $ 43. Miscellaneous Problems 197

is perpendicular to the line

*= 3 + 2/, y — 5 — 3/, e= —2 — 2/?

1049. What are the values of / and C for which the line
x—2_y+l _z —5
l 4 ~ —3
is perpendicular to the plane
3* —2 y + Cz+ 1=0?
1050. Find the projection of the point P (2, - 1, 3) on
the line
* = 3/, y = 5/ —7, 2 = 2/ + 2.
1051. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P(4 1 fii
with respect to the line ’ '

I x—y 4z+ 12 = 0,
\ 2 X ~r y 2 2+ 3 = 0.
1052. Find the point Q symmetric to the point PI 2, -5,7)
with respect to the straight line passing through the points
Mi (5, 4, 6) and M,{ — 2, —17, —8).
1053. Find the projection of the point PI5 2- ■ 1) on
the plane ’ ’
2*— y + 3Z + 23 = 0.
1054. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P (13
with respect to the plane v ’ ’ 4)

3* + y—2 2 = 0.
1055. In the plane Oxy, find a point P such that the
Sdmi° distances from the points A ( — 1 2 5) and
3(11,-16, 10) will have the least value. ’ ’ ™
,.'056, plane Oxz, find a point P such that the
M SenCe4° ltSndfIStanCeh fronl1,the P°ints Mi (3, 2, -5) and
iStV-,4, *7 3),
1U57. In the W1 have the ireatest value.
plane

2*-3i/+32—17 = 0,
find a point P such that the sum of its distances from
points A (3, the
-4, 7) and B (-5, -14, 17) will have the
east value.

7 —2250*
 m_Ch_9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1058. In the plane

2* + 3i/-4*— 15 = 0,
find a point P such that the difference of its distances
from the points M,(5, 2, -7) and M2(7, -25, 10) will
have the greatest value.
1059. The point M (x, y, z) starts from M0( 15, —24, — 16)
and moves recti 1 inearly and uniformly, with a speed v=\2
in the direction of the vector 5 = {—2, 2, 1}. Show that
the path of M intersects the plane 3x + 4w4- 7z—17 = 0
and find:
1) their point of intersection P;
2) the lime in which the point M travels from M0 to P;
3) the length of the segment M0P.
1060. The point M (x, y, z) starts from Af0(28, —30, —27)
and moves recti I inearl y and uniformly, with a speed v= 12.5,
along the perpendicular dropped from the point M0 to the
)lane 15*—16y—122 + 26 = 0. Write the equations of mo¬
tion of M and find:
1) the point P in which the path of M pierces this plane;
2) the time in which the point M travels from M0 to P\
3) the length of the segment M0P.
1061. The point M (x, y, z) starts from M0(ll, —21, 20)
and moves recti 1 inearly and uniformly, with a speed v= 12,
in the direction of the vector s={ — 1, 2, —2}. Find the
time in which M traces that segment of its path which is
intercepted by the parallel planes
2* + 3t/ + 52—41 =0, 2x + 3^ + 52 + 31 =0.
1062. Find the distance d of the point P(l, — 1,—2)
from the line
jc + 3 y+2 z—8
~!T ~ ~2~~ •

1063. Find the distance d from the point P (2, 3, —1)

to the following lines:
n x—5_ y _ z + 25 .
3 — 2 —2 ’

2) * = /+ 1; y—t + 2, 2 = 4/+ 13;

J 2x—2y+ 2+ 3 = 0,
3) ) 3x— 2y + 2z+ 17 = 0.
 43. Miscellaneous Problems 199

1064. Show that the lines

J 2jc-f-2(/ z 10 = 0, * + 7 y—5 ?—9
l x— ij — z — 22 = 0, 3 = —l 4~

ar*PaBral1!*1: and calculate the distance d between them

,, ,065- ;Vlte the equation of the plane which passes
through the pent /VI, (1, 2, -3) and is parallel to the
11 n 0 s

x 1_y ~h 1 _z— 7 x +5 y —2 2 4-3

—2 —1 *
1066 Prove that the equation of the plane which passes
rough the point M0{x0, y0, z0) and is parallel to the lines
- ~ai _ y ~bi _ z —Ci x— a., __ ii — b.z z — Ci
«i ’ k ~ rh
can be written in the form
-V A'o // — Z/o 2 — z0
/! m1 = 0
/. A/Z„

1067 Prove that the equation of the plane which passes

parallel to the line *’ Ul' ‘{ 2’ V" and 15

x—a y—b z—c
l m n
can be written in the form
x~Xj y—y. z 1
X2 Xl y 2—Ui z2 — z. = 0.
l rn n

th'°MneFind ",C e<|Uati0n °[ lhe plane Pass'nS through

JC==2/+1> y= -31 + 2, z = 2/ — 3
and through the point Ad, (2, —2, 1)
the°UnePr0Ve that thC ec|llation of ‘he plane passing through
X = X0 + lt, y = y0+mtf z=Z{) + nt
7**
200 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

and through the point M1(x1, yx, zx) can be put in the
form
*—*i y—y i
xi—*o y\—yo
l m
1070. Prove that the lines

= and x = 3t + 7, y = 2t + 2, z=-2t-(-1

lie in the same plane, and find the equation of this plane.
1071. Prove that, if the two lines
* — ai_y— hx _z—ct x—a2_y — b2_ z—c2
li m1 nx ’ /2 m2 n2
intersect the equation of the plane in which they lie can
be written in the form
x—a y—b.
h m ni = 0.
i2 m
#/t2 n2
1072. Find the equation of the plane passing through
the two parallel lines
x—2 y+ 1 z—3 x— 1 y — 2 z -j-3
3 2 “ —2 ’ 3 2 —2 *
1073. Prove that the equation of the plane passing through
the two parallel lines
x = al + lt1 y = bl + rnt, z = c1+nt
and
x = a2 + lt, y = b2 + mt, z = c2 + nt,
can be written in the form
x—a y—b i
a a >2 — bx = 0,
/ rn n
i
1074. Find the projection of the point C(3, 4, —2)
on the plane passing through the parallel lines
x—5 y—6 z-f-3 x—2 y — 3_z + 3
13 1 4 ’ 13 1 4 *
 § 43. Miscellaneous Problems 201

IO75 F|nd the point Q symmetric to the point

w> 4* o) with respect to the plane which passes through
*> ~5)< (7, -2, -1) and M,(10, -7, 1).
1076. Find the point Q symmetric to the point P( — 3 2 5)
With respect to the plane passing through the lines
I *-2y + 3z-5 = 0, j 3x + yi-3z + 7 = 0,
\ *-2y-4z + 3 = 0; \ 5x-3y + 2z + 5 = 0.

the°Une ^ eqUaUon of the Plane P^ing through

*= y = 2t -f- 3, z ——t — 2
and parallel to the line
I 2x- y-j-z — 3 = 0,
\ xJr2y—z — 5 = 0.

1078. Prove that the equation of the plane passing

through the line
*—*1 _y—Ui_ z—z
li nh n,
and parallel to the line
x==xo + lt, y = yo + mt, z — z0-\- tit,
can be written in the form
X—X
y-y 1
l m n = 0
ii m. n
1079. Write the equation of the plane passing through
the line
y±2 z-2
2 —3—9

and perpendicular to the plane 3x + 2u — z — 5 = ()

though tPhe°lf„e'hat lhe e,lla,i0n 0f the Pass'nS

X = X0-j-It, y = yo + mt, z=^z0Jrnt
and perpendicular to the plane
Ax -j- By + Cz -f D = 0
202 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

can be written in the form

x — x0 y — yo z — z0
l m
A B
1081. Find the canonical equations of the straight line
which passes through the point Af„(3, —2, —4), is parallel
to the plane
3x — 2y — 3z — 7 = 0,
and cuts the line
at—2 _y +4 z— l
3 ” 2~ •

1082. Find the parametric equations of the line parallel

to the planes
3x + I2y — 3z —5 =-0, 3x— 4y -F9z + 7 = 0
and cutting the lines
x+5 y—3 z-f-1 x—3 y1 z—2
2
~ ~ ~ 4
"^ " ~ 3 ~ “ ’ ~^2 ~ ~3 ~ ~4
~ •

1083. In each of the following, calculate the shortest

distance between the two given lines:
. x+7 y + 4_z + 3' X — 21 y + 5_z—2.
3 4 —2 ’ 6 —4 —1 ’
2) x = 2t — 4, y=—t + 4, z — — 21 — 1;
x = 4t — 5, y= — 3t f 5, z= —51 4-5;

3> x~ir = ^ir = • x=6'+9’ y=-2t> +

§ 44. The Sphere

In rectangular cartesian coordinates, a sphere with centre C (a, p, Y)
and radius r is represented by the equation (*—a)2-f (y — P)2 +
-j-(z — y)2 = r2. A sphere of radius r and with centre at the origin
has the equation x2 y2 -j- z2 = r2.

1084. In each of the following, find the equation of the

sphere determined by the stated conditions:
 .$ 44. The Sphere
203

oj /il® Sp,here’ of radius r = 9, has its centre at C(0, 0 0)-

o 5e pl?ere> of radius r = 2, has its centre at C(5, — 3’ 7 -
at C(4 1P4 -2);SSeS thr°Ugh lhe 0rigin and ha* its centre
4) the sphere passes through the point At2 -] 31
and has its centre at C(3, —2, 1); ’ ’ ~'5'
5) the points A (2, — 3, 5) and' R(4 1
ex«?7litles 01 a “iame"=r »' 'he sphfre ' ~ ' “re lhe
plane |e65-15„°f122e 7P-hern f llK ori8i". a"d the

th' plane Jt-»-32+llP=0 is tangent to the'sphere

Xrt+;• L'ifjL“o?' °'0)'and its cenlren the

9) the sphere passes through the four points M, (I, -2 -1)
loss w,0; ~,ll A,*‘4' '• "). a"d —2 2 ).'

Which touches^ the plane e + 2g + 2/+3 =0°' si’t p'oW

thel0p8|6anesalC,"ate 'h' radiUS R ot lhe st>here which touches

3x + 2y~6z~ 15 = 0, 3x4~2y — 62 + 55 = 0
1087. A sphere has its centre on the line

2x + 4y — z 7 — 0,
4x + 5y + z 14 = 0
and touches the planes

x + 2y-22-2 = 0, * + 2«/ —2z + 4 = 0.

F'l|,ishepeqiiaiu0n of the sphere-

paraflei places eqUa'ion a sphere ,a"Sen. to the two

6-^ — 3r/ — 2z — 35 = 0, 6x-3i/ —2z + 63 = 0,

if Mt (5, 1,
planes. 1) is its point of contact with one of these
204 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1089. Write the equation of the sphere with centre

C(2, 3, —1) which cuts off a chord of length 16 on the
line
| 5* —4y + 3z + 20 = 0,
\ 3* — 4y + z — 8 = 0.

1090. In each of the following, determine the coordi¬

nates of the centre C and the radius r of the given sphere:
1) (*-3)2 + 0/f 2)2 + (z-5)2 = 16;
2) (*+l)2 + (y-3)2+z2 = 9;
3) x2 + y2i z2 — 4x— 2y + 2z- 19 = 0;
4) x2-\-y2 + z2 — 6z = 0;
5) x2+y2 + z2 + 20y = 0.

1091. Write the parametric equations of that diameter

of the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 + 2x — &y + z— 11 =0
which is perpendicular to the plane
5x — y + 2z— 17 = 0.
1092. Write the canonical equations of that diameter of
the sphere
x2-Py2 + z2—x + Sy + z—lS = 0

which is parallel to the line

x = 2t — 1, y=—St+5, z = 4/ + 7.
1093 In each of the following, determine whether the
point A (2, — 1, 3) is inside, on, or outs.de the given
sphere:
1) (x—3)2 + (y + i)2 + (z-~ l)2 = 4;
2) (a:+14)2 + (y— ll)2 + (z+ 12)2 = 625;
3) (x-6)2 + (y-l)=> + (z-2)2 = 25;
4) xz-j-y2z2 — 4x-\-6y — 8z4-22 = 0,
5) x2 + y2 + z2 — x + 3y — 2z —3 = 0.
 $ 44. The Sphere 205

1094. In each of the following, calculate the shortest

distance from the point A to the given sphere:

1) A ( — 2, 6, —3), x2 + y2 + z2 = 4;
2) A ( 9, —4, —3), x2 + y2 + 22 + 14x — \6y — 24z +
+ 241 =0;
3) A ( 1,-1, 3), x2 + y2 + z2 — 6x + 4y — \ 0z — 62 = 0.

1095. In each of the following, determine whether the

given plane cuts, touches or passes outside the given
sphere:
1) 2 = 3, x2 + y2 + z2-6x + 2y- 102 + 22 = 0;
2) y = 1, x2 + y2+z2 + 4x-2y- 62+14=0;
3) x = 5, v2 + y2 + z'- — 2x + \y— 22— 4 = 0.

1096. In each of the following, determine whether the

given line intersects, touches or passes outside the given
sphere:
1) x= — 2/ + 2, 0 = 3/ z — t — 2,

x2 + y2 + 22 + x — 4 y — 32

*2 + t/2 + 22 — 4.v — Gy + 22-67 = 0;

3 | 2x- y-\-2z— 12 = 0,
i 2x— Ay— z-h 6=0,
x* + y2 + 22 - 2x + 2y + 42 — 43 = 0.
1097. On the sphere
(x- l)2 + (i/ + 2)2 4 (2 — 3)2 = 25,
find the point A4, nearest to the plane
3* — 42+ 19 = 0,

and calculate the distance d of the point from this

plane.
206 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1098. Find the centre C and the radius R of the circle

f ix~ 3)2 -J- (y + 2)2 -f- (z — l)2 — 100,
\ 2x — 2y — z-\-9 = 0.
1099. The points >1(3, — 2, 5) and B{— 1, 6, —3) are
the extremities of a diameter of a circle. Write the equa¬
tions of this circle, given that it passes through the point
C (1, -4, 1).
1100. The point C(l, — 1, — 2) is the centre of the
circle which cuts off a chord of length 8 on the line
| 2x— y + 2z— 12 = 0,
\ \x — ly— z-f- 6=0.
Write the equations of the circle.
1101. Find the equations of the circle through the three
points 7^(3, -1, -2), M2(l, 1, -2) and Ms(-1, 3, 0).
1102. Given the two spheres
(x — /nj)2 + (t/— n^ + iz — p1)2 = Ru
(x — m2)2 + (y — n2)2+(z — p2)2 = Rl,
which intersect in a circle lying in a plane x. Prove that
an equation of the form
a[(x — mj + {y — nt)2 + (z —
2 — /?i] -F
+ p [(x — m2)2 + (y — n,)2 + (z—Po)2 — /?*]= 0
can be made, by an appropriate choice of the numbers a
and p, to represent the plane x as well as every sphere
passing through the circle of intersection of the given
spheres. .
1103. Write the equation of the plane passing through
the curve of intersection of the two spheres
2x2 + 2y2+2z2 + 3x-2y + z- 5 = 0,
x2 + t/H z2 - * + 3y ~ 2z -i 1 =0.
1104. Write the equation of the sphere passing through
the origin and through the circle
I x2 + y2 + z2 = 25,
\2x — 3y + 5z — 5 = 0.
 § 44. The Sphere 207

1105. Find the equation of the sphere passing through

the circle
fx2 + t/2 + z2-2x + 3;/-6z-5 = 0,
I 5.v -|- 2r/ — 2 — 3 = 0
and through the point A (2, —1, 1).
1106. Find the equation of the sphere passing through
the two circles
lx2 + z2 = 25, I x2 + z2 = 16,
' y = 2, I y = 3.
1107. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the
sphere x2 + y2 -[■z2 = 49 at the point At, (6, —3, —2).
1108. Prove that the plane
2x — 6y + 3z — 49 = 0
is tangent to the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 49.

Calculate the coordinates of their point of contact.

1109. Find the values of a for which the plane
x + y-\-z=a
is tangent to the sphere
x2 + y* + z2= 12.
1110. Find the equation of the tangent plane to the
sPhfre, (*-3)2 + ((/-l)2-l-(2 + 2)2==24 at the point
AM—1, 3, 0). K
n«1. The point Mi{Xi, yt z{) lies on the sphere x2 4-
tA+?, = r'- Wnte the e9uat'on of the tangent plane at
to the sphere.
1112. Find the condition that the plane

Ax ■+- By + Cz + D = 0
should be tangent to the sphere
X2+ £/* +2* = £2.
1113. The point Af, (xt, yt. Zi) lies on the sphere
(x - a.)2 + (y - P)2 + (2 - Y)2=r2.
208 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

Write the equation of the tangent plane at Mi to the

sphere.
1114. Through the points of intersection of the line
x=3t — 5, y—bt—\\, z= — 4^ + 9
and the sphere
(x 4- 2)2 + (*/—1)2 + (z + 5)2=49,
tangent planes are passed to the sphere. Write the
equations of these planes.
1115. Write the equations of the tangent planes to the
sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 9
which are parallel to the plane
x-\-2y — 2z-f 15 — 0.
1116. Write the equations of the tangent planes to the
sphere
(x-3)2 + (y + 2)2 + (z-l)2= 25
which are parallel to the plane 4* + 3z— 17 = 0.
1117. Write the equations of the tangent planes to the
sphere
x2 -f y1 + z2— lOx + 2y -f 26z— 113=0

which are parallel to the lines

*+5 y— 1 z+13 s+7 y+ —8
IP- ~TT3 ~ 2 ’ 3 —2 0'

1118. Prove that two planes tangent to the sphere

x* + y2 + z2 + 2x- by + 4z- 15=0
can be passed through the line
)8x— \\y-t-8z — 30=0,
1 x— y —2z=0;

write the equations of these planes.

1119. Prove that no tangent plane to the sphere
*2 + y2 + z2-4x + 2y - 4z + 4 = 0
 $ 45. Equations in Vector Notation 209

can be passed through the line

x46
9 /

1120. Prove that only one tangent plane to the sphere

x2 4 y2 + z2 — 2x 4- 6y + 2z + 8 = 0
can be passed through the line
x = At + 4, y=3/ + 1, z = t 4" 1 *»
write the equation of this plane.

§ 45. The Equations of the Plane, Straight

Line and Sphere in Vector Notation
As used below, the symbol M (r) means that r is the radius
vector of the point At.

1121. Find the equation of the plane a which passes

through the point M() (r0) and has n as its normal vector.
Solution *. Let M (r) be an arbitrary point. It lies in the plane
a if, and only if, the vector M0M is perpendicular to n. The per¬
pendicularity condition for vectors is that their scalar product should
be zero. Hence, At0M_|_ n if, and only if,

MoM-n — 0. (1)
Let us express the vector At0Al in terms of the radii vectors of its
terminal and initial points:

A10M = r—r0.
Hence, from (1), we find
(r-r0)n = 0. (2)

This is the equation of the plane a in vector notation; it is satis¬

fied by the radius vector r of a point M if, and only if, M lies in the
plane a, [r is called the current radius vector of equation (2).]

1122. Prove that the equation rn-\-D = 0 represents

a plane perpendicular to the vector n. Write the equation
of this plane in terms of coordinates, if n={A% £, C}.

Problems 1121 and 1129, whose solutions are given here are
this "section' 3 understandin^ of the remaining problems of
210 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1123. Given a unit vector n° and a number p>0.

Prove that the equation
rn°—p = 0
represents a plane perpendicular to the vector n° and that
p is the distance from the origin to the plane. Write the
equation of this plane in terms of coordinates, if the vec¬
tor n° makes angles a, p, y with the coordinate axes.
1124. Calculate the distance d from the point to
the plane rn° — p = 0. Also, express the distance d in
terms of coordinates, if
r\ = {xi, iji, Zt], n°—{cosa, cos|3, cosy}-
1125. Given the two points M, (r() and Af2(r2). Write •
the equation of the plane through the point At) and
perpendicular to the vector MiM2. Also, write the equa¬
tion of this plane in terms of coordinates, if
ri = {xu yu Zi),
rz = {x2, y2, z2}-
1126. Write the equation of the plane through the point
yVJo(rn) and parallel to the vectors ai and a2. Also, write
the equation of this plane in terms of coordinates, if
r0={x0, y0■ zo},
<*! = {/1, m,, n,},
a2={l2, m2, n2}>
1127. Write the equation of the plane through three
points AMr,), M2(r2), M3{r2). Also, write the equation
of this plane in terms of coordinates, if
rl = {xi, yu Zj}, r2 = {x2, y2, z2j, r3 = {x3, y3, z3}.
1128. Write the equation of the plane through the
point Af0 (r0) and perpendicular to the planes
r«i + £>i = 0, rn2 + D2 = 0.
Also, write the equation of this plane in terms of coordi¬
nates, given that
r0={x0, yo, z0}, n,= {Ai, Bu C,}, n2={A2, B2, C2}.
 $ 45. Equations in Vector Notation 211

1129. Prove that the equation

l(r — r0)fl) = 0
represents the straight line through the point M (r0) and 0

parallel to the vector a, i. e., that this equation is satis¬

fied by the radius vector r of a point M (r) if, and only if,
M lies on the indicated straight line.
Proof. Consider an arbitrary point At (r). Let r satisfy the
given equation; by the rule for subtraction of vectors, r—r0 =
= M0A1; since |(r — rn)q]=0, it follows that [17^17 «|=0; hence,
the vector Al0Af is collinear with the vector a. This means that the
point M actually lies on the straight line which passes through Af„
in the direction of the vector a. Conversely, let Af lie on this line
Tllen M0A1 is collinear with a. It follows that [TVW a) = 0; but
llellce 1 (r — ro) a 1 = 0. Thus, the given equation is sa¬
tisfied by the radius vector r of a point At if, and only it Af lies
on the indicated straight line (r is called the current radius vector
of the equation).

1130. Prove that the equation

\ra\ = m
represents a straight line parallel to the vector a
1131. Prove that the parametric equation
r=r [ at,
0

where t is a variable parameter, represents a straight line

passing through the point M (r0) (i. e., as t varies, the
0

point M (r) moves along this line). Write the canonical

equations of the line in terms of coordinates, if

ro—{*0. t/o, Zo}, a={l, rn, n}.

I13.2; ,A xstr.?jg.l?t line Passes through two points Mdr,)

rli^^rmo^.ir'0"5 in ,he form '»

n.33- Wri4te the equation of the plane through the
point M, (r,) and perpendicular to the line r=ra+at
Also, write the equation of this plane in terms of coordi-
nates, given that

ri—{*i» yu ^i}, a=.{l, tn, n).

212 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1134. Write the equation of the plane through the

point M0(r0) and parallel to the lines [ral] = ml, \ra2] = m2.
1135. Write the equation of the plane through the
point Mo(r0) and perpendicular to the planes
rtii~\-Di = Oy rn2-{-D2 = 0.
1136. A straight line passes through the point M0(r0)
and is perpendicular to the plane rn + D = 0. Write its
equation in parametric form. Also, write its canonical
equations in terms of coordinates, if
r0={xo, y0, z0}, n={A, By C}.
1137. A straight line passes through the point M0(r0)
and is parallel to the planes rti\ -\-D{ = 0y rn2 + D2 = 0.
Write its equation in parametric form. Also, write its ca¬
nonical equations in terms of coordinates, if
To= {xoy yo, Zo}y ti\ = {A[y B\y Cj}, tt2 — {A2y B2j C2).
1138. Find the condition for the line r — r^A-ctt to lie
in the plane rn-\-D = 0. Also, write this condition in
terms of coordinates, if
r0={xo, y0, zo}, a= {ly m, n}, n={Ay B, C}.
1139. Find the equation of the plane passing through
the line r=r0 + a\t and parallel to the line
[ra2] = m.
1140. Find the condition for the two lines
r = rj + a\t and r = r2 + flit
to lie in the same plane.
1141. Find the radius vector of the point of intersec¬
tion of the line r = r0 + at and the plane rn + D = 0.
Calculate the coordinates xy y} z of the point of intersec¬
tion, given that
r0={x0, y0, zo}, a = {l, m,n), n=[A,B,C}.
1142. Find the radius vector of the projection of Mi (/*i)
on the plane rn + D = 0. Calculate the coordinates y, z
of this projection, if
ri= {xu yi, zi}, n={A, B, C}.
 § 45. Equations in Vector Notation 213

1143. Find the radius vector of the projection of the

point Mi(ri) on the line r = r0-\-at. Calculate the coor¬
dinates xy ij, z of this projection, if
r^ = {xu y[y z,}, r0={xo, y0, z0}} a = {l, m, n).
1144. Calculate the distance d of the point M{(rx) from
the line r = r + aC Also, express the distance d in terms
0

of coordinates, if
yv z,}, r0 = {-v0, ytt, z0}, a = {l, m, n}.
1145. Calculate the shortest distance d between the two
skew lines
r = ri + ait and r = r2+a2C
Also, express this distance d in terms of coordinates, if
yt, z,}, r2 {x2, y2, z2},
«, = {/„ m,, «,}, fl2 = {/2, m.,, n2}.
1146. Prove that the equation
(r-r 0)2 = /^
represents a sphere with centre C (r0) and with radius
equal to R (i. e., that this equation is satisfied by the
radius vector r of a point A4 if, and only if, M lies on
the indicated sphere).
1147. Find the radii vectors of the points of intersec¬
tion of the line
r = at
and the sphere
r2 = R2.
Calculate the coordinates of these points of intersection,
given that
a = {l, m, n}.

1148. Find the radii vectors of the points of intersec¬

tion of the line
r = r0 + at
and the sphere
(r-rf^R2.
214 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

Calculate the coordinates of these points of intersection,

given that
ro ixo< y<t' ^o}’ ® = {A tn, rz}.
1149. The point M,(r,) lies on the sphere

Find the equation of the tangent plane at M to the

sphere. 1
1150. Write the equation of the sphere which has its
centre at C (r,) and is tangent to the plane rn + D — 0.
Also, write the equation of this sphere in terms of coor¬
dinates, given that
1/,. z,}. n={A, B, C}.
1151. Write the equations of the planes which touch
the sphere
r2 = R2
and are parallel to the plane
rn + D = 0.
Also, write the equations of these tangent planes in ierms
of coordinates, if
n={A, B, C}.
1152. Through the points of intersection of the line
r--=r0 + at
and the sphere
(r-r0)2 = R\
tangent planes are drawn to the sphere. Write the equa¬
tions of these planes. Also, write their equations in terms
of coordinates, given that
r« = {*„. */„> 2»}- « = {/- m' nh

§ 46. Quadric Surfaces

The ellipsoid is defined as the surface represented, in a rectan¬
gular cartesian coordinate system, by the equation

*+£+*= (1)
 § 46. Quadric Surfaces 215

Equation (1) is called the canonical equation of an ellipsoid.

The quantities a, b, c are the semi-axes of an ellipsoid (see Fig. 47).
If the semi-axes are all of a different length, the ellipsoid is refer¬
red to as triaxial; if any two of them are equal, the ellipsoid is
a surface of revolution. For example, when a ~b, Oz will be the
axis of revolution. When a = b<c, the ellipsoid is called a prolate

Fig. 47

ellipsoid of revolution; when a = b>cy it is called an oblate ellips.

oid of revolution. In the case a = b = c, the ellipsoid is a sphere.
The hyperboloids are defined as the surfaces represented, in
a rectangular cartesian coordinate system, by the equations

xl + ll__z2-x
a2^ b2 c2~ ’ (2)

£2 jA2—?!_ _ i
a2 r b2 c2~ (3)

The hyperboloid represented by equation (2) is referred to as

a hyperboloid of one sheet (Fig. 48), and that represented by equa¬
tion (3), as a hyperboloid of two sheets (Fig. 49); equations'(2) and
(3) are said to be the canonical equations of the respective hyper¬
boloids. The quantities a, b, c are called the semi-axes of a hyper¬
boloid. Fig. 48 shows the semi-axes a and b of the hyperboloid of
one sheet represented by equation (2). In the case of'the hyperbo-
oid of two sheets represented by equation (3), one of the semi-axes
(namely, c) is shown in Fig. 49. When a = b, the hyperboloids rep-
resented by equations (2) and (3) are surfaces of revolution.
The paraboloids are the surfaces represented, in some rectan¬
gular cartesian coordinate system, by the equations

(5)
 # 46. Quadric Surfaces 217

where p and q are positive numbers (called the parameters of a pa¬

raboloid). The paraboloid represented by equation (4) is referred to
as an elliptic paraboloid (Fig. 50), and that represented by equation
(5), as a hyperbolic paraboloid (Fig. 51). Equations (4) and (5) are
said to be the canonical equations of the respective paraboloids.
In the case p = q, the parabo oid represented by equation (4) is a sur¬
face of revolution (about Oz).
Let us now consider the transformation of space referred to as
uniform compression (or uniform elongation).

Fig. 52.

Take any plane and denote it by the letter a; also, choose some
positive number q. Let At be an arbitrary point (in space) not lying
in the plane a, and A10 the foot of the perpendicular dropped from
the point A4 onto the plane a. Next, move the point A1 along the
line A1A40 to a new position M' such that the condition
M0M' = q'M0M
will be satisfied and the point M will remain on the same side of
the plane a as before the motion (Fig. 52). Let all points in space
not lying in the plane a be subjected to this procedure; let the points
situated in the plane a remain in their original positions. Thus, all
points in space (except those lying in the plane a) will undergo a
shift such that the distance of each point from the plane a will
change to q times its former value. This motion of points in space
is referred to as a uniform compression of space towards the plane a;
the number q is called the coefficient of compression.
Let there be given a surface F; under a uniform compression of
space, the points of which F is made up will move to new positions
so as to make up a surface F'. We shall agree to say that the sur¬
face F' has been obtained from F by a uniform compression of space.
Many quadric surfaces (in fact, all except the hyperbolic paraboloid)
can be obtained from surfaces of revolution by uniform compressions.
Example. Prove that an arbitrary triaxial ellipsoid,

-+^ +-= 1
can be obtained from the sphere

x2 + y2 + z2 = a2
218 Cli. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

by two consecutive uniform compressions of space towards the coor¬

dinate planes: towards the plane Oxy with coefficient of compression
c
Qi — — » and towards the plane Oxz with coefficient of compression

Q2 = a
Proof. Let us perform a uniform compression of space towards the
plane Oxy ^with coefficient of compression ql = t and let this
compression carry a point At (x, y, z) into M'(x', y', z'). Let us
express the coordinates y\ z' of the point M' in terms of the
coordinates x, y, z of M. Since the line MM' is perpendicular to
the plane Oxy, it follows that *'=*, y' = y. On the other hand,
since the distance from the point AT to the plane Oxy is equal to
the distance from the point M to Oxy miltiplied by the number
c c
Qi = — > >t follows that z' = — z. We thus obtain the required expres-
a a r
sions:

Suppose that Af (x, y, z) is an arbitrary point of the sphere

x2 + y2 + z2 = a2.
Replacing x, y, z by their expressions (7), we get

x'2 + y'2 +

whence x'2 y'2 z'2

Consequently, the point M' (x\ y', z') lies on an ellipsoid of revolu¬
tion. If we now perform, in an analogous manner, a compression
of space towards the plane Oxz according to the formulas
/ n / O ^ / m
X =X , y =-£ y . 2=2.

we shall obtain a triaxial ellipsoid, namely, the one whose equation

has been given. , . .. . ,
Note also that the hyperboloid of one sheet and the hyperbolic
paraboloid are ruled surfaces, that is, surfaces made up of straight
lines; these straight lines are called the rectilinear generators of the
respective surfaces.
The hyperboloid of one sheet
*2 , y2 *2_,
 § 46. Quadric Surfaces 219

has two systems of rectilinear generators, represented by the equations

where a and P are some numbers, not both zero. The hyperbolic
paraboloid

P Q
also has two systems of rectilinear generators, represented by the
equations

A conical surface, or cone, is the surface generated by a moving

straight line (the generator) which passes through a fixed point S and
always intersects a given curve L. The point 5 is called the vertex
of the cone; the curve L is called its directing curve.
A cylindrical surface, or cylinder, is the surface generated by a
moving straight line (the generator) which has a fixed direction and
always intersects a given curve L (the directing curve).

1153. Show that the plane x—2 = 0 intersects the

ellipsoid
X2 IJ2 72
-~+
16 '
—

12 ‘
—

4 ~'
~ \1

in an ellipse; find the semi-axes and vertices of this ellipse.

1154. Show that the plane z+ 1 =0 intersects the hyper¬
boloid of one sheet
f!_ yl . ?! i
32 18 ‘ 2 1

in a hyperbola; find the semi-axes and vertices of

the
hyperbola.
1155. Show that the plane y-\- 6 = 0 intersects
the
hyperbolic paraboloid
220 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

in a parabola; find the parameter and vertex of this

parabola.
1156. Find the equations of the projections (on the coor¬
dinate planes) of the section of the elliptic paraboloid
y2 4- z2 = x
by the plane
x+ 2y — z = 0.
1157. Identify the curve which is the section of the
ellipsoid
at2 . y2 z2
12 '
4-— 4-- = 11
4 *3
by the plane
2x— 3y + 4z— 11 =0,
and find the centre of the curve.
1158. Identify the curve which is the section of the
hyperbolic paraboloid
A'2 Z2

2 3 ~y
by the plane
3x — 3y -f 42 + 2 = 0,
and find the centre of the curve.
1159. In each of the following, identify the curve rep¬
resented by the given equation and find its centre:

I 2>x— y-'r&z—14=0;
/ x2 2

F = 2z’
2)
x — 2y 4-2 = 0;

3)
4
. v±
"T" 9 36
1.
9x 6y -(- 2z 28 = 0
1160. Find the values of m for which the plane
x + mz_l=0 intersects the hyperboloid of two sheets
x2 + y2 — z2=— 1
1) in an ellipse, 2) in a hyperbola.
 § 46. Quadric Surfaces 221

1161. Find the values of m for which the plane

x + my — 2 = 0 intersects the elliptic paraboloid

1) in an ellipse; 2) in a parabola.
1162. Prove that the el iptic paraboloid

has a point in common with the plane

2x — 2 y — 2— 10 = 0,
and find the coordinates of that point.
1163. Prove that the hyperboloid of two sheets

1
3 ' 4 25

has a point in common with the plane

5.v + 2z + 5 = 0,
and find the coordinates of that point.
1164. Prove that the ellipsoid
X2 U2 22
—-F — = 1
81 ^ 36 r 9

has a point in common with the plane

4* — 3y -f- 122 — 54 = 0,
and find the coordinates of that point.
1165. Determine the value of m for which the plane
x — 2ij — 2z + m = 0

is tangent to the ellipsoid

1166. Write the equation of the plane which is perpen-

dicular to the vector n={2, —1, —2} and touches the
elliptic paraboloid
 222_g. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1167 Find the equations of the tangent planes to the

ellipsoid
4.v2 + 16 y2 -f 8z2 =--1
which are parallel to the plane
x-2y + 2z+l7 = 0-,
calculate the distance between these tangent planes.
1168. Find the equation of the surface into which the
sphere
*2 + y2 + z2 = 25
is transformed by a uniform compression of space towards
the plane Oyzy if the coefficient of compression is equal to y.
1169. Find the equation of the surface into which the
ellipsoid
x2 /;2
—+ ~+— = 1
64 ' 25 ' 16 1

is transformed by three consecutive uniform compressions

of space towards the coordinate planes Oxy, Oxz, and Oyz,
3 4 3
if the respective coefficients of compression are —-, y and y .
1170. Determine the coefficients ql and q2 of two con¬
secutive uniform compressions of space towards the coor¬
dinate planes Oxy, Oxzt which transform the sphere
x2 + y2 -\-z2 = 25
into the ellipsoid
y2 #/2 jL
-4- — + — = 1
25 ‘ 16 ' 4

1171. Find the equation of the surface generated by

revolving the ellipse

b2 ^ c2 = 1,
= 0
about the axis Oy.
Solution *. Let M (x, y, z) be an arbitrary point in space, and
let C denote the foot of the perpendicular dropped from the point M

Problem 1171 is solved here as a typical one.

 $ 46. Quadric Surfaces 223

to the axis Oy (Fig. 53). By revolving this perpendicular about the

axis 0yt the point M can be moved to the plane Oyz\ in this posi¬
tion, we shall denote it by N (0, Y, Z). Since CM = CN and
CM = x2 + za, CN=\Z\, it follows that

I z I = V~F+7k (1)
It is also evident that
y = y- (2)

The point M lies on the required surface of revolution if, and only

Fig. 53.

if, jV lies on the given ellipse, that is, if

V2 72
.—— \
b2 r C2

Hence, by (1) and (2), we obtain the equation the coordinates

of the point M:

From the foregoing, it is clear that this equation is satisfied if,

and only if, the point M lies on the required surface of revolution.
Consequently, equation (4) is the desired equation of this surface.

1172. Find the equation of the surface generated by

revolving the ellipse

about the axis Ox.

224 Ch. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1173. Find the equation of the surface generated by

revolving the hyperbola
( *2
a i.

\ y=o
about the axis Oz.
1174. Prove that the triaxial ellipsoid represented by
the equation
1
a2 “r b2 ' c2

can be obtained by revolving the ellipse

z=0
about the axis Ox and by a subsequent uniform compres¬
sion of space towards the plane Oxy.
1175. Prove that the hyperboloid of one sheet repre¬
sented by the equation
y'i n2 72
f-4-1_L = l
a2'b2 c2

can be obtained by revolving the hyperbola

about the axis Oz and by a subsequent uniform compres¬

sion of space towards the plane Oxz.
1176. Prove that the hyperboloid of two sheets repre¬
sented by the equation
ft! __ =—l
a2 +b 2 c2

can be obtained by revolving the hyperbola

y =o
 $ 46. Quadric Surfaces 225

about the axis Oz and by a subsequent uniform compres¬

sion of space towards the plane Oxz.
1177. Prove that the elliptic paraboloid represented by
the equation
v2 112
— + — = 2z
P Q
can be obtained by revolving the parabola
| x2 = 2pz,
{ >j = °
about the axis Oz and by a subsequent uniform compres¬
sion of space towards the plane Oxz.
1178. Find the equation of the surface generated by a
parabola which moves so that the plane of the parabola
is always perpendicular to the axis Oy, the axis of the
parabola does not change its direction, and the vertex of
the parabola slides along another parabola, represented by
the equations
I y2 = —2qz,
[ x = 0.
The moving parabola is represented, in one of its posi¬
tions, by the equations
| x2 = 2pZy
X y=0.
1179. Prove that the equation
z = xy
represents a hyperbolic paraboloid.
1180. In each of the following, find the points of inter-
section of the surface and the straight line:
1)
X2 IJ* 72
f!P —=1 and *~’3 —j/~'4y—4 — z + 2.
^’ 81 36 ^ 9"
'9 = 1* ailC^ 3 —6
—6 4
dliu ’

2) t: i i anci L — jl — z+2 -
] 16 ‘ 9 4 1 ana 4 —3 4 ’
-+^ = 2 and ^ = |/~2-24'3 •
—2 1
4) _T2 — —7 and * — 2t
9 4 2 and 3 --=2-~2
 1181. Prove that the plane

2x — 12 y — z+ 16 = 0
intersects the hyperbolic paraboloid
x2 — 4y2 = 2z
in its rectilinear generators. Write the equations of these
rectilinear generators.
1182. Prove-that the plane
4x — by— 102—20 = 0
intersects the hyperboloid of one sheet

25M6 4 1
in its rectilinear generators. Write the equations of these
rectilinear generators.
1183. Show that the point M{\, 3, —1) lies on the
hyperbolic paraboloid
4x2 — z2 — y
and write the equations of its rectilinear generators pas-
ing through M.
1184. Write the equations of those rectilinear generators
of the hyperboloid of one sheet
y*2 #«2
i
4^9 16

which are parallel to the plane

6x-f 4# + 3z— 17 = 0.

1185. Show that the point A (— 2, 0, 1) lies on the

hyperbolic paraboloid
A A

y^r = Z
9

and determine the acute angle formed by its rectilinear

generators passing through A. , .
1186. Write the equation of the cone whose vertex is
at the origin and whose directing curve is given by the
 $ 46. Quadric Surfaces 227

equations:

1187. Prove that the equation

22 - XIJ

represents a cone with vertex at the origin.

1188. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is at
the origin and whose directing curve is given by the
equations
( x2-2z+ 1=0,
l y-z+ 1=0.
1189. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is a!
the point (0, 0, c) and whose directing curve is given by
the equations
X1 li1
—+ —= 1
a2 T b* ’
2 = 0.
1190. Find the equation of the cone whose vertex is at
the point (3. — 1, — 2) and whose directing curve is given
by the equations
I x*+y*-z*=l,
\ X — y-fz = 0.
1191. The axis Oz is the axis of a circular cone with
vertex at the origin; the point M1 (3, —4, 7) lies on this
cone. Write the equation of the cone.
1192. The axis Oy is the axis of a circular cone with
vertex at the origin; the elements of this cone make an
angle of 60° with the axis Oy. Write the equation of the cone
1193. The straight line
x-2 y +1 2 +]
—1 2
is the axis of a circular cone whos< vertex lies in the
plane Oyz\ the. point A41fl,'l, — i lies on this cone.
Write the equation of the cone.
228 Cli. 9. The Equation of a Plane. The Equations of a Line

1194. Write the equation of a circular cone which has

the coordinate axes as its elements.
1195. Write the equation of the cone whose vertex is
at the point 5(5, 0, 0) and whose elements are tangent
to the sphere
x2 y2 + z2 = 9.
1196. Write the equation of the cone whose vertex is
at the origin and whose elements are tangent to the sphere
(* -f 2)2 + (// — 1 )2 + (2 — 3)2 = 9

1197. Write the equation of the cone whose vertex is

at 5(3, 0, —1) and whose elements are tangent to the
ellipsoid

1198. Find the equation of the cylinder whose elements

are parallel to the vector / = { 2, —3, 4} and whose direct¬
ing curve is represented by the equations

1199. Find the equation of the cylinder whose directing

curve is represented by the equations
I X2_y2=Zt
\ x+y+z=0
and whose elements are perpendicular to the plane of the
directing curve.
1200. A cylinder with elements perpendicular to the
x + y—2z — 5 = 0
plane is circumscribed about the sphere
x2 + y2 + z2 = 1 •
Find the equation of this cylinder.
1201. A cylinder with elements parallel to the line
x = 2t — 3, y=-1 + 7, z=-2t + 5
 § 46. Quadric Surfaces 229

is circumscribed about the sphere

x2 4- y2 + Z2 — 2x -f- 4y 4- 2z — 3 = 0.
Find the equation of this cylinder.
1202. Find the equation of the circular cylinder which
passes through the point S (2, —1, 1) and has as its axis
the line
x = 3/ + 1, y=—2t — 2, z = t-1-2.
1203. Find the equation of the cylinder circumscribed
about the two spheres
(x - 2)2 + (y - 1 )2 + = 25, x2 + y2 + z2 = 25.
 APPENDIX

fHE ELEMENTS OF THE THEORY OF DETERMINANTS

§ I. Determinants of the Second Order and Systems of

Two Equations of the First Degree in Two Unknowns
Consider a square array of four numbers alt a2, blt b2:
a
a2 b2
0)
The number axb2—a2bx is referred to as the determinant of the sec-
ond order associated with the array (1). This determinant is deno¬
a
ted by the symbol accordingly,
a bo
a
— Cl I b2 ^2^1 • (2)
a 2 b2
The numbers al9 a2, bx, b2 are called the elements of the determi-
nant. The elements ax, b2 are said to lie on the principal diagonal
of the determinant, and the elements a2, bx, on the secondary diago¬
nal. Thus, a determinant of the second order is equal to the product
of the elements on the principal diagonal minus the product of the
elements on the secondary diagonal.
For example,

“3 2 = —3-4 — (—1)-2 = —10.

—1 4
Consider the system of two equations
axx + bly = hl,
(3)
a2x + b2y = h2
in two unknowns x, y. (The coefficients ax> bx, a2, f>2 and the con-
stant terms hx, h2 are assumed to be known.) Let us introduce the
notation
(4)

The determinant A formed from the coefficients of the unknowns of

the system (3) is called the determinant of the system. The determi-
 § /. Determinants of the Second Order 231

nant A* is obtained by replacing the elements of the first column

of A by the constant terms of the system (3); the determinant A^
is obtained from A by replacing the elements of the second column
by the constant terms of the system (3).
If A ^ 0, the system (3) has a unique solution, which is deter¬
mined by the formulas

If A = 0, but at least one of the determinants A*, A., is different

from zero, the system (3) has no solution at all (and the equations
of the system are said to be inconsistent).
Finally, if A = 0 and also AX=A =0, the system (3) has infi¬
nitely many solutions (in this case/ one equation of the system is
a consequence of the other).
Let hx =//2 = 0 in equations (3); then the system (3) will be of
the form

I axx + 6,1/ =0,

\ a2x + b2y = 0.

A system of equations which has the form (6) is called a homo¬

geneous system; such a system always possesses the zero solution
x = 0, y = 0. If A ± 0, this solution is unique; but if A = 0, the
system (6) has, in addition, an infinite number of solutions other
than the zero solution.

1204. Evaluate the determinants:

1) 1 4 •
2) 3 -4 •
3) 3 6
1 »

—5 2 1 2 5 10
4) 3 16 • 5) a 1 • 6) i 1
o »
5 10 a~ a *2
7) a+ 1 b—c • 8) cosa-- sin a
*
a ab — ac sin a cos a

1205. Solve the equations:

1) 2 x—4 1 4 1
o-
u, 2)
1 4 3x x -(- 22
3) x x-<- 1 3x —
= 0; “>
—4 *+l x 2x —
 232 Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants

5) x+ 1 5 x2 — 4 —1
=o-
- Uf 6) 0;
1 * 1 x—2 x + 2
7) 4 sin x 1 8) cos 8a: —sin 5a:
— o-
— V, =0
1 cos* sin 8x cos 5a:

1206. Solve the inequalities:

1) 3x — 3 2 I *+
>o- 2) 0;
x 1 2 a:
3) 2a: 2 1 x 3x
>5- 4) 14
7x 2 4 2x

1207. In each of the following, find all solutions of the

given system of equations:

1) | 3x — 51/= 13, 2) I 3y — 4x = 1, 3) / 2x — 3y=6,

2x-\- 7f/= 81; l 3x + 4y = 18; 1
4x — 6y = 5;

4) | x-yV3=1, 5) / ax + by c,

x V^3 — 3y = y3; \ bx- ay = d\

6) ( x j/^5 — 5y= V^5,

x — yV 5 = 5.

1208. Determine the values of a and b for which the

system
3* -ay= 1,
6x + 4y=b

1) has a unique solution;

2) has no solutions;
3) has infinitely many solutions.
1209. Determine the value of a for which the homo¬
geneous system
I 13x + 2y = 0,
( 5x-f-ay==0
has a non-zero solution.
 $ 2. A Homogeneous System of Two Equations 233

§ 2. A Homogeneous System of Two Equations

of the First Degree in Three Unknowns

Consider a system of two homogeneous equations,

( axx + byj + cxz = 0,

\ a2x + b2y + c2z= 0,

in three unknowns x, y, z. Let us introduce the notation

*1 Cx ax Cx a\ b,
, A,--
b2 <2 °2 C2 a2 b2

If at least one of the determinants A,, A2, A3 is different from zero,

all solutions of the system (1) will be determined by the formulas

x = A,/, if —- A.)^» z = A3/,

where t is an arbitrary number; each separate solution will be ob¬

tained by assigning some definite value to t.
For practical calculations, it will be helpful to observe, that
the determinants A,, A2, A3 are obtained by striking out, in turn,
each column of the array
a, bx cA
a2 b2 c2J

If the three determinants A,, A2, A3 are all equal to zero, then the
coefficients of the equations of the system (1) are all in proportion.
In this case, one equation of the system is a consequence of the
other, and the system reduces in fact to a single equation. Such
a system naturally has an infinite number of solutions; to obtain
one of these, it is necessary to assign arbitrary values to two
unknowns and find the third unknown from the equation.

1210. In each of the following, find all solutions of the

given system of equations:
1) | 3* —2// + 5z = 0, 2) | 3x — 2y+- 2~0,
\ x + 2y — 3z = 0 \ 6x — 4//-f3z = 0
3) | x — 3y+z = 0 4) \ 3x-2y + 2 =0
\ 2x — 9y-\-3z = 0 \ x + 2 y— 2=0
5) I 3x — 2y + 2 = 0 6) | 2x— y — 2z = 0
\ x-\-2y — 32 = 0 \ x — 5y + 2z = 0
7) ( x + 2y— 2 = 0 8) J 3,v — 5y -f 2 = 0
( 3x-5y-\-2z = 0 \ x + 2y — 2 =0
8 — 2250 ♦
234 Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants

9) \ x + 3y — 2 = 0, 10) | ax-f y 4- 2= 0,
\ 5x — 3y+ z = 0; \ x - y f az = 0;
11) ( ax + 2y — 2 = 0, 12) | * — 3y az=0,
\ 2x f by — 32 = 0; \ bx -f~ 6y— 2 = 0.

§ 3. Determinants of the Third Order

Consider a square array of nine numbers, al9 a2, a3, blt b2t bt9
^1* C2» ^3-
a b, c,\
a b2 c2 0)
\a* J
The determinant of the third order associated with the array (1)
is the number denoted by the symbol
a i

a bz c
a b, c.
and determined by the relation
a i b, 1
a2 b2 c2 = a]b2c3-\-bic2a3-\-c1a2bs — cib2ai — bla2ci—a^c2by (2)

Q* b^

The numbers a,, a2, a3t bx, b2% b5i c,, c2, c9 are called the elements
of the determinant. The diagonal containing the elements alf b2t ct
is called the principal diagonal of the determinant; the elements a2f
b2, c, form the secondary diagonal. For practical computations, it
will be helpful to note that the first three terms in the right-hand

member of (2) are the products of the elements taken three at a time
as shown by the various dashed and dotted lines in the left-hand
diagram below. The remaining three terms of the right-hand member
of (2) are obtained by multiplying the elements three at a time as
shown by the various lines in the right-hand diagram, and then
changing the sign of each resulting product.
 § 4. Properties of Determinants 235

In Problems 1211-1216, evaluate the given determi

nants of the third order.
1211. 3 —
-2 1 1212. i 2 0
-2 1 3 • 0 1 3
2 0 —
-2 5 0 —
-1
1213. 2 0 5 1214 • 2 — -i 3
1 3 16 •
—
-2 3 2
0 —
-1 10 0 2 5
1215. 2 1 0 1216. 0 a a
1 0 3 • a 0 a •

0 5 —
-1 a a 0

§ 4. Properties of Determinants
Property 1. The value of a determinant is unchanged if all its
columns are changed into rows so that each row is replaced by the
like-numbered column; that is,

CX °2 fl3

a2 b2 <^2 = b2

«3 b. '^3 C, C2

Property 2. The interchange of two columns or two rows of

a determinant is equivalent to multiplying the determinant bv —1
ror example, J
b, °X b ,
bz C2
-- b2
b , ^3 «3 c3 b,
Property 3. If a determinant has two identical columns or two
identical rows, the value of the determinant is zero.
Property 4. Multiplying all elements of a column or row by any
one number k is equivalent to multiplying the determinant by this
number k. For example,

kax bi cx ai b, C1
ka2
kat a* b
C2

Property 5. If all elements of a column or row are zero, the

=k <*2 b2
, C2

is zero* T,lis ProPerty constitutes a special case (in

nicn «=0) of the preceding property.

6**
 236 Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants

Property 6. If the corresponding elements of two columns or two

rows of a determinant are proportional, the determinant is zero.
Property 7. If each element in the nih column (or the nih row)
of a determinant is the sum of two terms, the determinant may be
expressed as the sum of two determinants, of which one has in its
/?th column (or row) the first of the above-mentioned terms, while
the other determinant has the second terms; the elements of the
remaining columns (or rows) are the same for all the three determi¬
nants. For example,
//

a. + 0, b c a. b c a. b c
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
/ // //

a2+a2 t)i a., b2 c2

C,
C2 2 +
b2 C2

b3
a., b c a b c
•* 3 s 3 j 3

Property 8. If to the elements of a column (or row) of a deter¬

minant are added the corresponding elements of another column (or
row), multiplied by any one number, the value of the determinant
remains unchanged. For instance,
a, + /f6, bt Cl b, C.
a2 + kb2 b2 C2 -: a2 b2 C2

a, + kbs b, C3 03 b, C3

Further properties of determinants are connected with the concept

of cofactors and minors. The determinant obtained from a given
determinant by striking out the row and the column, in the inter¬
section of which a particular element lies, is called the minor of
that element.
The cofactor of any element of a determinant is equal - to the
minor of that element taken with its sign unchanged if the sum of
the position numbers of the row and column in which the element
lies is even, or taken with opposite sign if this sum is odd.
We shall denote the cofactor of an element by the capital letter
and subscript corresponding to the letter and subscript of the
element.
Property 9. The determinant

is equal to the sum of the products of the elements in any column

(or row) by their cofactors. In other words, we have the following
relations:
A = a,.4, a2A2 "F 03^3* k = axAx-\- bxBcfi\*
r
A = blBl + b2B2 + b2B2, A = <*2^2 -F b2B2 -F c2C2,
A = ckC, -f- c2C2 -{- £ ^ * 3 3
A ==• a2A2 ~F b3Bt + c3C3.
 § 4. Properties of Determinants 237

In each of Problems 1217-1222, prove the validity of

the given relation without expanding the determinants.
1217. 3 2 1 3 2 7
2 3 2 —
—2 3 2
4 5 3 4 5 11
Hint. Use the property 8.

1218. 1 —2 3 1 0 0
—2 1 —5 ■
—2 —3 1
3 2 7 3 8 —2
Hint. Use the property 8.
1219. ai bi
a2 b2 c2

al-\-aa2 bl-\-ab2 ci -|- ac2

Hint. Use the properties 7, 3, 6

1220. f>b1 4 \cx - bt

Pb2 + bi

f>b:t f Yc3 bJ
Hint. Use the properties 7 and 6.

1221. sim a cos2 a cos 2a

sin2 (i cos2 p cos 2p

sin2 y cos2 y cos 2y

1222. 0 —a —b I

a
b

In Problems 1223-1227, evaluate the determinanls by

using the property 9 alone.
1223. 1 1 —1 1224. 1 17 —7
1 —1 1 • —1 13 1
-1 1 1 1 7 1
 1225. 2 0 5 1226. 1 2 4
1 3 16 • —2 1 —3
0 —1 10 3 4 2
1227. 11 1 1 1
x y z .
x 2 y 2 z 2

1228. By applying the property 8, transform the deter¬

minants given in Problems 1223-1227 so as to obtain
two zero elements in some column (or row) of each deter¬
minant, and then evaluate the determinants by using the
property 9.
In each of Problems 1229-1232, evaluate the given de¬
terminant.
1229. 0 a b 1230. 0 sin a cot a
a 0 a • sin a 0 sin a
b a 0 cot a sin a 0 1
1231 X y z 1232. a b c
X2 y2
z 2 • c a b
X3 z 3 b c a

1233. Prove the val idity of the relations:

sin a sin2 a
sin p sin2 (3 =
sin y sin2y
= (sin a— sin P) (sin P — sin y) (sin y — sin a);
1 1 1
sin (a — P) sin (P — y) sin (y—ot) .
tana tanp tan y cos2 a cos2 p cos2 y
tan2 a tan2p tan2y
1234. Solve the equations:
i 3 X 2) 3 X —4
4 5 —1 = 0; 2 — 1 3
2 —1 5 x+ 10 1 1
 § 5. A System of Three First-degree Equations 239

1235. Solve the inequalities:

1) 3 —2 1 2) 2 x+2 — 1
1 —2 I _9
JC <1; 1

-1 2 — 1 5 —3 X

§ 5. Solution and Analysis of a System of Three

First-degree Equations in Three Unknowns
Consider the system of three equations

( axx + bxy + cxz = hx,

^ a2x-\-b2y + c2z = h2, (1)
l tf3X-f-/?3{/ + C3Z = //3

in the unknowns x, y, z. (The coefficients a,, fr,, .... c3 and the

constant terms /i,, /i2, h3 are assumed to be known.) Let us use the
notation

Qi Cl hi Ci /J1 Ci
>

a2 b, C2 , Ax — a o•* h2 c2
11

K b2 C2 f

"3 b, C* b3 b3
6 , h,
b2
C3

h2
fl3 b3 c3

b3 b3

The determinant A formed from the coefficients of the unknowns

of the system (I) is called the determinant of the system.
It will be helpful to note that the determinants Ax, A>n and \z
are obtained from A by replacing its first, second, and third column,
respectively, by the column of the constant terms of the given
system.
If A ^ 0, the system (1) has a unique solution, which is deter¬
mined by the formulas

Suppose now that the determinant of the system is zero: A = 0.

If A = 0, but at least one of the determinants Ax, Ay, A7 is differ¬
ent from zero, the system (1) has no solution. If ^ = 0 and also
pf = 0, A =0, A, = 0, the system (1) may, as before, have no solu¬
tion at arl; but if, under these conditions, the system (1) has at least
one solution, then the system has an infinite number of different
solutions.
 Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants

A homogeneous system of three first-degree equations in three

unknowns is a system of the form

( a\X + bpj + cxz = 0.

j a2* + M + V = 0, (2)
l “a* + + c,z = 0,
that is, a system of equations whose constant terms are all equal to
zero. Obviously, such a system always possesses the solution * = 0,
y = 0, z = 0, which is called the zero solution. If A ^ 0, this solu¬
tion is unique. But if A = 0, the homogeneous system (2) has an
infinite number of non-zero solutions.

In each of Problems 1236-1243, show that the given

system of equations has a unique solution, and find this
solution.
1236. *-f- y — z= 36, 1237. x + 2y-\- z = 4,
X i-z — y = 13, 3x — 5y -\-3z= 1,
y + z — x= 7. 2x + 7y— z = 8.
1238. 2x — 4 y + 9z = 28, 1239. I 2x+ y= 5,
7x + 3y — 6z = — 1, x 4- 3z = 16,
7x + 9y — 9z = 5. 5 y— z—10.
1240. x + r/ + z = 36, 1241. 7x-\- 2r/4-3z=15,
2x — 3z = —17, 5x— 3y + 2z=l5,
6* — 5z = 7. lOx— 1 \y -\-5z = 36.
1242. x + y I-z = a, 1243. x — y + z = a,
x — y + z=b, x + y—z=b,
x4-y — z = c. y 4-z — x — c.

1244. Find all solutions of the system

x + 2 y- 4z = 1,
I
2x 4- y- 5z —— 1,
x y —
z — — 2.
-

1245. Find all solutions of the system

2x- y+ z = —2,
x -f- 2y + 3z = 19
x — 3y — 2z = 3.
 § 5. A System 0/ Three First-degree Equations 241

1246. Find all solutions of the system

j 3x — y-\-2z = 5,
| 2x— y— 2 = 2,
{ \x — 2y — 2z= —3.

1247. Determine the values of a and b for which the

system
3x — 2y~r z = by
5x— 8y + 9z = 3,
2x 4 y + az = — 1

1) has a unique solution;

2) has no solutions;
3) has infinitely many solutions.
j j

1248. Prove that, if the system

[ a1x + biy=cl,
l a2x + b2y = c2,
l a3x + b3y = c3
is consistent, then
a! bx cx
a2 b2 c2 = 0.
^3 ^3 ^3

1249. Find all solutions of the system

{ 2x+ y— 2 = 0,
j x + 2 y+ 2 = 0,
( 2x— y + 32 = 0.

1250. Find all solutions of the system

(x — y— 2 = 0,
x + 4y-\-2z = 0t
3x + 7y + 32 = 0.
 Appendix. The Elements of the Theory of Determinants

1251. Determine the value of a for which the homo¬

geneous system
I 3x — 2y + z = 0.
| ax— 14t/ + 15z = 0,
( x-\- 2y— 3e = 0

has a non-zero solution.

§ 6. Determinants of the Fourth Order

The properties of determinants enumerated in § 4 hold for deter¬
minants of any order. In the present section, these properties should
be used in evaluating determinants of the fourth order.

In each of Problems 1252-1260, evaluate the given

determinant of the fourth order.

1252. — 3 0 0 0 1253. 2 —i 3
2 2 0 0 0 — i 5
•

1 3 -1 0 0 0 5
1 5 3 5 0 0 0

1254. 2 --1 1 0 1255. 2 3 —3

0 1 2 --1 2 1 —1
•

3 --1 2 3 6 2 1
3 1 6 1 2 3 0

1256. 8 7 2 0 1257. 1 0 b c d\
8 2 / 10 b 0 d n
<✓

•
1
4 4 4 5 c d 0 b
0 4 —3 ■ 2 d c b 0

1258. a b c d 1259. a b c d
b a d c d a b c
•
•

c d a b c d a b
d c b a b c d a
 $ 6. Determinants of the Fourth Order 2-13

1260. I 0 -a -b -ci
a 0 —c—e
be 0 0
d e 0 0

1261. Prove that, if the system

AXx + Bxy-\- CjZ-L D, = 0,

2^ “f~ B 2y C2z -f- ” 0,
A 3x -f B3y + C3z -f D = 0,
A4x+ Bxy -j- C4z-f D4 = 0

is consistent, then
Ax Bx C,
/t2 B2 C2
C3

/14 B4 C4
 answers and hints

Part One
'• See Fig. 54. 2. Hint. The equation |x|=2 is equivalent
to the two equations x ——2 and * = 2; accordingly, we have the
two points A, (—2) and A2 (2) (Fig. 55). The equation \x—1|=3 is
equivalent to the two equations x— I =— 3 and x—1=3, whence
we find x=—2 and x — 4 and the points B, and Bt corresponding

/
*--1

Fig. 54.

to them (Fig. 55). The remaining examples have analogous solutions.

3. The points are situated: I) to the right of the point Af,(2);
2) to the left of the point M2 (3), including the point M2\ 3) to the
right of the point Af3 (12); 4) to the left of the point Af4 in'

eluding the point Af4; 5) to the right of the point A4S 6) in¬
side the segment bounded by the points Afa (1) and /Vf2 (3); 7) inside
the segment bounded by the points M7(—2) and M2 (3), including
 Answers and Hints 245

the points A47 and A1,; 8) inside the segment bounded by the
points A(l) and B (2); 9) outside the segment bounded by the
points P(—1) and Q (2); 10) outside the segment bounded by the
points A(l) and B (2); 11) inside the segment bounded by the
points P (— 1) and Q (2); 12) inside the segment bounded by the
points A1 (3) and A7 (5), including the points M and A7; 13) outside
the segment bounded by the points Al (3) and N (5); 14) outside the
segment bounded by the points Px (—4) and CM3); 15) inside the
segment bounded by the points P, (—4) and CM3), including the
points P, and Q,. 4. 1) AB- 8, |/1P|=8; 2) AB = — 3, \ AB —3;
3) AB—4, \AB\—4\ 4) AP = 2; | AB | =2; 5) AB =—2, \ AB =2;

Fig. 55.

6) AB= 2, | AB \ = 2 5. 1)—2; 2) 5; 3) 1; 4) -8; 5) —2 and 2

6) —1 and 5; 7) —6 and 4; 8) —7 and —3. 6. The points are situat
ed: 1) inside the segment bounded by the points A(—1) and P(l)
2) outside the segment bounded by the points A(—2) and B(2)
3) inside the segment bounded by the points A (—2) and B (2)
including the points A and B\ 4) outside the segment bounded b)
the points A (—3) and B (3), including the points A and B\ 5) inside
the segment bounded by the points A (—1) and B (5); 6) inside the
segment bounded by the points A (4) and B (6), including the points
A and B\ 7) outside the segment bounded by the points A ( — 1) and
B (3), including the points A and B\ 8) outside the segment bounded
by the points A (2) and B (4), including the points A and B\
9) inside the segment bounded by the points A (—4) and B(2);
10) outside the segment bounded by the points A (—3) and B(— 1);
11) inside the segment bounded by the points A (—6) and B (—4),
including the points A and B\ 12) outside the segment bounded by
the points A (—3) and B (1), including the points A and B. 7. 1) 1;
2) -4; 3) 2; 4)1;
3
5) . 8. =44
BC
= 3;
BA
\. = CB 1
_AC _ A . BC 1 . _BA_ 3 y CA 4
^ ~CB~ 4’ 4 : 5M4C“ 4'k«~AB~ 3
9. 10. x= _xx +x2
x2—x
11. a: 12. 1) 4; 2) 2;
1 +A 2
3) -2; 4) 1
2; 5) -i. 13. 1) '-1 2) -t: 3) ; 4) 7; 5) 3;

6) 0 14. 1) M (—11); 2) N (13) 15. (5) and (121 16. A (7) and
,7- See F'g 33. 13. /4a.(2, 0), Bx(3, 0), Cx(—5, 0),
°* ( 3’ °). Ex(-5, 0). 19. Ay(0. 2), By( 0, 1), C„ (0, -2), D (0, 1),
 Answers and Hints

Ev(0, -2). 20. I) (2, —3); 2) (-3. —2)- 3) (—] IV s,

4) (2~45)r5):( 63(a’5^*61 P' ' * A*' 2); ’2) (~3’ -')! 3) !2- ~2!
1 |V«) -» 2i/(i?’ 2>,
±» and Th?rd £J,!aKV^

rants; 3) the first and third quadrants; 4) the second and fourth
quadrants; 5) the first, second, and fourth quadrants; 6) the second,
third, and fourth quadrants; 7) the first, third, and fourth quadrants;
8) the first, second, and third quadrants. 26. See Fig. 57.

27- (3> ~t)' (2't)’ (3’ j) ’ (1’ ~2)’ (5’ n 28- ('■ ~7 n) ’

(5’ ~t) ’ (2- j") > (4- ~Ta) • (7 n-2). 29.

and D(5. -ji») 30. (l, -£) . 31. 2. (3. --f) .

5(2. jJij. C(l,0), DJ5. -J-J, £(3.2-*), £(2, *—1).

32. M,(3, 0), M, f I. -5-J, Mt( 2. -y),

M, (3, ji), /W.^l, 33. ^ , y).

6 34. d=

= V" <?f + Q -22 29 02, cos (02 - ,).'0 35. d = 7. 36. 9(17—4^3)
square units. 37. 2(13+6^2) square units. 38. 28^3 square units
39. S = ~ q,q sin (0, — 02).
2 40. 5 square units. 41. 3(4^3 — 1)
 Answers and Hints 247

square units. 42. M, (0, 6), A42(5, 0), Af, (1^2, \^2), A44 (5,
5 y3), Af, (—4. 4^3). M, (6 V~3, -6). 43. AI 5,

M,( 3. n). 2, -5-). M4(T (2, -y)-

44. 1) 3; 2) -3; 3) 0; 4) 5; 5)'-5; 6) 2.' 47. 1) X = l, K=3;
2) X=-4, ^ = -2; 3)X=1, Y = —7; 4)_X=5, K = 3.
48. (3, -1). 49. (-3, 2). 52. 1) X =—6. Y= 6^3; 2) X=3j/_3,
V = —3; 3) X = V2, Y = -\r2. 53. 1) 5; 2) 13; 3) 10.
54. 1) d =2,0 = -?-; 2) d-6, 0 — ; 3)d = 4, 0=-?;i.
O 4 O

55. 1) d=yr2, 0 = — --n; 2) d=5, 0 — arctan— — ji;

4 3

3) d = 13, 0 == n — arctan ^ ; 4) d—\f234, 0 = — arctan 5.

•)

56. 1) 3; 2) -3. 57. 1) (—9, 3); 2) (—9. —7). 58. 1) (-15,

31f 3 4
— 12); 2) (1, —12) 59.-2. 60.—?—-. 61. 4. 62. 1) —5;
A*

2) 5. 63. 1) 5; 2) 10; 3) 5; 4) j/*5; 5) 2\r2\ 6) 13. 64. 137

square units. 65. 34 square units. 66. 8)^3 square units. 67. 13,

15. 68. 150 square units. 69. 4 \^2. 73. <$ Ai2Ai,A43 is obtuse.
75. <£ BAC =45°, <A£C = 45°, < ACtf =90°." 76. 60°. Hint.
Compute the lengths of the sides of the triangle, and then use the
cosine theorem. 77. At, (6, 0) and At2(—2, 0). 78. M, (0, 28) and
M2(0, -2). 79. P,(l. 0) and P2 (6, 0). 80. C, (2, 2), /?, == 2;
C2(10, 10), R2 = 10. 81. C, (—3, -5), C2 (5, -5). 82. Al2(3, 0).
83. B (0, 4) and D (— 1, —3). 84. The conditions of the problem
are satisfied by two squares symmetrically situated with respect to
the side AB. The points C, (—5, 0), D, (—2, —4) are the required
vertices of one square; —C2(3, 6), D2t6, 2) are the vertices of the
other. 85. C (3, —2), R = 10. 86. (1, -2). 87. Q (4, 6). 88. The
midpoints of the sides AB, BC, AC are (2, —4), (—1, 1), (—2, 2),
respectively. 89. 1) At (1, 3); 2) N (4, —3). 90. (1, —3), (3, 1)
and (-5, 7). 91. D (-3, 1). 92. (5, -3), (1, -5). 93. D, (2, 1),
D2{—2, 9), D3 (6, —3). Hint. The fourth vertex of the parallelo¬
gram may lie opposite to any one of the given vertices. Hence,
three parallelograms actually satisfy the conditions of the
problem. 94. 13 95. (2, —1) and (3, 1). 96. , —2^.

97. ^ V^2~ 98. (-11,-3). 99. 4. 100. >1, = ^= 2;

, AC _ . BA 2
*'"2 — = — 3; . ioi. A (3, —1) and B (0, 8).
102. (3, -1). 103. (4, -5). 104. (-9, 0). 105. (0, -3). 106. 1:3,
starting from the point B. 107. ^ 4 ^ , lj. 108. x — .
 248 Answers and Hints

_ lJ\ +1/2 + Us
y= 109. AM—1, 0), C(0, 2). 111. (5, 5).
5 5 , 19 19V
•
113. a, a
m' (12 126j ■
12a* 12 a* b *'3- 21
(if-if-)-
21 «*4.
PV*
m(/i 4t /2t/® + y
y ~ rn + n+p * weight of uniform wire
is proportional to its length. 116. 1) 14 square units; 2) 12 square units;

3) 26 square units. 117. 5. 118. 20 square units. 119.7.4. 120.x=—^,

7_
121. * y = 3-3 •
y = ATr 17' 122 . (0, -8) or (0. -2).

123. (5. 0) or ( — 124. (5. 2) or (2, 2). 125. C, (-7,

3 ’
—3), D,(—6, —4) or C, (17, —3), D2(18, —4). 126. C, (—2, 12),

Dt ( 5, 16) or C2 ^ —2, , D2 ^ — 5, j j . 127. l)x=x'+3,

y = y'+ 4; 2) x = x’-2, y=y' +1; 3) x=x'-3, y=y' + 5.
128. /I (4, —1), B (0, -4), C (2, 0). 129. 1) A 10, 0), B (-3, 2),
C(-4, 4); 2) 21(3, -2), S (0, 0), C (—1, 2); 3) A (4, -4),
B(l, -2), C(0, 0). 130. 1) (3,5); 2) (-2,1); 3) (0,-1);

4) (-5,0). 131. 1) , y = ^ + y'; 2) x

*=
-4- £/'
= -y 2 ’> y=-y~-'<
yY~ ; 3) x = — y', y
y=x’-,
=*'; 4) x = y', y=
4) y = — x';
x'\

5) * = -*', // = -(/'. 132. ^(3/g; 1), 1)

J-), C(3,
’ 27’
— V^3). 133. 1) M(V2,2V2), N (—3)^2, 2)^2), P(-^27
-2^2); 2) A4 (1, -3), TV (5, 1), /> (—1, 3); 3)/Vf(-l,3). N (-5,
-1), P(l, —3); 4) M (-3, -1), TV (1, -5), P (3, 1). 134. 1) 60°;
2) —30°. 135. O' (2, —4). 136. x=x' + l, y = y'— 3. 137. x =

=-§ x'+jy'< = -4^'+-rl/'- 138. M,(l, 5), Afs(2, 0),

(16,-5).
At, (16, -5). 139. >1(6,3), B (0, 0), C (5, —10). 140.1) O'(3,
—2),), a= 90°; 2)0'(—1,3), a=180°; 3) O'(5, —3), a=-45°.
I r r\ O 1C

141. ±y' + 9. = H2. 714,(1,9).

M2( 4, 2), A4,(l,

1, -3), 2+K3),
Af4(0, 2+^37, Ms (1 + V^,
Ms K 3, I).
143. A4,(0, 5), M2(3, 0), M,(—1,0), A44 (0,-6), MS(V3, 1).

144. 714, (2, 0), A42(l. —y) • )’

A».(2, -J-V 145. M, A42(2,—J), M,(2,

\ ✓ X '

A44 ( 2, , A4S (V -jl11)- 146. l(x,y)~2ax— a*. 147. 1) f (x, y)

e= 2a,c; 2) f (x, y)-=-2ax-a‘. 148. i(x, y) = 4x’-
f(x,y) 4x’ +
 Answers and Hints 249

+ V + 2a2. 149. / (x, y) = 4a'2 + 4if - 4ax - 4ay + 4a2.

150. f(x, y) = x2 + y* — 25. 151. fix, y) = 2a// — 16.
152. Rotation of the coordinate axes does not affect the expression
for this function. 153. (3, 1). 154. There exists no such point
155. ± 45° or ± 135°. 156. 303, 120°, -60°, -150\ 157. The points
Mp ^4 and Af 5 lie on the curve; the points M2, Ms and M0 do not
lie on the curve. The equation represents the bisector of the second
and fourth quadrants (Fig. 58). 158. a) (0, —5), (0, 5); b) ( — 3, —4),
( — 3, 4); c) (5, 0); d) there is no such point on the curve; e) ( — 4, 3).
(4, 3); f) (0, —5); g) there is no such point on the curve. The
equation represents a circle with centre 0(0, 0) and radius 5 (Fig. 59).

Fig. 58. Fig. 59.

159. 1) The bisector of the first and third quadrants; 2) the bisector
of the second and fourth quadrants; 3) the straight line parallel to
the axis Oy and having an ^-intercept of 2 (Fig. 60); 4) the straight
line parallel to the axis Oy and having an ^-intercept of _3
(Fig. 60); 5) the straight line parallel to the axis Ox and having a
{/-intercept of 5 (Fig. 60); 6) the straight line parallel to the axis Ox
and having a {/-intercept of -2 (Fig. 60); 7) the straight line coin¬
cident with the {/-axis; 8) the straight line coincident with the *-axis-
9) the curve consists of two straight lines, one of which is the bisec-
or of the first and third quadrants, and the other coincides with
the {/-axis; 10) the curve consists of two straight lines, one of which
is the bisector of the second and fourth quadrants, and the other
coincides with the x-axis; 11) the curve consists of the two straight
mes bisecting the quadrants (Fig. 61); 12) the curve consists of two
straight lines one of which coincides with the x-axis, and the other
Daral!e|eSfnWJhh ^ V'axis'\ 13), the curve consisls of two straight lines
~ ? PiJ am and whose resP->ctive {/-intercepts are 3 and
0 14) the curve consists of two straight lines parallel
g- bS.
 Answers and Hints

tlk* two rays bisecting the second and third quadrants (Fm 66c)*
21) llle curve consists of the two ravs situated in the upper half¬
plane and drawn from the point (1, 0) parallel to the bisectors of
the quadrants (Fig. 65); 22) the curve consists of the two rays situat¬
ed in the upper half-plane and drawn from the point ( — 2,0) parallel
fo the bisectors of the quadrants (Fig. 65); 23) the circle with centre
at the origin and radius 4 (Fig. 67); 24) the circle with centre at
0] (2, 1) and radius 4 (Fig. 67); 25) the circle with centre at (— 5, 1)
and radius 3; 26) the circle with centre at (1, 0) and radius 2;
27) the circle with centre at (0, —3) and radius 1; 28) the curve
consists of the single point (3, 0) (a degenerate curve); 29) the curve
consists of the single point (0, 0) (a degenerate curve); 30) the equation
is satisfied by the coordinates of no point (an imaginary curve);
31) the equation is satisfied by the coordinates of no point (an imag¬
inary curve). 160. The curves 1), 2) and 4) pass through the origin.
161. 1) a) (7, 0), (-7, 0); b) (0, 7), (0, -7); 2) a) (0, 0), (6, 0);
!>) 0)* (0. —8); 3) a) (—10, 0), (— 2, 0); b) the curve does not
intersect the axis Oy\ 4) the curve does not intersect the coordinate
axes; 5) a) (0, 0), (12, 0); b) (0, 0), (0, — J6); 6) a) the curve does
not intersect the axis O.v; b) (0, —1), (0, —7); 7) the curve does
not intersect the coordinate axes. 162. 1) (2, 2), ( — 2, —2);
2 . 4
2) (1, -1), (9, -9); 3) (3, -4), (l j ; 4) the curves do

not intersect. 163. The points Mlt M2 and /Vf4 lie on the given curve;
the points Ms and Ms do not lie on the curve. The equation repre¬
in \ . . / _ 71
sents a circle (Fig. 68). 164. a) ( 6, b) ( 6, c) (3, 0);
~3

d) ( 2 V3, the straight line perpendicular to the polar axis

and whose intercept on the polar equal to 3 (Fig. 69).

; c) ( Vi — \ and
165. a) (1
"'•b>
2 (2> T an d

V 2, 71 the straight line situated in the upper half-plane and

drawn parallel to the polar axis one unit above it (Fig. 69).
166. I) The circle with centre at the pole and radius 5; 2) the ray
ji
drawn from the pole and making an angle -y with the polar axis

(Fig. 70); 3) the ray drawn from the pole and making an angle
—the polar axis (Fig. 70); 4) the straight line perpendicular
to the polar axis and making an intercept a = 2 on it; 5) the straight
line situated in the upper half-plane and drawn parallel to the polar
axis one unit above it; 6) the circle with centre C, (3, 0) and radius 5
(Fig. 71); 7) the circle with centre C2 ^5, yj and radius 5 (Fig. 71);

8) the curve consists of two ravs drawn from the pole and making

angles and ~^7it respectively, with the polar axis (Fig. 71);
6 o
Fig. 7'd.
 254 Answers and Hints

9) the curve consists of concentric circles with centre at the pole,

tile iad11 r of these circles being determined by the formula r =

= ( — !)"-g- + n«, where n is any positive integer or zero 167. Figs.

72 and 73. 168. Figs. 74 and 75. 169. Fig. 76. 170. The segment

adjacent to the pole has a length of — ; each of the remaining seg¬

ments has a length of 6rt (Fig. 77). 171. Into five parts (Fig. 78).
172. p 12, (Fig. 79). 173. Q (81, 4) (Fig. 80). 174. The straight

lines x± y = 0. 175. The straight lines *±a = 0. 176. The straight

lines y ±b = 0. 177. g + 4 = 0. 178. * — 5 = 0. 179. I) The straight line
x y = 0; 2) the straight I ine x -f- y= 0; 3) the straight line x—1 = 0.
4) the straight line y — 2 = 0. 180. The straight lines 4a*±c=0.
181. x2 + y2=r2. 182. (x — a)2 -f (y— 0)2 = r2. 183. x2 + y2 = 9.
184. x2 + y2: 16. 185. *2 + i/2=a2. 186. (x-4)2 + y2= 16. 187;
2 «> g
x2
2g + ^0 = * • 188. -g-— jg-l- 189. y2 = \2x. 192. The parabola y2=2px.

x2
193. The ellipse --{-^-=1. 194. The hyperbola^- {~=\. 195. The
zd y * io ^
2 2

ellipse 2r + yg=l. 196. The right-hand branch of the hyperbola

n
—jg=l. 197. The parabola y2 — 20x. 198. qcos0 = 3. 199. 0 = -^- •
200. tan 0=1. 201. nsin0-f5 = 0, osinO —5 = 0. 202. o=10cos0.
203. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by the two circles
whose polar equations are q -f- 6 sin 0 = 0, o — 6 sin 0 = 0.

204. * = “TS/’K + S=1.

y = bs\nt. I a2 bz
0„_ abcost ab s\n t
205. x= . - . y=
V a2 sin21 -\- b2 cos21 Va2 sin2 / -f b2 cos21
_abcos t_ ab sinj__
206. x =
Vb2 cos21 —a2 sin21 Vb2 cos21 — arsin2l
t2 t
207. 1) x = ^t y = t; 2) a: = 2p cot2/, y = 2p cot /; 3) * = cot2 y ,

y = P cot y .
n x = 2/?cos20. |i x= 7? sin 20,
o\---- \ ^ x=2pcot2 6, )
°8* y—R sin 20; f 2) y = 2Rsin2Q y = 2p cot 0
2
£
209. 1) x — y2 = 0; 2) x2 + y2 — a2 = 0; 3) — ^5— 1=0; 4) - b2
— 1=0; 5) x 2-f-//2 —2/?x = 0; 6) x2 -\- y2 — 2Ry — 0\ 7) 2px — y2^0.
210. The pointss MMt and Mx lie on the given line; the points M2,
Me and Me do) not lie on the line. 211. 3, —3, 0, .
6, and
^ • .
12. .A M V A 4 a / ^ \

212.T.”-2, T —5, and 7. 213. (6, 0), (0. -4). 214. (3 -5).
215. A (2,-1), B (- 1, 3), C (2, 4) 216. (1, -3), ( — 2, 5), (5, -9),
 M
Fig 75.

Fig. 77.
 Answers and Hints 257

and (8, —17). 217. S = \7 square units. 218. C, (—1, 1) or

C2( J, -y|.219. C, (1, — !) orC2 ( —2, — 10). 220. I) 2x — 3y +
+ 9 = 0; 2) 3x — f/ = 0; 3) j/ + 2 = 0; 4) 3x + 4i/—12 = 0; 5) 2x+y+5 0;

6) a- + 3(/-2 = 0. 221. 1) fe = 5. b = 3; 2) k = — , 6 = 2; 3) k = — ,
O u

* = 0, b = 3. 222. 1)

223. 1) 2a + 3//— 7 — 0; 2) 3x — 2// —4 = 0. 224. 3a + 2// = 0, 2a-3// —

-13 = 0. 225. (2, 1), (4.2). (-1, 7), (1, 8). 226. (-2, -1).
227. Q (11. -11). 228. 1) 3a-2//-7 = 0; 2) 5a + //-7 = 0; 3) 8a +
+ 12//+ 5 = 0; 4) bx + 7y + 9 = 0; 5) 6a: — 30// — 7 = 0. 229. 1) k = 7;
2)k = ^\ 3) k = — . 230. 5a — 2// — 33 = 0, a + 4//— 11 = 0, 7a +
y
+ 6// + 33 = 0. 231. 7a — 2 — 12 = 0. 5a + //-28 = 0, 2a-3w-18 = 0.
232. a + i/+ 1 =0. 233. 2a + 3//— 13 = 0. 234. 4a + 3//-11=0,
a + // + 2 = 0, 3a + 2//— 13 = 0. 235. (3, 4). 236. 4a + //-- 3 = 0.
237. a —5 = 0. 238. Equation of the side AB: 2a + y — 8 = 0; PC: a +
+ 2//—1=0; CA: x — y—1=0. Equation of the median from the
vertex A: a — 3 = 0; from the vertex B: x + y — 3 = 0; from the vertex
C: y = 0. 239. ( — 7, 0), . 242. (1,3). 243. 3a-5// + 4 = 0;

x~\~7y—16 = 0; 3a — 5y — 22 = 0; a + 7//+10 = 0. 244. Equations of

the sides of the rectangle: 2a — 5// + 3 = 0, 2a-5// —26 = 0; equation
of its diagonal: 7a — Zy — 33 = 0. 245. The bisector of the interior
angle: 5a + // —3 = 0; the bisector of the exterior angle: a —5//— 11=0.
246. a + //— 8 = 0, 11a — y — 28 = 0. Hint. The conditions of the problem
are satisfied by two lines, one of which passes through the point P
and bisects the segment joining the points A and P, and the other
passes through the point P and is parallel to the segment AB.

247. (-12, 5). 248. M, (10, -5). 249. P ( L, o) . Hint. The prob-

lem can be solved by the following procedure: (1) show that the points
M and N lie on the same side of the A-axis; (2) find a point sym¬
metric to one of the given points with respect to the A-axis, say,
the point Nx symmetric to the point /V; (3) form the equation of the
equation of the straight line passing through the points M and /V,;
(4) by solving the obtained equation simultaneously with the equation
of the A-axis, find the coordinates of the required point. 250. P (0, 11).

251. P(2, -1). 252. P (2, 5). 253. 1) q> = JL; 2) q> = iL ; 3) q>=0-

the lines are parallel; 4) cp = arctan y-y . 254. a — 5// +3=0 or

5* + y— 11 =0. 255. Equations of the sides of the square: 4a + 3w + 1=0,

♦ ~4^+32 = 0, 4a + 3// — 24 = 0, 3a — 4// + 7 = 0; equation of its
other diagonal: x + 7// — 31 = 0. 256. 3a — 4y+ 15 = 0, 4a + 3h — 30 = 0
3a-4//-10 = °, 4a + 3// — 5= 0 257. 2a + //— 16 = 0, 2a + //+14 = 0,’
^ 2// 18 = 0. 258. 3a-// + 9 = 0, 3a + // + 9 = 0. 259.29a-2y +
 258 Answers and Hints

33 = 0. 262. 1) 3x — 7y 27 = 0; 2) a + 9y + 25 = 0; 3) 2x-3y-13 = 0;
i V // + 3 — 0- 264. The lines 1), 3) and 4) are perpendic-
ular 266. 1 cp = 45°; 2) <p = 60°; 3) q> = 90°. 267. Af3 (6, — 6).c
4x~lJ7 13 = 0, a —5 = 0, A'+ 8//+ 5 = 0. 269. BC: 3x + 4y-22 = 0;
CA- 2xTly~~5 = 0; C;V: 3a' + 5// — 23 = 0. 270. a + 2//—7 = 0;
* T74^~~ =0; !/ + 2 = 0. Hint. The problem can be solved by the
following procedure: (1) show that the vertex A lies on neither of
the given lines; (2) find the point of intersection of the medians and
denote it, say, by AJ. Since the vertex A and the point M are known,
we can now find the equation of the third median; (3) on the line
through A and Af, lay off the segment MD = AM (Fig. 81). Next,
determine the coordinates of the point D, given the midpoint M of
the segment AD and one of its end points, A; (4) show that the
quadrilateral BDCM is a parallelogram (since its diagonals bisect

Fig. 81.

each other), and write the equations of the lines DB and DC; (5)
calculate the coordinates of the points B and C; (6) now that we
know the coordinates of all vertices of the triangle, we can write the
equations of its sides. 271. 3a — 5ij— 13 = 0, 8x—3y + 17=0, 5a + 2y—
— 1 = 0. 272. 2a — y + 3 = 0, 2a + // —7=0, a — 2y—6 = 0. Hint. If A
is a point on one of the sides of an angle, then the point symmetric
to A with respect to the bisector of that angle will lie on the other
side of the angle. 273. 4a —3//+ 10 = 0, 7a + j/ —20 = 0, 3x-j-4y—5= 0.
274. 4x -j-7y— 1 = 0, y — 3 = 0, 4x + 3//—5 = 0. 275. 3x + 7^ — 5 = 0,
3a + 2//— 10=0, 9x + ll*/ + 5 = 0 276. a — 3y — 23 = 0, 7a+ 9//+ 19 = 0,
4a+ 3# + 13 = 0. 277. x + y — 7 = 0, x + 7// + 5=0, a —8// + 20 = 0.
278. 2a + 9// — 65 = 0, 6a— 7y — 25 = 0, 18a + 13//— 41 = 0.
279. a + 2// = 0, 23a + 25y = 0. 280. 8a-// —24 = 0. 283. 3a + // = 0,
a —3j/ = 0 284. 3a + 4// — 1=0, 7a + 24// —61 =0. 285. l)a = —2,
5// — 33=0; 2) a, = —3, a —56 = 0; a2 = 3,5a-r 8 = 0; 3) + = 1,
3x — 8y = 0; a2= , 33a —56// = 0. 286. m — 7, n = — 2, y-\- 3 = 0.

287. m = — 4, n = 2, *-5 = 0. 288. 1) (5,6); 2) (3, 2); 3) (+ j) ;

 Answers and Hints 259

4) ( 2, H ) : 5) ( 3 - 2 291. 1) a ^ 3; 2) a = 3 and b # 2;

3) a = 3 and b — 2. 292. 1) m = — 4, n ^ 2 or m = 4, n ^ — 2;
2) m—— 4, n = 2 or m = 4, n= — 2; 3) ra — 0, n may have any value.

293. m= —. 294. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by two

values of ni:mx = 0, rnz = 6. 295. 1) intersect; 2) do not intersect;

Fig. 82.

3) do not intersect 298. a = — 7. 299. 1)

'3 2
4
4- ~= 1 • 21 —* _i_ lL — i.
’ ' —6 ~ 8 '

3) »Ti + F=1; 4) *7a + I75];=|; 5> '7 + 7==1 <Fi8-82)' 300. 6

square units. 301. * +1/-f 4 = 0. 302. ‘ a:+V~5 = 0, jr — t/ -f-1 = 0,
ox — 2y = 0. 303. Solution. Let us write the intercept equation of the
required line:

“
a +T
b = 1- (1)

Our task is to determine the values of the parameters a and b. The

point C (1 1) lies on the required line, and hence its coordinates
must satisfy equation (1). Substituting the coordinates of C for the
current coordinates in (1) and clearing of fractions, we have
a + b=ab. (2)

Note now that the area S of the triangle formed by our line and
the coordinate axes is determined by the formula ± , where

+ S relers to the case when the intercepts a and b have like signs,
 260 Answers and Hints

and -5 to the case when the intercepts a and b differ in sign. Hence,
by the conditions of the problem, we have

ab= + 4. 3
Solving the system of equations (2) and (3): a + t> 4- I a + b~ 4•
ab = 4; / ab
we obtain ax — 2, bx = 2; a2=—2 + 2 Y2, b2= -2-2 Y^\ a3 = —
2 2 2, bz= — 2 + 2 Y2. Thus, the conditions of the problem
are satisfied by three straight lines. Substituting the obtained values
of the parameters a and b in (1) gives— +—= 1 _-_ +
2 2 -2+2/2
a y
+ =■+ - = 1. Upon simplify¬
2 — 2/ 2 2—2 Y2 —2 + 2 /2
ing these equations, we obtain: x + y — 2 = 0, (l + /*2 ) x + (\ — V~2)x
X y — 2 = 0, (l — ]/ 2 ) * + (1 + Y 2) y — 2 = 0. 304. The conditions of
the problem are satisfied by the following three lines: (/2"+])*+
+ ( |A2— 1) — 10—0. {\^2-l)x + (V2+l)y+\0=0. x-y-
— 10 = 0. 305. 3x — 2y— 12 = 0, 3x —8(/ + 24 = 0. 306. x + 3y—30=0,
3x + 4y — 60 = 0, 3* — y — 30 = 0, x—12;/ + 60 = 0. 307. The conditions
of the problem are satisfied by the two lines intersecting the coor¬

dinate axes in the points (2, 0), (0, —3) and ( — 4, 0), (o, , re¬

spectively. 308. S^2xiyl. 309. Equations 1), 4), 6) and 8) are in the
4
normal form. 310. i) 2 = 0; 2) — | j/— 10=0;
5* ix+
12 , 5 2
3) - = 0; 4) •— x — 2 = 0; 5) x- XT-y—1=0.
13*+13y
Y5 1V 5
ji
311. 1) a = 0, p = 2; 2) a= ji, p = 2; 3) a , p =;
~~2
— — , p = 3; 5) a = -^- , p = 3; 6)a= — ~ , p= V2; 7) oc = — ~ n,
p = I; 8) a =—p, p = q\ 9) a=f — ji, p=q. 312. 1) 6 = — 3, d = 3;
2) 6=1, d— 1; 3) 6=— 4, d = 4; 4) 6 = 0, d=0 — the point Q lies
on the line. 313. 1) Cn the same side; 2) on opposite sides; 3) on
the same side; 4) on the same side; 5) on opposite sides. 314. 5
square units. 315. 6 square units. 318. The quadrilateral is convex.
319. The quadrilateral is not convex. 320. 4. 321. 3. 322. 1) d~ 2.5;
2) d = 3; 3) d= 0.5; 4) d = 3.5. 323. 49 square units. 325. In the ratio
2:3, starting from the second line. 326. Solution. The problem of
drawing straight lines through the point P such that their distance
from the point Q will be equal to 5, is equivalent to the problem
of drawing through P tangent lines to the circle of radius 5 and
with centre at Q. Computing the distance QP gives: QP =
— Y(2—l)2 + (7 —2)2= /26. We see that the distance QP is greater
than the radius of the circle; hence, two tangent lines can be drawn
from P to the circle. We now proceed to derive their equations.
 Answers and Hints 261

The equation of every straight line through the point P has the
form
y—7=k (a-2) (1)

or kx— y-A-7 — 2k = 0, where k is the slope (undetermined as yet).

In order to reduce this equation to the normal form, we find the

normalizing factor \i= ± - Multiplying (1) by p, we get the

K*2+l
desired normal equation
kx — y + 7 — 2k
= 0. (2)
± V kz-\-1
~

Substituting the coordinates of Q in the left-hand member of (2),

we have ——-j = 6. Solving this equation gives two values
5
of k\kl — — —y k2=-0. Substituting these values of the slope
12
in (1), we obtain the required equations y — 7 = 12 (* — 2), or
5*+12y — 94 = 0, and y — 7 = 0. The problem is solved. 327. lx +
+ 24(/— 134 = 0, x —2 = 0. 328. 3x + 4$/~13 = 0. 330. 8a- \5y +
+ 9 = 0. 331. 3a— 4 y — 25 = 0, 3a — 4// + 5 = 0. 332. The
conditions of the problem are satislied by two squares symmetrically
situated with respect to the side AD. The equations of the sides of
one of the squares are 4a: + 3// — 8=0, 4a + 3//+ 17 = 0, 3a — 4y — 6 =0,
3a — 4y-\- 19 = 0. The equations of the sides of the other square are
4a + 3i/-8 = 0, 4x + 3«/ — 33 = 0, 3a — 4y — 6 = 0, 3a- 4y + 19 = 0.
333. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by two squares;
the remaining sides of one of the squares lie on the lines
3x + 4t/— 11 = 0, 4x — 2>y — 23 = 0, 3x + 4f/ — 27 = 0; the remaining sides
of the other square lie on the lines 3* + 4y— 11 = 0, 4x — 3y— 23 = 0,
3x + 4f/ + 5 = 0. 334. 3a+ 4//+ 6 = 0, 3a+ 4// — 14 = 0 or 3a + 4// + 6 = o!
3a + 4t/ + 26= 0. 335. 12a — 5//+ 61 = 0, 12a — by + 22 = 0 or 12a — 5y +
+ 61 = 0, 12a — Sy + 100= 6. 336. Af (2,3). 337. 4a + // + 5 = 0,
y — 3 = 0. 338. 1) 3a —*/ + 2 = 0; 2) a —2// + 5 = 0; 3) 20a —8//—9 = 0.
339 1) 4a — 4// + 3 = 0, 2a+ 2*/ — 7 = 0; 2) 4a+1=0, 8// + 13 = 0;
3) 14a — 8i/ — 3 = 0, 64a+112^-23 = 0. 340. a — 3*/ — 5 = 0, 3a + // —
— 5 = 0. Hint. The required lines pass through the point P and are
perpendicular to the bisectors of the angles formed by the two given
lines. 341. 1) By the same angle; 2) by the supplementary angles;
3) by the same angle. 342. 1) By the vertical angles; 2) by the sup¬
plementary angles; 3) by the same angle. 343. Inside the triangle
344. Outside the triangle. 345. The acute angle. 346. The obtuse
angle 347. 8a+ 4^/-5 = 0. 348. a + 3//— 2 = 0. 349. 3a-19 = 0.
350. 10a— 10// —3 = 0. 351. 7a + 56*/ — 40 = 0. 352. ^ + // + 5 — 0
353. 5(2, -1). 354. 1) 3a+ 2^-7i0; 2) 2a-* = 0; 3) £-2 = 0;
’ = O' 5) + 3i/ 10 = 0; 6) 3.v-2i/ + l=0. 355. 74x+13i/ +
+ 39=°- 356. x — y — 7 = 0. 357. 7x + 19^ — 2 = 0. 358. x-y+lL 0
359. 4x 5y-|-22 = 0, 4jc -)- //—18 = 0, 2x — t/+l = 0. S60. x — 5 y +
 262 Answers and Hints

+ •3 —0- 5-': + '/+13 = 0. 361. 5x—y—5 = 0 (BC), x—u + 3=0

(AC), 3x — y — 1=0 (CN). 362. x — 5t/ — 7=0, 5x + u+l7=0
+ 7y_~ 13 = 0 363' 2*+ 0 + 8 = 0, x -(-2y + 1 =0. 366.C=—29!
3b7. a 7= 2. 368. The equations of the sides of the square are
$x+3y—\\ = Q, 3* 4;/+ 27 = 0, 3*—4i/+2 = 0, 4x+3y + 11 =0;
the equation of its other diagonal is 7x—y + 13 = 0. 369. * + w + 5 = 0
370. * + 0 + 2 = 0, x — y — 4=0, 3jt +1/ = 0. 371. 2x+y-6 = 0,
8 = 0 372- 3x~0+*=°- 374. 3x — 4y + 20 = 0, 4x + 3y —
—-15=0. 375. a--f-by—13— 0, 5a—y-f-13=0. 376. The conditions
of die problem are satisfied by the two lines 7x + u-9 = 0,
2* + 0 + 1 = 0. 377. 5a: —2t/-7 = 0. 378. AC: 3x + 8y—7 = 0, BD:
8a:-3i/ + 7 = 0. 379. 4.v + </+5 = 0, x — 2y— 1=0, 2a:+ 5*/-11 = 0.
381. 1) Q sin (P — 0) =p, gsinf-2—0^ = 3; 2) q cos (0 — a) = a cosa,
(2 \ ' '

0+T n) = -1: 3> 0 sin (P — 0) = a sin (3, gsin(^-0) =3.

382. gsin(P — 0) = o,sin(P— 0,). 383. q cos (0 — a) =* q, cos (0,—a).

384.
o sin (0 — 0,) I'V + e? —2eei COS (0-0,)
. 385. 1) Ar2+r/*=9;
q2 sin (02 — 0.)
V t>2 +ef — 2e2q, cos (02 — 0,)
2) (x — 2)2 + (y + 3)2 = 49; 3) (jc — 6)2 + (r/ + 8)2 = 100; 4) (at+1)* +
+ (0 — 2)2 = 25; 5) (x — I )2 + (i/ — 4)2 = 8; 6) x2 + y2 = 16; 7) (x— l)2+
+ (0 + 1)2 = 4; 8) (x — 2>2 -f-(«/ — 4)2 = 10; 9) (x- 1 )2 + y2 = 1;
10) (x — 2)* + (y— 1 )2 = 25. 386. (x — 3)2 + ((/+ l)2 = 38. 387. (x — 4)2 +
+ (0 + 1 )2 = 5 and (a: —2)2 +(y —3)2 = 5.( 388. (x + 2)2 + (y + 1 )2 = 20.

389. (x — 5)2 + ((/ + 2)2 = 20 and (^x — |-j2 + (^y — jY = 20. 390. (x—

-l)2 +(0 + 2)2= 16 391. (a: + 6)2+((/-3)2 = 50 and (x — 29)2 +

+ (y + 2)2 = 800. 392. (x — 2)2 + (y— l)2 = 5 and (x~j) +

O I
31 289
+ 0+ 393. (x-2)2 + (y_l)2 = 2I, (a + 8)2 + (</+ 7)2 =

349\2 =
2)2 + (y — 1)2 = 25 and + +( U
- 1- 39,-“ ’ 49 )

-(f)' «■ (-+“)■+(-+*)*-* -

+ 0 iy=i
7
396. (x — 5)2+ i/2= 16, (x +15)2 + y* = 256,

35 \2 , ( 40 \2 35
3 j + (^~3 j V*' 3. .
397. Equations 1), 2), 4), 5), 8) and 10) represent circles; 1) C (5,
—2), /? = 5; 2) C (—2, 0), /? = 8; 3) the equation represents the single
point (5, —2); 4) C (0, 5), R = 5) C(l, -2), R = 5; 6) the equa¬
tion represents no geometric object in the plane; 7) the equation rep¬

resents the single point (—2, I); 8) C ^ , 0^ , R = -j ; 9) the

Fig. 83. Fig. 84.

-r

Fig. 85

Fig. 87. Fig. 88.

 264 Answers and Hints

equation represents no geometric object in the plane; 10) C ^0, —

fl=*2 • 398. 0 Semicircle of radius R = 3 and with centre at the

origin, situated in the upper half-plane (Fig. 83); 2) semicircle of
radius R = 5 and with centre at the origin, situated in the lower half¬
plane (Fig. 84); 3) semicircle of radius R = 2 and with centre at the
origin, situated in the left half-plane (Fig 85); 4) semicircle of ra¬
dius R = 4 and with centre at the origin, situated in the right half¬
plane (Fig. 86); 5) semicircle of radius # = 8 and with centre C (0,
15), situated above the line // —15 = 0 (Fig. 87); 6) semicircle of ra¬
dius R = 8 and with centre C (0, 15), situated below the line y—15 = 0
(Fig. 88); 7) semicircle of radius R = 3 and with centre C (—2, 0),

Fig. 89. Fig. 90.

situated to the left of the line * + 2 = 0 (Fig. 89); 8) semicircle of

radius R = 3 and with centre C (—2, 0), situated to the right of the
line * + 2 = 0 (Fig. 90); 9) semicircle of radius R = 5 and with centre
C (—2, —3), situated below the line y + 3 = 0 (Fig. 91); 10) semicircle
of radius R = 1 and with centre C (—5, —3), situated to the right of
the line * + 5 = 0 (Fig. 92). 399. 1) Outside the circle; 2) on the circle;
3) inside the circle; 4) on the circle; 5) inside the circle. 400. 1)* +
-j-5y — 3 = 0; 2) * + 2 = 0; 3) 3x-y-9 = 0; 4) */ + l=0 ?01- 2x 7
— 5w + 19 = 0. 402. 1) 7; 2) 17; 3) 2. 403. (—1. 5) and M2 (—2 —2).
404. 1) Cuts the circle; 2) touches the circle; 3) fails to meet the

circle. 405. 1) | 6 | ; 2) k = ± ; 406.

3)|&|>-^-. 406. jTp““
4 ' ’ \+ k2 __
R2. 407. 2x+y 3 = 0. 408. 11* — 7// —69 = 0. 409. 2 /5.
 Answers and Hints 265

410. 2a — 3i/ + 8 = 0, 3x -\-2y — 14=0. 412. a2 + z/2 + 6a — 9y- 17 = 0.

413. 13a2 + \3y2 + 3x + 7\y = 0. 414. 7a —4// = 0. 415. 2. 416. 10.

1^=0

Fig 91 Fig. 92.

417. (x + 3)2 + (g—3)2= 10 418. *-2g + 5 = 0. 419. 3x—4g + 43 = 0.

/ *7 r \

420. M i (~ J- j) '• d = 2 ^ 5. 42\. xlx + yly=R*. 422.(at1 —ajx

fig. 95.

X(*-a) + (9i~P)(i/-P) = /?2. 423.. 423 45°.

45”. 424. 90®.
425. (a,-ai)* + (pl-pi)* = ^+^. 427.* 2*/ —5 = 0 and 2a—y —
-5 = 0. 428. 2* +.(/ —8 = 0 and x—2y+\l 0. 429. 2a— 5 = 0.
 266 Answers and Hints

x-20 = 0. 430. 90°. 431. x +20+ 5 = 0. 432. d = 7.5. 433. d= 6.

434. d= y 10. 435. 3. 436. 2x-\-y—1=0 and 2x + 0 + 19 = O
437. 2x + y — 5 = 0 and 2x + (/ + 5 = 0. 438. o = 27? cos (0—0„)
(Fig. 93). 439. 1) o = 27?cos 0 (Fig. 94); 2) q = — 27?cos0
(Fig. 95); 3) Q = 27? sin 0 (Fig. 96); 4) q = — 27? sin 0

Fig. 94. Fig. 95.

(Fig. 97). 440. 1) (2, 0) and 7? = 2; 2)(-|, -J-) and 7? = -j-;3)(I.n)

and /? =±= 1; 4)
2 *
and R
f; 5* (3't
and R — 3;

6) (4, — ji ) and R = 4; 7) f 4, and /? = 4. 441. 1) x2 + y

— 3* = 0; 2) a:2 + y2 + 4y = 0; 3) *2 + {/2 — x + </ = 0. 442. 1) Q = cos0;

2) o =—3cos0; 3) Q^=5sin0, 4) q = — sin 0; 5) q = cos 0-f-sin 0.

443. q = R sec (0 — 0O). 444. \) Xl+^=\; 2)^ + ^

-»i 3> 769 +

+ —= 1*
x2 u2 jL+m^u
100 ^ 64 ’
e jL+ai-i-
169 ^ 25 *
' 144 11 4> 25 + f6 = I: 5>
v-2 til

7) -H- + 02 = 1; 8) -+^ = i or
r6+f2=1: 9) 13^ 9 117/4+9 *

10)
64 +S-
1 48 1-445, 1)$+S-1; «T+S-,s 3)S+iF9=l!
25 "r 169
y2 /V2 y2 /V2 Jf9 J/2 t
446. 1) 4 and 3;
4)64
' 64 +
' Tnn
100 = 1:’ 5)' 16 +1 25=
25 ,: 6)' 7
7 +
' l6=
16 '
_ 5 5 1
2) 2 and 1; 3) 5 and 1; 4) J+T5 and V3; 5) j and -3 ; 6)j

and 2-; 7) 1 and 8) 1 and 4; 9) j and ; 10) j and

and 1.
4 25
447. 1) 5 and 3; 2) Fx (-4, 0), Fs (4, 0); 3) e== ; 4) * = ± j .
 I
Fig. WO. Fig. 101.
268 Answers and Hints

448. 16 square units. 449. 1) V 5 and 3; 2) Fx (0, —2), F2 (0, 2);

2 4 l/" 5 />2
3) 8 4) y = ± 450. —square units. 451. — 452. See
3
8 8
Fig. 98. 453. (-3,- 3, -^-j . 454. The points and A
5
lie on the ellipse; Ait At and Aa lie inside the ellipse; A3. A&, A„
A9 and Al0 lie outside the ellipse. 455. 1) That
-2 .,2
half of the ellipse 7c + 7t=1 which is situat-
lo y
ed in the upper half-plane (Fig. 99); 2) that
half of the ellipse ^ = 1 which is situated
in the lower half-plane (Fig. 100); 3) that half
of the ellipse 1 which is situated in
the left half-plane (Fig. 101); 4) that half of

the ellipse x2 = 1 which is situated in the

right half-plane (Fig. 102). 456. 15. 457.- 8.
458. 5x+ 12*/+ 10-0, * — 2 = 0. 459. ^=2.6,
r2 = 7.4. 460. 20. 461. 10. 462. ( — 5, 3 /3)
and ( j/“3). 463. and
-,ip)

2. 464. 3 and 7. 465. 1) ^ +

2 / * 36
u2 x2 U2 x2 u2
+ "9 =I; 2) + = I; 3) 20+13
3
y2 »/2 X2 /V2 *2 U2
= 1;
4)20+T=,; 5) ~9 +J = l: 6)256 + l92
y2 i/2
7)« +|_|.«6.'1 ^3.
£5 :2) ^ 3)
2 ’ 3
/2 (* — *o)2
467. e = 468.
a
+
(*-3)’ (f/ + 4)2 (ac + 3)» (y-2)*
(y-y0)
+ 1. 469. —9-1-16 '• 470, 9 + 4
2
471. I) C (3,— I), semi-axes 3 and 5, e = y, equations of the

directrices: 2x-15 = 0, 2* + 3 = 0; 2) C (— 1. 2), semi-axes 5 and 4_

e=-5- , equations of the directrices: 3x— 22 = 0, 3x + 28 = 0; 3) C( 1,

— 2), semi-axes 2 ^3 and 4, c = |, equations ol the directrices:

 Answers and Hints 269

y 6 — 0, y ~\~ 10 = 0. 472. 1) That half of the ellipse —-+

, (y + 7)2 t .
H-4-=1 which is situated above the line // + 7 = 0 (Fig. 103);

2) that half of the ellipse (-f-+3)2 + = , which is situated

below the line y-l=0 (Fig. 104); 3) that half of the ellipse
. .O / i I

** (y + 3)2
16 +-4-=1 which is situated in the left half-plane (Fig. 1; 5);

4) that half of the ellipse —^ f + — - 0 ^ = 1 which is situated to the

right of the line *+5=0 (Fig. 106).

473. 1) —tra)2 + — = 1 •
’ 169 1 25 ’
2) 2*2 — 2xy + 2//2 — 3 = 0; 3) 68*2 + 48*// + 82//2 — 625 = 0; 4) 11*2 +
+ 2*// + 11 //2 — 48* — 48// — 24= 0. 474. 5*2 + 9i/2 + 4*— 18// — 55 = 0
4*2 + 3//2 + 32* — 14//+ 59 = 0. 476. 4*2 + 5//+ 14* + 40a + 81-0*
477. 7*2 2*// + 7y2 46* + 2// + 71 = 0. 478. 17** + Sxy +23/+^-
—40//—175 = 0. 479. *2 + 2//2 — 6* + 24//+ 31 = 0. 480. (4 —
\ ’ 2
(3, 2). 481. ^3, — the line touches the ellipse. 482. The line fails

to meet the ellipse. 483. 1) The line cuts the ellipse; 2) the line fails
to meet the ellipse; 3) the line touches the ellipse. 484. The line*
1 cuts the ellipse for I m | < 5; 2) touches the ellipse for m = 4 5:
3) passes outside the ellipse for | m | > 5. 485P k2a2 + b2 =~m2!

486‘ ~a2 + ~b2~ = 3*+ 2//—10 = 0 and 3*+ 2//+10 = 0.

489. * + // —5=0 and * + // + 5 = 0. 490. 2* — //— 12 = 0. 2* — // +
24 V
+ 12 = 0; d=
491. AM-3, 2); d= Y13. 492. x + y-
—5=0 and
2
* + 4//— 10 = 0
-2 -.2
493. 4x 5p—
2 „
10 = 0. 494. d=18.

2
5+t-1 « £+*->• 496. ^ + ^1=1
40 ' 10
4". * +

+ T-1- HinU Use the Pr°perlv of the ellipse formulated in Prob-

I)

lem 498. 500. 55 + ^ = 1 - Hint. Use the property of the ellipse for-
mulated in Problem 498. 502. 2* + 1 \u— in — n Hint ,u
erty of the ellipse^formulated in Problem 501. 503. (3, 2) and (3 ^9)*
fflfl 1/ 2 ' , » ^/#

504. K= - 505. 10.5 Y3. 506. qp = 60’. 507. 16.8 508. 63’
V m2 + n2
l-2
509. Into the ellipse gg + fg = 1. 510. **+„* = 9. 511.
36 16
9-2250
Fig. 103. Fig. 104.

Fig. 108.
 Answers and Hints 271

512‘ ?=y- 513- 9=T‘ 5I4' Ql = T,<72 = T • 515- •)

1. oxl__ 1 . ox A“ y __ |. . A- //“ ,
* ^ Q /l T— *’ 4) cl“”oZ=l;
64 36 5) ;
36
y2
64
-h=]> 6> 144-is“1; 7> =^ 8) V —%-=!; 9)^-
64
v- #/2 v2 fi2 .,*> *>
i 5i fi n ____i. o\ * y _ qv A [r
36 36 324 ’ 16 9 “ ’ } 100 576—
_ A'
= 1 • 4) -_— |• 'x| * __ 517. 1) a = 3, 6 = 2;
’ ] 24 25 ~ ’ 0) 9 16~"

2) a=4, 6=1; 3) a = 4, 6 = 2; 5) a=— , 6 = — ; 4) a=l, 6=1;

111 23
6)a = -, 6 = — ; 7)o = -, 6 = j .518. I) a = 3. 6=4; 2) ^(-5. 0).

f2 (5, 0); 3) e=— ; 4) y = ± -i x\ 5) x = ± . 519. 1) a = 3, 6=4;

2) F| (0, 5), Ft{ 0,5); 3) e = 1 ; 4) y = ± 4 x; 5) y = ± l6

520. 12 square units. 521. I) That portion of the hyperbola ~~~ ~=\

which is situated in the upper haif-plane (Fig. 107); 2) that branch

of the hyperbola — ^ = — 1 which is situated in the lower half-

plane (Fig. 108); 3) that branch of the hyperbola = 1 which is

situated jn the left half-plane (Fig. 109); 4) that branch of the hy-

Perbola 25-j =-l which is situated in the upper half-plane

(Fig. 110). 522. x4 y 5y -f 10 =0 and x—10 = 0. 523. rl = 2~

r’ = 10T- 524’ 8 525‘ 12‘ 526- 10- 527. 27. 528. (10. -J) and ( 10,

-j ). 529. (-6, 4 (/"3j and (—6, — 4 O). 530. 2 ~ and 26 —

„ 12 12-
531. See Fig. 111. 532. 1) g-^=l; 2) **-y* = i6; 3) ~~y~=\

" *£-4r,; 4) 5> T6-J='- 533. e=V2T

534. e=n. 535. ^-g=l. 536. g-g=l. 540. 1)

-IJL~R* = i. ■>. (x-x%y (.y-y0)*

= -l. 541. 1) C (2, —3), a = 3,

9*
 272 Answers and Hints

b= 4, e = ~ , equations of the directrices: 5x— 1=0, 5x— 19 = 0,

equations of the asymptotes: 4x — 3 y—17 = 0, 4*-f 3f/+1 = 0;
2) C (—5, 1), a = 8, b = 6, e=1.25, equations of the directrices:
* = — 11.4 and * = 1.4, equations of the asymptotes: 3x -f-
+ 4*/ +11=0, 3x — 4r/-{-19 = 0; 3) C(2,-l), fl==3»
e=1.25, equations of the directrices: y— 4.2, ^/ —2.2, equa¬
tions of the asymptotes: 4a:+ 3^—5 = 0, 4a: oy ll —u.
fy_n\2 _i_ j)2

542. That portion of the hyperbola —g-—4 =1 which ls

situated above the line y+1=0 (Fig. 112); 2) that branch of the
 Answers and Hints 273

hyperbola \x _ 3)2 (y — 7)'2

= —1 which is situated below the line
4 9

1/ — 7 = 0 (Fig. 113); 3) that branch of the hyperbola (* — 9)2

16
= 1 which is to the left of the line *_9 = 0 (Fig. 114);

4) that portion of the hyperbola — — ^ = —1 which is

(*-3)2
to the left of the line *— 5= 0 (Fig. 115). 543. 1)
2 144
252)2=1; 2) 24^ + 7^-144 = 0; 3) 2xy-j-2x— 2i/ + 7 = 0.

544' V6~
16 f=L
9 545 -fi“li
25 144 = -1- 546' — 4y2—6x—24y — 47=0.
547. 7x2 — 6xy — y2 + 26x— 18t/— 17 = 0. 548. 91x2 \00xy + 16(/2
(1 . i
-136* + 86(/- 47 = 0. 549. xy — ~2 if the old axes are rotated
2
through an angle of -45°; *«/=—| if they are rotated through an
angle of +45°. 550. 1) C (0. 0), a = 6 = 6. equations of the asymp-
totes: x = 0 and , = 0; 2) C (0. 0), Q = 6 = 3, equations of the
asymptotes: * = 0 and y = 0; 3) C(0, 0), a = b = b, equations of
the asymptotes: * = 0 and y = 0. 551. (6,2) and
/ 25 \ '33 J '
552. 3J — the line touches the hyperbola. 553. The line fails
to meet the hyperbola 554. The line: 1) touches the hyperbola;
?LCUxhthr hyPfrbo a at ivf° points; 3) fails to meet the hyperbola
555. The line 1) cuts the hyperbola for |m|>4.5; 2) touches the
hyperbola for m=± 4.5; 3) passes outside the hyperbola for
I m | < 4.5. 556. k*a*-b* = m*. 557. ^£-M=l. 559. 3*-4y~
10 = 0, 3*-4^ + 10 = 0. 560. 10* — 3y — 32 = 0, \0x-3y + 32 = 0.
561. * + 2// — 4 = 0, *4-2f/-f4 = 0; d=
TT™ * 562, (~"6’ 3)^
11
VT3
13
— 16 = 0. *2 U~ 3*2 4y*
565. d=[i/l0. 566. -=-—L = j
5 45 ’ 567.
*2 y
.2 10 45 ~~~ *
]6~ T= 568. * = • * = 4, // = — 1 and y= 1. 572. 2 y2 — \
5 4’
’ i6~ 9 =1- 575‘ 2x+ lly + 6=0. Hint. Use the property of
the hyperbola formulated in Problem 574 . 577 . x2 — y2—16
678. =l 579 *2 y2 ,
16 9 *• 579- 25 T= ' 580 ■ q = ~. 581. y = 2.
 Answers and Hints 275

582. ?2 = y . 583. 1) j/2 = 6*; 2) if ^ — x\ Z)x- = ~ir

f = 776^ ,,f4' n P =3;, situated in the right half plane (svm-

Zr!erChaH T h 7spec !°- axis0A:>: 2) p = 2.5; situated in the
upper half-plane (symmetrically with respect to the axis Oy), 3) p =2-
situated in the left half-plane (symmetrically with respect to the
axis Ox); 4) P = ; situated in the lower half-plane (symmetrically
with respect to the axis Oy). 585. 1) i/2 = 4x; 2) u2 = —9x- 3) **-„•
4> -V f6- 40 «n. 587. x2iil2i/. 588^ 1) That portloiTof
2liethpdtrabol,a. y —4x which is situated in the first quadrant (Fig 116)-
2) that portion of the parabola i/2 = -x which is situated in the
second quadrant (Fig 11/); 3) that portion of the parabola y2 = _l8x
which is situated in the third quadrant (Fig 118)' 4) that nortion
ffi '"llS'lS0!aK„s' = ?■' "h!cl! “ *—» «rth qfflS
• 1fu 9)\
5) ha, P01 t,on °f
the parabola x2 = 5ij which is situated
in^hehrst quadrant (Fig. 120); 6) that portion of the parabola
* ~ 25yt M11C1 ,s. s,tuated in the third quadrant (Fig I21)P 7) that
fan 1 (Fig°f If*),
cif 2h2FP8tafh°
8) that? portion
f of the isparabola
s?tuated x2in=thlsecilr'd
—16// whichJuadis

» i2.,na.T’is? 'if js t*inK

( u) — 2p (y P), 2) (x — a)2 = 2p (y — P). 596. 1) A( 2, 0),

P = 2, 1:i=0; 2) ^ ( 3- > 0 J , p = 3, 6x—13 = 0; 3) .4 ^0, —

P = 3, 6</ +11=0; 4)71(0.2), p = ± , 4y-9= 0. 597. 1)^(-2,1).

P = 2; 2) 94(1, 3), p = l; 3) 71(6, —1), p = 3. 598. 1) /l (-4, 3),

P-j, 2)71(1,2), P = 2; 3) /I (0, 1), p = ~. 599. l)Thatpor-

!!SS;-3h18ar(Fi?al&F2rSi??T-,) ^ iS Situated below 'he

(Fig%! 3) that portionoHhe par‘abeolartht 2°)2 ^ M=°

is to the left of the line x_2 = § FuT !9fi(p7-'3) which
parabola (y + 5)2 = -3 (x + 7) which Is s-lialid “befow the ,‘Sl
P+5=0 (Fig, 127). 600 x=Ly*-y + 7 601. y= i *2_, ,3

i)03(^9’9r8)606604/V-4-^+

‘""r“Cl*. 6°8' n‘ » touches the'pTraMV^S^^.T”,'

a two points; 3) fails to meet the parabola 609. 1) k < -i ; 2) & = l/2-

612' ^=P(* + J^ 6.3. x + p + 2 = 0.’

6,7: 3*-*+3=° ■tr^vrJo0:

 Fig. 121.
Fig. 120.
 278 Answers and Hints

620. d= 13—. 621. (6, 12) and (6, —12). 622. (10, /30),

(10 . - V30), (2, /6), (2, -V 6). 623. (2. 1), (-1, 4). .

-—' 625. y—18 = 0. Hint. Use

the property of the parabola formulated in Problem 624. 628. 1) q
r ; 2) Q = c-, a . 629. 1) Q = -—£_75 ; 2) q==
5 — 3 cos 0 5 + 3 cos0 ’ 4—5 cos0

COS0*

Fig. 127.

632. 1) An ellipse; 2) a parabola; 3) one branch of a hyperbola; 4) an

' > 1 . ' i . « I V __1. - I ~ COO IQ I O

21 • 29 A
634. 8, 6. 635. q = Q
2 cos 0 ’ 2 cos 0 ’
34 A 16 the equations of the
directrices are q = - Q— 5cos0
5 cos 0'
20 _20
asymptotes are ' ” ”~3 sin 0 + 4 cos 0 '
e~3_sin 0 — 4 cos 0 ’ M

■
ji
638. [ 3,
637. 6, ■ M")’ (3’--§“)■

639. 1) P_
2
n) ; 2) (p, , (p* — nf) • 640* q2 = 1—e2cos20 ’
b2 2p cos 0 643. 8* + 25f/ = 0.
641. o2 = 642. Q —• ; o n
* Sill2 0
644. 9* — 32y — 73 = 0. 645. x — y = 0, * + 4</-°„ 646. x + ^-0.
8* —9y = 0. ^ 647. x -\-2y — 0., 2x —3i/^0. 654. 2x-5y-0.
 Answers and Hints 279

655. lx -j- y — 20 — 0. 656. x— 8*/ — 0, 2x— y = 0. 657. x—2// = 0, 3x—

y = 0; x + 2t/ = 0, 3x + y = Q. 661. //-f 2 = 0. 662. 2x —//-{- ! =0. 665.
Curves 1), 2), 5) and 8) have a single centre; curves 3). 7) have no
centre; curves 4), 6) have infinitely many centres. 666. 1) (3,—2);
2) (0, -5); 3) (0, 0); 4) (—1, 3). 667. 1) x — 3y — 6=0; 2) 2x + y —
— 2 = 0; 3) 5x — y -\-4 = 0. 668. 1) 9x2 — \8xy + 6y2 + 2- 0;
2) 6x2 -j- 4xy y2 — 7 = 0; 3) 4x2 + 6x*/-f y2 — 5 = 0; 4) 4x2 + 2x//-f
-f 6t/2 -(- 1 = 0. 669. 1) m ^ 4, n may have any value; 2) m = 4,
/i^6; 3) m = 4, n = 6. 670. \) k — 2\ 2) /?j = — 1, k2 — b; 3) for
every k ^ 2 which satisfies the inequalities —1 < k < 5; 4) for
/?< —1 and for /? > 5. 671. x2 — 8//2 — 4 = 0. 672. x2 + xy + y* -f-
-f3// = 0. 673. 1) Elliptic equation; represents the ellipse
X'2 y’Z
-g- + ~-=l; the new origin is O'(5, —2); 2) hyperbolic equation;

represents the hyperbola = 1; the new origin is O'(3, —2);

3) elliptic equation represents no geometric object

(is an equation of an imaginary ellipse); 4) hyperbolic equation;

represents a degenerate hyperbola (the pair of intersecting lines
4x'2 — y'2 = 0); the new origin is O' (—1, — lj; 5) elliptic equation;
represents the degenerate ellipse 2x'2-f-3//'2 = 0 (a single point).
x'2 u'2
674/ 1) Hyperbolic equation; represents the hyperbola —— — =1 ;
9 4

tan a = — 2, cos a = — , sin a = - ; 2) elliptic equation; rep-

15
>2 >2
Y5
resents the ellipse A— 1; a = 45 ; 3) elliptic equation; rep-
16 < 4
resents the degenerate ellipse x'2 -j- 4y’2 — 0 (a single point); tan a —2,
1 2
cosa= — , sina=-— ; 4) hyperbolic equation; represents the de-
1 5 y5 2
generate hyperbola x —y=^0 (a pair of intersecting lines); tan a = —,
3 2 5
cosa=^=, sina = :pr=; 5) elliptic equation; represents no geomet¬

ric object (is an equation of an imaginary ellipse); has the form

x/2
"f~y'2 = — 1 in the new coordinates; a = 45°, 675. 1) Hyperbol¬
ic; 2) elliptic; 3) parabolic; 4) elliptic; 5) parabolic; 6) hyperbolic.
676. 1) Hyperbolic equation; represents the hyperbola whose equation
/2
can be reduced to the form x/2 — =1 by two consecutive trans-
4

* In Problem 674 1) —5), a is the angle from the positive x-axis

to the positive x'-axis
280 Answers and Hints

formations of coordinates: x = x + 2, y = y— I and x—- JL

Y2 *
~ AT -4- U*

y = -V. — - (Fig- 128); 2) elliptic equation, represents the ellipse

V ^
*'2 y'2
yg- + ^- = l, to which form it can be reduced by two consecutive
- x' — u
transformations of coordinates: x = x— 1, y = y-\-1 and x =
V2 ’

T
X

y = *-+l- (Fig. 129); 3) hyperbolic equation; represents the hyper-

V £

bola C-~=l, to which form it can be reduced by two consecu-

9 36
tive transformations of coordinates: x=x + 3, y = y— 4 and
x=x ~~2y' , y = ?(Fig. 130); 4) hyperbolic equation; repre¬

sents the degenerate hyperbola x'*—4y'2 — 0 (a pair of intersecting

lines), to which form it can be reduced by two consecutive transfor¬
- „ . - x' + 3y'
mations of coordinates: x = x—2, y= y and *= ,

3 x' + y' ^Fig. 131); 5) elliptic equations; represents no geomet¬

y=
Y io
ric object (the imaginary ellipse x'i + 2y'*= —1, to which form it
can be reduced by two consecutive transformations of coordinates:
 Answers and Hints 281

Fig. 199

Fig. 130.

X x l, y — y and x-, y= —j : 6) elliptic equatio

reprcscnU the degenerate ellipse 2x'* + 3y'*=0 (a single point)

which form it can be reduced by two consecutive transformatioi
of coordinates: *= y=y—2 and x = ^~y' - x’ -f u
u =-!—2.
 282 Answers and Hints

2 9

677. 1) The ellipse |q+-^-=1; 2) the hyperbola 9.+ — 16y* = 5;

3) the degenerate hyperbola a*2 — Ay2 = 0 (the pair of intersecting
lines whose equations are x — 2y = 0, x + 2y = 0)\ 4) the imaginary
ellipse 2a*2 + 3y2 =— 1; the equation represents no geometric object;
5) the degenerate ellipse A'2-f 2//2 = 0; the equation represents a single
point, namely, the origin of coordinates; 6) the ellipse 4- J7- = 1 ■

+ 4 lf

rvj

Fig. 131.

7) the hyperbola ^-y2= 1; 8) the ellipse -g- + y2—1. 678. 1) 3

and 1; 2) 3 and 2; 3) I and y ; 4) 3 and 2. 679. 1) x = 2, y = 3;

^ i nar\ l \ o J i.
2) jc = 3, y= —3; 3) x=l, t/ = —1; 4) x = -2. y= 1. 680. I) 2 and 1;
2) 5 and 1; 3) 4 and 2; 4) 1 and y. 681. 1) * + 1=0. 3x + y+
+ 1=0; 2) x — 4y—2 = 0, at —2r/ + 2 = 0; 3) *-y = 0, ^ — 3r/= 0;
4) x + u—3—0, x-\-3y— 3 = 0. 682. 1) An ellipse; 2) a hyperbola;
3) a pair of intersecting lines (a degenerate hyperbola), 4) the equa¬
tion represents no geometric object (an imaginary ellipse); 5) a point
(a degenerate ellipse). 689. 1) Parabolic e9uJatl0":/ePrese",ns '^e
parabola y"2 = 2x", to which form it can ^reduced by two consecu-
tive transformations of coordinates: x= - g » lJ— 5
and x' — x"—3, y' = y" + 2 (Fig. 132); 2) parabolic equation; repre¬
sents the degenerate hyperbola x"l=l (a pair of parallel Ones), to
which form it can be reduced by two consecutive transformations of
 Answers and Hints 283

coordinates:
3a:' —2 if 2x' + 3y' . , „ , n
x =-=—— y =-- ■ and a: =x + y =y
V 13 ' 13 K13 ’
(Fig. 133); 3) parabolic equation; represents no geometric object and
is reduced to the form y"2 + 1=0 bv two consecutive transforma¬
3x'-4 y' 4x' + 3//'
tions of coordinates: x — y = and x' = x", y
5 ’ v 5
= if — 4. 690. 1) The parabola y2 = 6x\ 2) the degenerate parabola
y2 = 25 (the pair of parallel lines whose equations are y — 5 = 0,
«/-f-5 = 0); 3) the degenerate parabola //2 = 0 (the pair of coincident
lines which coincide with the .v-axis). 693. 1) (.v 4-2//)* + 4x + y — 15 — 0;

Fig. 132 Fig. 133.

2) (3 a:— y)2 — x + 2y— 14 = 0; 3) (5x — 2y)2 + 3x — y+\ 1=0;

4) (4x-\~2y)2 — 5x + 7*/ = 0; 5) (3a: — 7//)2 + 3a: — 2y — 24 = 0. 697. 1) 3;
2)3; 3) V'lT 4) 699. 1) 2* + y - 5- 0,2* + y — 1 = 0;
2) 2x — Zij — 1 = 0, 2a- — 3</ + 11 = 0; 3) 5x — y — 3 = 0, 5* — y + 5 = 0.
700. 1) jc — 3t/ + 2 =0; 2) 3* + 5i/ + 7 = 0; 3) Ax — 2y — 9 = 0.
701. (x2 -(- y2)2 — 2c2 (x2 — y2) — a* — c*. 702. (x2 + y*)2 = 2a‘(x2 — t/)\
Q2 = 2a2 cos 20. 703. q2 = S sin 20; (x2 + y2)2 = 2Sxy. 705. o = — 0 and
(0

Q = —40- 706.(2r—x)y2 = x2. 707. x (a2 + y2) = a2. 708. n = JL-±b\

03 C.OS H
a
x2y2 + (* + fl)2 (x2 — b2) = 0. 709. Q = ^q ± a tan 0; x2 [{x + a)2 -f y2] =
*=a2y2. 710. q = 2a cos 0 £ 6; (x2 + y2 — 2ax)* = b2 (x2 + y2). 711. q =
*=a|sin20j; (x2 -{- y2)3 = 4a2x2y2. 712. x = acos3t, y = asin3t\
2 2 2

x3+y3=a3. 713. Q = a cos30, (x2-\-y2)2 = ax3. 714. x=

«=a (cos / + t sin /), */ = a (sin t — t cos/). 715. * = a (/— sin/); y=
 284 Answers and Hints

■=a(l— cos/); x+ Vy(2a — i/j = aarccos . 716. x = a(2cost —

— cos 20, (/= a (2 Sin f —sin 20; e = 2a (1 —cos 0). 717. x = (a+b) cos t-

a cos t, «/ = (a + 0 sin t —a sin ——— t. 718. * = (b-a) cos / +

+ ocos ——- 0 y (b—a) sin t — a sin /_

a a

Part Two

720. 1) (4, 3, 0), (—3, 2, 0), the point C lies in the plane Oxy
and hence the projection of O on Oxy coincides with C, (0, 0, 0);
2) (4, 0, 5), (—3, 0, 1), (2, 0, 0), the point D lies in the plane Oxz
and hence the projection of D on Oxz coincides with O; 3) (0, 3, 5),
(0, 2, 1), (0, —3, 0), the point D lies in the plane Oyz and hence
the projection of D on Oyz coincides with O; 4) (4, 0, 0),
(-3, 0, 0), (2, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0); 5) (0, 3, 0), (0, 2. 0), (0, -3, 0),
(0, 0, 0); 6) (0, 0, 5), (0, 0, 1), (0, 0, 0), the point O lies on the
e-axis and hence the projection of D on the e-axis coincides with D.
721. 1) (2, 3, -1), (5. -3, -2), (-3, 2, 1), (a, b, —c); 2) (2, -3, 1),
(5, 3, 2), (-3, -2, -1), (a, -b, c); 3) (-2, 3, 1), (-5, -3, 2),
(3, 2, -1), (-a, b, c); 4) (2, -3, -1), (5. 3, -2), (-3, -2, 1),
(a, -b, -c); 5) (-2, 3, -1), (-5, -3, -2), (3, 2, 1), (-a, b, -c)\
6) (-2, -3, 1), (-5, 3, 2), (3, -2, -1), (-a, -b, c); 7) (-2, -3, -1;,
(—5, 3, —2), (3, —2, 1), (—a, —b, —c). 722. (a, a, —a),
(a, —a, a), (—a, a, a), (—a, —a, a). 723. 1) The first, third, fifth
and seventh octants; 2) the second, fourth, sixth and eighth octants;
3) the first, third, sixth and seventh octants; 4) the second, fourth,
fifth and eighth octants; 5) the third, fourth, sixth and seventh
octants. 724. 1) The first, third, fifth and seventh octants; 2) the
second, third, fifth and eighth octants; 3) the first, second, seventh
and eighth octants; 4) the first, third, sixth and eighth octants;
5) the second, fourth, fifth and seventh octants. 725. 1) (—3, 3, 3);
2) (3, 3, -3); 3) (-3, 3, -3); 4) (-3, -3, -3); 5) (3, -3, -3).
726. 1) 7; 2) 13; 3) 5. 727. OA = 6; 05=14; OC=13; 00 = 25.
730. < MxMsM2 is obtuse. 732. (5, 0, 0) and (—11, 0, o). 733.
(0, 2, 0). 734'. C(3, —3, —3), R = 3. 735. (2, —1, —1), (—1, —2, 2),
(0, 1, —2). 736. 7. 737. x = 4, y = —1, z = 3. 738 . 0 (6, 1, 19) and
0(9, —5, 12). 739. 0(9, —5, 6). 740. The fourth vertex of the paral¬
lelogram may coincide with one of the following points: D1 (—3, 4, —4),
02( 1, —2, 8), 03 (5 , 0, —4). 741. C(l, 5, 2), 0(3, 2, 1), E (5,—1,0),
0(7, —4, —1). 742. i4(—1, 2, 4), 5(8, -4, —2). 743.

*1 ~T *2 "f“ X3 "I" Xi -f- */2+f/3+y%

744. 4^4. 745. X — * 4
*/=
#1

miXx + mtXj + ^3*3+/n4*4

zl ~f“ Z2 + Z3 “0 2\
 Answers and Hints 285

__ milh + 2 /2 + 3//3 + m4[/4

m i m mlzl m z m zi ,_
^ -f 2 2 -+ "V3 + 4
/Wi + m2 + /W3 + m4 ’ m, + w2+ m3+ /n4
(2, —3, 0), (1, 0. 2), JO, 3, 4). 748. | a | = 7. 749. z=± 3.
750. y4B = {—4, 3, —1}. B4 = {4, -3, l}. 751. /V (4, 1, 1).
752. (-1, 2. 3). 753. X = VT, Y = 1, Z = -l. 754. cosa=‘j,

cosp = —y , cosy = —25 • 755. cosa=^, cos P = C0SY=y| .

756. I) Possible; 2) impossible; 3) possible. 757. 1) Impossible;
2) possible; 3) impossible. 758. 60’ or 120 . 759. a={l, —I, /2~}
or a = jl, -I, — V 2~}- 760. Al,(/3, /l, / 3),
M2(— / 3, — /l. — V'3). 761. See Fig. 134. 762. |a —6| = 22.

Fig. 134.

763. _|a + 6| = 20. 764. | a + 6 | = | a—6 | = 13. 765. |a + 6|=.

= V129 5= 11.4. |a —& 1 = 7. 766. 10 + 61=/19^4.4, |a-6| = 7.
767. 1) Vectors a and 6 must be mutually perpendicular; 2) the
angle between vectors a and b must be acute; 3) the angle between
vectors a and b must be obtuse. 768. |a| = |6|. 769. See Fig. 135.
774. | R | =^15. 775. 1) {l, -1, 6}; 2) {5, —3. 6}; 3) {6, -4, 12};

4) jl* 2 ’ t 5) ^0, 1, 12}; 6) j 3,-— , 2j> . 776. The vec¬

tor b is three times as long as the vector a, the
vectors are oppositely directed. 777. a = 4, p = -_i.
779. The vector AB is two times as long as the vector ~CD\ the

vectors are similarly directed. 780. a0 = < — —— _ 3 l

i /\ a ■ ^ V
I 7 ' 7 * 7 f * *

781. a 0_ _3 4_ 1? l 782. |a ^ 1 = 6, | a — b | = 14.

13 ’ 13 * 13 I
783. d= 48/-f_4J/ 36&. 784. c={~3, 15, 12}. 785. AM =
= {3, 4, —3}, BN = { 0, -5, 3}, CP={— 3, 1, 0}. 787. a =

= 2P + 5^. 788. a =26 + c, 6= ^-a —yc, c = a—2b. 789. p=2a—8b.

790. XM=l6+-i <■, B/V=-J-6, CP = ±b~c, where M, /V

and P are the midpoints ol the sides of the triangle ABC

 286 Answers and Hints

791. AD=\\AB — 7AC, BD=\0AB—7AC, CD=\\AB — 8AC ,

AD + BD + CD = 32AB-22AC. 793. c = 2p-3q + r. 794. rf=2a-

— 3b + c, c=- — 2a + 3b + d, b = ~ a+ -|c- y d, a=^b —

-{c + jrf. 795. 1) -6; 2) 9; 3) 16; 4) 13; 5) -61; 6) 37; 7) 73.

796. i) _62; 2) 162; 3) 373. 797. The sum of the squares of the
diagonals of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares of
its sides. 798. — ab = ab when vectors a and b are collinear and
oppositely directed; ab — cib when vectors a and b are collinear and
similarly directed. 799. When b is perpendicular to a and c\ also
. 3
when a and c are collinear vectors. 800. ab + be + ca — -j.

801. ab + bc + ca = — 13. 802. Ip I = 10. 803. a= ± -=■ .

o

804. | a | = | b |. 807. BD = ^ c—b. 808. a = arccos yj . 809. <p =

= arccos (~4) ' 810' The plane PerPendicu,ar to the axis of the

vector a and cutting off an intercept equal to y^y on this axis.

811. The line of intersection of the planes which are perpendicular

to the axes of the vectors a and b and cut off intercepts equal to

JL and respectively, on these axes. 812. 1) 22; 2) 6; 3) 7;

4) —200;^ 5) 129; 6) 41. 813. 17. 814. 1) —524; 2) 13; 3) 3;

 Answers unci Hints 287

4) (AB AC)-BC = {—70, 70, — 350 } and AB (~AC-BC) =

= {—78, 104, —312 }. 815.31. 816. 13. 818. a ^ - 6.

819. cos <p = |j-. 820. 45°. 821. arccos ^ . 823. x=

= {-24,32,30 }. 824. jr= { 1, -i , -y } . 825. x = —4i-

— 6j+\2k. 826. x {—3, 3, 3}. 827. x {2, —3, 0 }. 828. * =

= 27 + 3./ — 2k. 829. V 3. 830. — 3. 831.—5. 832.6. 833. 4.

834.5. 835. —11. 836. X = — ^ , Y = — ^ , Z = — -= • 837. 3.

o o O

838. —6 y . 839. | [ab\ |= 15. 840. | [aft] | = 16. 841. ab=±30.

842. 1) 24; 2) 60. 843. 1) 3; 2) 27; 3) 300. 844. Vectors a and b must
he col linear. 846. When vectors a and b are perpendicular.
850. 1) { 5, 1, 7}; 2) { 10, 2. 14 }; 3) { 20, 4. 28 }. 851. 1) {6, -4, - 6);
2) { —12, 8, 12 }. 852. { 2, 11, 7 }. 853. { —4, 3, 4 }. 854.15;

cos a — — , cos a - —

6 2 .....

COS p — — y, cos y = y • 856. X 66; cos a — , cos h

V 66 \ 66
5 X 17
14 square units. 858. 5. 859. sin q
21
860. {—6, —24, 8}. 861. m = {45, 24, 0 }. 862. x=={7, 5, l}
864. [\ab]c)= { —7, 14, —7 }; [a [6c| ] { 10, 13, 19 }. 865. 1) Right-
handed; 2) left-handed; 3) lelt-handed; 4) right-handed; 5) the vectors
are coplanar; 6) left-handed. 866. abc = 24. 867. abc= ± 27; the
plus sign is taken if the triad a, b, c is right-handed; the minus
sign, if left-handed. 868. When vectors a, b, c are mutually per¬
pendicular. 873. abc — — 7. 874. 1) Coplanar; 2) non-coplanar;
3) coplanar. 876. 3 cubic units. 877. 11.878. D, (0, 8, 0); D2 (0, —7, 0).
881. X = — 6, Y— — 8, Z = — 6. 882. Vectors a and c must he
col I inear, or vector b must he perpendicular to vectors a and c. 88 5. The
points A1,, M2, /If., lie on the surface; the pomts M3, Af5, M6 do not lieon
the surface. The equation represents a sphere with centre at theoriginand
radius 7. 886. 1) (1, 2, 2) and (1,2, —2); 2) there is no such point
on the given surface; 3) (2, 1, 2) and (2, —1, 2); 4) there is no such
point on the given surface. 887. 1) The plane Oyz\ 2) the plane Oxz\
3) the plane Oxy\ 4) the plane parallel to the plane Oyz and situated
in the near half-space at a distance of two units from Oyz\ 5) the
plane parallel to the plane Oxz and situated in the left half-space
at a distance of two units from Oxz\ 6) the plane parallel to the
plane Oxy and situated in the lower half-space at a distance of five
units from Oxy\ 7) the sphere with centre at the origin and radius 5;
8) the sphere with centre at (2, —3, 5) and radius 7; 9) the equation
represents a single point, namely, the origin; 10) the equation
represents no geometric object in space; 11) the plane which bisects
 288 Answers and Hints

!!le ?i!,edora1l arngle bftween the planes Oxz, Oyz and is situated in
ie 1st ^rd, 5th and 7th octants; 12) the plane which bisects the
dihedral angle between the planes Oyz, Oxy and is situated in the
a ’ , anc^ ^1 oc^ants'» 13) the plane which bisects the
dihedral angle between the planes Oxy, Oxz and is situated in the
1st, 2nd, /th and 8th octants; 14) the planes Oxz and Oyz\ 15) the
planes Oxy and Oyz; 16) the planes Oxy and Oxz; 17) all the three
coordinate planes; 18) the plane Oyz and the plane parallel to the
plane Oyz and situated in the near half-space at a distance of four
units from Oyz; 19) the plane Oxz and the plane which bisects the
dihedral angle between the planes Oxz, Oyz and is situated in the
1st, 3rd, 5th and 7th octants; 20) the plane Oxy and the plane which
bisects the dihedral angle between the planes Oxz, Oxy and is situated
in the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th octants. 889. xzy2z2 = r2.
890. (x—a)2-]-(// — p)2 -|- (z — Y)2 = 891. y — 3 = 0. 892. 22 — 7 = 0.
893. 2x + 3 = 0. 894. 20//-f- 53 = 0. 895. *2 + y2 + z2 = a2.896. *2 + y2 +

+ "2 = a2- 897' * + = 0. 898. £+£+£= 1. 899. ~~^ +

z2
+ j0 = —1- 900. The points A1l$ Al3 lie on the given curve; the

points M2, M4 do not lie on the curve. 901. Curves 1) and 3) pass
through the origin. 902. 1) (3, 2, 6) and (3, —2, 6); 2) (3, 2, 6) and
(—3, 2, 6); 3) the given curve contains no such point. 903. 1) The
2-axis; 2) the y-axis; 3) the *-axis; 4) the straight line passing
through the point (2, 0, 0) parallel to the axis Oz; 5) the straight
line passing through the point (—2, 3, 0) parallel to the axis Oz;
6) the straight line passing through the point (5, 0, —2) parallel to
the axis Oy; 7) the straight line passing through the point (0, —2, 5)
parallel to the axis Ox; 8) the circle (lying in the plane Oxy) with
centre at the origin and radius 3; 9) the circle (lying in the
plane Oxz) with centre at the origin and radius 7; 10) the circle
(lying in the plane Oyz) with centre at the origin and radius 5;
11) the circle (lying in the plane z — 2 = 0) with centre at the point
x2 + y2-\-z2 = 9, x2y2 A-=2 5,
(0, 0, 2) and radius 4. 904. j 905
y = 0. y + 2 = 0.
(x — 5)2 + Q/ -f- 2)2 -f- (2— l)2 = 169,
906
x = 0.
1 x2y2 -h z2 36, qq£ ,n- Q- A) ( 9* 3* -6).
907
‘ | (a:—l)2 + (// + 2)2 + (2 —2)2 =25. 908‘ ( ’ ' »
909. (1, 2, 2), (—1, 2, 2). 910. 1) The cylindrical surface whose
elements are parallel to the axis Oy and whose directing curve is
the circle represented (in the plane Oxz) by the equation x2-j-z2==25;
2) the cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Ox
and whose directing curve is the ellipse represented (in the plane Oyz)

by the equation |= + ^= 1; 3) the cylindrical surface whose elements

ZO 1D
are parallel to the axis Oz and whose directing curve is the hyperbola
 Answers and Hints 289

x2 ij2
represented (in the plane Oxy) by the equation —— ^- = 1; 4) the

cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Oy and

whose directing curve is the parabola represented (in the plane Oxz)
by the equation x2 = 6z; 5) the cylindrical surface whose elements
are parallel to the axis Oz and whose directing curve is the pair of
lines represented (in the plane Oxy) by the equations x=0,
x — // = 0; this cylindrical surface consists of two planes; 6) the
cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Oy and
whose directing curve is the pair of lines represented (in the
plane Oxz) by the equations x — z — 0, x-fz = 0; this cylindrical
surface consists of two planes; 7) the x-axis; 8) the equation repre¬
sents no geometric object in space; 9) the cylindrical surface whose
elements are parallel to the axis Oy and whose directing curve is the
circle represented (in the plane Oxz) by the equation x2-f-(?—1)* = 1;
10) the cylindrical surface whose elements are parallel to the axis Ox
and whose directing curve is represented (in the plane Oyz) by the

equation y2-\- x -f-

1 2 911. 1) x2 + 5//2—8y— 12 = 0;
4
2) 4x2 + 5z2 + 4z — 60 = 0; 3) 2y — z 2 = 0.
912. 1) 1 8a2 + 4//2-36x+ 16//-3 0, ?x —2z — 7 = 0,
2)
0; y = 0;
V + 8z2-|- 16*/+ 202 — 31 =0,
3) 913. a— 2//-f-3z-{-3 = 0.
X = 0.
914. 5a — 3z = 0. 915. 2a — y — z — 6 = 0. 916. a — y — 3z + 2 = 0.
917. a + 4// + 7z+16 = 0. 919. 9a — y -f- 7z — 40 = 0. 921. 3a + 3// -f
“t" 2 8 = 0. 923. 1) « = { 2, -1, -2}, « = {2X, -A., —2X V;
2) n = { 1, 5, -1 }, n = { X, 5\, -k }; 3) n={3. —2, 0 }, « =
= {3X -2k, 0}; 4) A = { 0, 5, -3}, n ’= { 0, 5K, -3X };
5) n = \ 1, 0, 0 }, «={X, 0, 0}; 6) n = {0, 1,0}; n = { 0, X, 0 },
where A is any number other than zero. 924. 1) and 3) represent
parallel planes. 925. 1) and 2) represent perpendicular planes.

926. 1) / = 3, m= 4; 2) 1 = 3. m = - -J ; 3) / = -3 i m~-l-l .
J o 5

927. 1) 6; 2) -19; 3) -1 . 928. 1) 1 n and 1 ji; 2) 1 n and ln;

* o o 4 4
n 2 2
3) o ’» 4) Grecos -rp and ji — arccos . 929. 5a — 3y + 2z = 0.
1 lb 15
930. lx—3z — 27 = 0. 931. 7x-y-5z=0. 932. x + 2z — 4 = 0
934. 4x y 2z — 9 = 0. 936. *=1. t/= —2. z = 2. 939. 1) a ± 7;
2) a —7, 6 —3; 3) a = 7, b ^ 3. 940. 1) z— 3 = 0; 2) u 4-2 = O'
S4n’ 2,J + ! = 0’ 2) 3* + z = 0; 3)4x+3i/=o!
942. 1) y + 4z+10 = 0; 2) x—^— 1 =0; 3) 3x +y- 13 = 0.

943. (12, 0, 0), (0, -8, 0), (0, 0, -6). 944. 4 +4 + '£o= 1.
D u
 Answers and Hints

945. a = — 4, 6 = 3, c = 946. 240 square units. 947. 8 cubic

2 *

units. 948. A; + ~ + 4 = 1. 949. -X 4--EL

' y _i_
‘ 2 = 1. 950. x -f-
3 1 —4 3 ' 3 ^ 3
2
+ IJ + Z + 5 = 0. 951. 2a- — 21// + 22 + 88=0. 2a* — 3*/ — 2z+ 12 = 0.
952. A' -(-// -f-e — 9 = 0, a: — ^ 1 =0. x—y -\-z—3 = 0,
x + y — 2 — 5 = 0. 953. 2x y — 3 z — 15 = 0.
954. — — 3y
2a —v +i -z — 6— = 0. —• 955. x — 3y — 2z ”f" 2 — 0.
956. Planes 1), 4), 5), 7), 9), 11) and 12) are represented by normal
2 2 1 .... 3.6 2
equations. 957. 1) — a—y y + z —6 = 0; 2)
—

3 7 * + Ty“z
3 n n 2 , 2 i i .
3 = 0; 3) ~x y 7-4 = 0; 4) -x+-
1 v 1 14
5) “"To// 5 ~ — ^y
+ ]3^— 2 = 0; 6)^x 5» j = 0; 7) — y— 2 = 0; 8) a: —
13
I
—5=0; 9) z—3 = 0; 10) z—~=0. 958. 1) a=60°, 0 = 45°, y = 60°,

p = 5; 2) u= 120 , p = 60 . y = 45°, p = 8; 3) a = 45°, 0 = 90", y = 45°.

p = 3 V"2\ 4) u=90°, 0 = 135°, Y=45°, p=Y 2; 5)0=150°, 0=120°,
Y =90', p= 5; 6) a = 90n, 0 = 90°, Y = 0°, p = 2; 7) a=180°, 0 = 90°,
Y =90°, p = ^ ; 8)a=90', 0= 180 , Y = 90°, p = -i; 9) o = arccos-i ,
2 2 2
P = Jt — arccos — , y = arccos y , p = 2; 10) a = 7T —arccos y , p = n —

arccos y , y = arccos y , p = ~ . 959. 1) 6 = —3, d = 3; 2) 6 = 1,

d=l; 3) 6 = 0, d = 0— the point M3 lies in the given plane;

4) 6 = —2, d = 2; 5) 6 = —3, d = 3. 960. d = 4. 961. 1) On the same
side; 2) on the same side; 3) on opposite sides; 4) on the same side;
5) on opposite sides; 6) on opposite sides. 964. 1) d = 2; 2) d~ 3.5;
3) d = 6.5; 4) d= 1; 5) d = 0.5; 6) d = -| . 965. 8 cubic units. 966. The

conditions of the problem are satisfied by two points: (0, 7, 0) and

(0, —5, 0). 967. The conditions of the problem are satisfied by two

points: (0, 0, -2) and (o, 0, -6y) . 968. The conditions of the

problem are satisfied by two points: (2, 0, 0) and ^43’^’^ •

969. 4a— 4y — 2z-pl5 = 0. 970. 6a + 3y + 2z + 1! = 0. 971. 2a —2// —

— z— 18 = 0, 2a— 2y — z-f 12 = 0. 972. 1) 4a-</-2z-4 = 0; 2) 3a +
+ 2y—2+1=0; 3) 20a— \2y + 4z+ 13 = 0. 973. 1) 4x--5y + *-2-0,
2x + y— 32-1-8 = 0; 2) a—3//— 1 = 0, 3a + £—2z-1 — 0, 3) 3a 6j/4-
+ 7z + 2 = 0, a+ 4//+ 32 +4 = 0. 974. 1) The point /M and the origin
lie in two complementary angles; 2) the point M and the origin lie
 Answers and Hints 291

inside the same angle; 3) the point M and the origin lie in two ver¬
tical angles. 975. 1) The points M and A1 lie in two complementary
angles; 2) the points M and N lie in two vertical angles. 976. The
origin lies inside the acute angle. 977. The point M lies inside the
acute angle. 978. 8* — Ay— 4z-f-5 = 0. 979. 23* — y — 4z— 24 = 0.
980. x — ij—z— 1 = 0. 981. a + «/ + 2z = 0. 982. j 5x — 7;/—3 = 0,
I 5a + 2z—3 = 0, j ly— 2z +3 = 0, Q8, I 3a — y — 7z + 9 = 0,’
l y = 0; \ a=0. 983' \ 5/y -\-2z — 0.

1 ,
984. (2, -1, 0); ( 1- 0, n (0, 2, -1). 986. 1) D — —4;
3
2) D = 9; 3) D = 3. 987. 1) Al = A2 = 0 and at least one of the num¬
bers Dlt D2 is different from zero; 2) Bl = B2 = 0 and at least one
of the numbers Dlt D2 is different from zero; 3) Cl = C2 —0 and at
least one of the numbers Dlt D0 is different from zero.

988. 1) T = 7^; 2) §1=^; 3)^ = §i ;4) Al = D1 = 0, 4, = D, = 0;

A, D2
5) Bl = Dl~0, B2 = D.2 = 0; 6) C2 — Dt =0, C.2=D„ = 0.
989. 1) 2a+ 15{/ + 7z + 7 = 0; 2) 9y + 3z-j-5 = 0; 3) 3a + 3z —2 = 0;
4) 3a — 9ij — 7 = 0; 990. 1) 23a— 2// + 21 z — 33 = 0; 2) y + z — 18 = 0;
3) a + z—3 = 0; 4) a—i/+15 = 0. 991. 5a + 5z —8 = 0. 992. a (5a —
—2;/—z — 3) + P(a-|-3(/ — 2z + 5)-=0. Hint. The line of intersection of
the planes 5a — 2y—z — 3 = 0, A-f-3y— 2z + 5 = 0 is parallel to the
vector 7, 9, 17}; hence, the conditions of the problem will be
satisfied by all planes which belong to the pencil of planes passing
through this line. 993. 1 1a — 2y— 15z —3 = 0. 994. a (5a — y — 2z — 3) -f
+ P (3a — 2y—5z + 2) = 0. Hint. The line of intersection of the
planes5A—y—2z — 3 = 0, 3a—2y — 5z + 2 = 0 is perpendicular to the
plane a+19y — 7z—11=0; hence, the conditions of the problem
will be satisfied by all planes belonging to the pencil of planes
through this line. 995. 9a + 7(/ +8z + 7 = 0. 996. a — 2y+z — 2 = 0,
x—5i/-f-4z — 20 = 0. 997. The plane belongs to the pencil. 998. The
plane does not belong to the pencil. 999. / = —5, m = —11.
1000. 3a —2(/ + 6z + 21 =0, 189a + 28i/ + 48z — 591 =0. 1001. 2a —3{/ —
6z + 19 = 0, 6a — 2y — 3z+ 18 = 0. 1002. 4a — 3y + 6z— 12 = 0,
12a — 49(/ + 38z + 84 = 0. 1003. 4a + 3» — 5 = 0, 5x + 3z —7 = 0,
5y—4z4-l=-0. 1004. { 7a—1/+ 1 =0, 1 5x — z — 1 = 0,
z = 0; l y = 0;
( 5y — 7z— 12 = 0, ,nn, 2x--Ay—8z+l=0,
\ a = 0. 10°5- * 8y + 5z — 3 = 0. 1006. j
2x —y 2 — i=o.
z + ■" X —■2
1007. 1) — 2 —JL —2 + 3 2) A—2 _ y y z+3 ^
2—3 5 5 2—1
; 3) 1 0 0 ’
4)
a —2 l y ?+3 —1 y~\~ 2 ^—l
0 1 2+3;5>V=i=~—”-,008-1>
0 2 3 —2 ’

2) —3 — ‘J + 1 - z ■ n * _y + 2_z —. *+l y-2 z+4

2 —1 3 ’ ' 3 0 —2 4)
1009. 1) a = 2( + 1, y = -3t-\, z = 4f — 3; 2) a = 2t + 1, y = 5t - 1,
2-3; 3) a = 3/ + 1, (/ = — 21 — 1, 2 = 5/ — 3. 1010. 1) x = t + 2,
y-2' + !. 7 = f + l; 2) a = / -|- 3, y — — / —1, z = f; 3) a = 0, y = t.
 292 Answers and Hints

2 = - 3/ + 1. 1011.(9,-4,0), (3, 0,-2), (0,2,-3). 1012. * = 5/ + 4,

y = —\lt — 7, 2 = — 2. 1013. = = . 1014. lz^ = ^±l =
1 8 1
z -[■ 3
f • ,015* * = 3/ + 3, y= 15/ + 1, 2=19/ —3. 1016. a={ 1, 1, 3};

a=}X, X, 3^}, where X is any number other than zero. 1017. a =

= — 2/+ 1 iy + 5Af; a =— 2Ai + WXj+Skk, where X is any number
2 y— 3 2 4-5 * — 2 y 4-1 2
other than zero. 1018. 1019. 1)
2 —4—5.7 2 7 4
Solution. Setting, for example, 20 = 0, we find from the given system:
*o — 2» yo = —1; thus, we have already found one point, MQ(2,—1,0),
of the line. Next, let us find its direction vector. We have
tfi={l» —2, 3}, n2 = {3, 2, —5}; hence, a = [/2x/f2] = {4, 14, 8},
that is, 1 = 4, m= 14, ai = 8. Substituting the values of *0, */0, 20
and /, m, n just found in the relations y — yo_z—zo we
*o
l m n
x — 2_y+1_ 2
obtain the canonical equations of the given line:
~4 ~\4 IT
* — 2_//4-1 _ 2 m *_</+!
y±l 2 1 ox at 3_y 2_ 2
or 3)
2 7 4 ’ —5 12 13 ’ 1 2 1
1020. 1) x = t 4-1, </ = 7t, 2 = — 19/ 2; 2) * = - / 4-1, y = 3t + 2,
4
2 = 5/—1. 1023. 60°. 1024. 135°. 1025. coscp=± — . 1027. 1 = 3.
21
x+ 1 y—2 24-3 * 4- 4 // 4- 5 2—3
1029. 1030. 1031. x =
2 —3 ~ 6 ' 3 2 —1
= 2/ —5, r/ = — 3/4- 1, 2 = —4/. 1032. u=13. 1033. tf=2l.
1034. x = 3 — 6/, i/ = — 1 4-18/. 2 = —5 + 9/. 1035. x = — 7 + 4/.
y = 12 — 4/, 2 = 5-2/. 1036. * = 20 — 6/, (/ = — 18+ 8/, 2 = — 32 + 24/;
(2, 6, 40). 1037. The equations of motion of M are * = — 5 + 6/,
y = 4_ 12/, 2 = — 5 + 4/; the equations of motion of N are * = — 5 + 4/,
*/ = |6— 12/, 2 = — 6 + 3/; 1) P (7, —20, 3); 2) this time is 2; 3) this
time is 3; 4) M0P = 28, N0P = 39. 1040. 1) (2, —3, 6); 2) the line
x_2
is parallel to the plane; 3) the line lies in the plane. 1041. —=—=
* — 2_f/ + 3_2 +_5
= ^+i = !+l. 1042. . 1043. 2* — 3//+ 42— 1 =0.
o 3 1T"“ —3 “
1044. * + 2# + 32 = 0. 1045. m = — 3. 1046. C = —2. 1047. /I =3,
1
D = — 23. 1048. >4 = — 3, 1049. / = — 6,
c-j
1050. (3, —2, 4). Solution. To find the desired point, solve the equa¬
tions of the given line simultaneously with the equation of the plane
passing through the point P and perpendicular to this line. First of
all, note that the direction vector {3, 5, 2} of the given line will
be a normal vector to the required plane. The equation of the plane
through P (2, —1, 3) and having n = {3, 5, 2} as its normal vector
will be of the form 3 (*— 2) + 5 (y + 1) + 2 (2— 3) — 0, or 3*+ 5// +
+ 2z — 7 = 0. By solving simultaneously the equations
 Answers and Hints 293

J x = 3t, y = 5t —7, 2 = 21+2,

we find the coordinates of the de-
\ 3x + 5i/ + 2z — 7 = 0,
sired projection to be x = 3, y = -2, z=4. 1051. Q (2, —3, 2).
1052. Q (4, 1, —3). 1053. (1, 4, —7). Solution. To find the desired
point, solve the equation of the given plane simultaneously with the
equations of the straight line drawn from the point P perpendicular
to this plane. First of all, note that the normal vector {2, —1, 3}
to the given plane will be the direction vector of the required line.
The parametric equations of the straight line passing through
P (5, 2, —1) and having a = {2, —1, 3} as its direction vector will
be of the form * = 2/4-5, y = — t + 2, z = 3/ — 1. By solving simul-

taneously the equations { 2, z = 3t-l, we flnd

the coordinates of the desired projection to be x=\, y = 4, 2 = —7.
1054. Q (—5, 1, 0). 1055. P (3, —4, 0). Hint. The problem can be
solved by the following procedure: (1) show that the points A and
B lie on the same side of the plane Oxy\ (2) find a point symmetric
to one of the given points with respect to the plane Oxy. for example,
find the point Bx symmetric to B\ (3) write the equations of the
straight line passing through the points A and Bl; (4) by solving the
equations of the line just found simultaneously with the equation of
the plane Oxy, we obtain the coordinates of the desired point.
1056. P(—2, 0, 3). 1057. P (—2, —2, 5). 1058. P (—1,3, —2).
1059. 1) P (—25, 16, 4); 2) this time is equal to 5; 3) M0P = 60.
1060. * = 28 — 7.51, y = — 30 + 8/, z = —27 + 6/; 1) P (—2, 2, —3);
2) the interval of time from /1~0 to t2 = 4; 3) A10P = 50. 1061. This
time is equal to 3. 1062. d = 7. Solution. On the line x~^^ — ^ —
2_g 3 2
, let us choose a point, say (—3, —2, 8), and assume that
-2
the direction vector a = {3, 2, —2} of the line is drawn from the
point Mv The modulus of the vector product of the vectors a and
Afi P w give the area of the parallelogram constructed on these
vectors; the altitude drawn from the vertex P of this parallelogram
will be the required distance d. Hence, the formula for calculating
IflA^P]
the distance d is d = Now find the coordinates of the
I aI
vector MlP from the coordinates of its terminal and initial points:
MXP = {4, 1, -10}. Evaluate the vector product of the vectors a
k/ j
and MjP: [aM1P] = 3 2—2 = —18/ + 22y—5ft. Find its modulus
4 1 —10
| [a M1P\ | = 182 + 222 + 52 = V833 =7 ^*17. Calculate the modulus
of the vector a: | a | = 9 + 4 + 4 = V17. Finally, determine the

required distance d = - 1063. 1) 21; 2) 6; 3) 15. 1064. d = 25.

V 17
1065. 9x + 11 y + 5z — 16 = 0. 1068. 4* + 6y + 5z — I = 0. 1070. 2x — 16y—
— 13z + 31 =0. 1072 . 6x — 20^ — llz+l=0. 1074. (2, —3. —5).
 294
Answers and Hints

1075. Q (1, 2, 2). 1076. Q (1, -6, 3). 1077. 13*- 14, + 11? +51 =0
1079. * —8y- 132 + 9 = 0. 1081. * —3 ,+ 2 2+4
“ -• 1082.* = 8/-3,

4 ,r «,7'44 “4 + 2‘ 1083- 0 13: 2) 3; 3) 79 1084. 1) **+,2 +

z 2) (a 5)2 -f- (y -f- 3j2 -f- — 7)2 = 4- 3) (v 4)2 4. iu 1 4*2 1
+ (z-f-2)2 = 36; 4) (*_3)2 + (,W+ (*_1)V= 18 5) V"fit
+ (y+i)*+(2-i^=2i; 6) ;4;4/r9.
+ (2 + 2) =56; 8) (*—l)2+ (</ + 2)2 +(z —3)2 = 49- 9)^(* + 2)2 +
+ (y-4)* + (2-5)2 = 81. 1085 (*-2)2 + („l3)2 + (e + n2 = 9 }and
J t (Zn+5)2==9- 1086, /? = 5' 1087. (*+l)2 + (,—3)2 +
+ Z-3>\ ■ 0f.8,’ <* + l)2 + (l/-2)2 + (z- 1)2 = 49. 1089. (* — 2)2 +
+Ji~3)o2 + (zr+1) T289- !°90' ') C(3. -2, 5), r = 4; 2, C (-1,3, 0)1
5)C3(0. -10. oSfvi'lor.MI. S£-<A /A+O*

1092.
y+i z
—-—=---
+ i 1093. 1) Outside the sphere.
2 —3 4
2) ™d 5) 011 the sphere; 3) and 4) inside the sphere. 1094. 1) 5;
2) 21; 3) 7. 1095. 1) The plane cuts the sphere; 2) the plane touches
the sphere; 3) the plane passes outside the sphere. 1096. 1) The line
intersects the sphere; 2) the line passes outside the sphere; 3) the
line touches the sphere. 1097. Af, (—2, —2, 7), d = 3.
1098. C(-1, 2, 3), R = 8. J (x~‘>2 + (t/-2)2 + (z-I)2 =-36,
1099.
I 2x- z—1 = 0.
(*-i)2 + (i/+l)2 + (e + 2)2 = 65,
1100.
18* — 22,+ 52 — 30 = 0.
(* — 2)2 + ,2 + (2— 3)2 = 27,
1101.
* + ,-2 = 0. n°3- 5*-8, + 5z —7 = 0.
1104. x2 +-1/2 + a-2 — 1 Oat -f-15t/ — 252 = 0. 1105. *2 + ,2 + z2+13*—9,+
+ 92—14 = 0. 1106. *2 + (i/ + 2)2 + 22 = 41. 1107. 6* — 3y-2z—49 = 0.
1108. (2, —6, 3). 1109. a = ± 6. 1110. 2* — y —2 + 5 = 0.
1111. x1x + y1y + zlz = r*. 1112. /l27?2 + fl2/?2 + C2/?2 = D2.
1113. (*!-«) (*-a) + (i/1-P)(,-p) + (?1-Y)(z-Y)='2. 1H4. 3*-
— 2y + 6z— 11 =0, 6* + 3, + 2z—30 = 0. 1115. * + 2,— 2z—9 = 0,
* + 2, —22 + 9=0. 1116 . 4* + 32 — 40 = 0, 4* + 32+10 = 0. 1117 . 4* +
-f 6// -f- 5z— 103 = 0, 4x 6y -j- 5z -f 205 = 0. 1118. 2x — 3y -f- 4z— 10 = 0,
3x — 4y -\-2z — 10 = 0. 1120. x — y — z— 2 = 0. 1122. Ax -f By + Cz +
+ D — 0. 1123. *cos a-}-f/cos p -f-zcos y — p = 0. 1124. d= | rxn—p |;
c/ = | cos a +//! cos pcos y — P I- 1125. (r2 — r,) (r— r,) = 0,
(*2 — ) (x — *i) + (y2—yi) (y—yy) + (?2~*i) (z■— zj = o.
*- *0 y—y qz—zo
1126. (r— ro) = 0; h m% "l = 0. 1127 (r2-rx) x
u m2 n2
*--*1 y-■yi z—
X (r3 —rx) (r—r1)=0; *2 1/2 —y\ zr“2j = 0.

*3 — X\ 1/3--y\ z3-— ^1
 Answers and Hints 295

x x0y y0z z0
o
1128. nxn2 (r—r0) = 0; A, fli C, 0. 1131.
/
4o Bo Co
y—y o_z—zo 1132. [(r—r,)(r2—ri)l = 0; [r(r2 — rj] = [r,r2].
m n
r=r1 + (r2 — r,)Z. 1133. a (r— r,) = 0; / (x—*i) + /n (y—y,) +
+ n(z—zl)=0. 1134. a,a2(r—r„)=0. 1135. «i«2 (r—r0) =-0.
* *o y — yo z~z
1137. r=r0 + [/zi/«2]
1136. r = r0 + rt/,
—

4 B c
x — *o _ y — Uo __ z— z 0 r0/i + D = 0,
1138.
*1 Cl Cl ^4! 4i Bj a/i = 0;
b2 c2 C2 4 2 42 B2
^ A'o ■+* Bi/o + Cz0 -f D =0,
1139. aYa2(r—ro)=0. 1140. a,a2(r2 — ^=0.
4/ -f- Brn -\~Cn — 0.
^ _ r{)n + D
1141. a; x — x0 ■ - - • ^ ^ **
A l 4- Brn +Cn
U=U AxQ + By0-rCzu D Axn 4- Byo 4- Cz0 + ^
Z—2 0 n .

0 4/ Brn 4- Cn 4/ 4- fi'w 4~ Cn
Axt + Bth + CZj +D A
lie. X = A', u == y i
n- A2 4- B- 4- C2
_Axi 4~ Byi 4“ Czj 4~ D >4.vj +Biji +Czx + D r
B, zr=Zl-12 A* + Rtiri
i B* + C -C- ro r
A- + B- + C2
. (n—r0) a (Xj — Xu) l + (yi — y»)m + (Z\ — ?<>) "
x = Xq 4- /.
a W+m* + n*
u = u 4 (^1 — *o) l H- (yi — tjo) tn + (Z\ — zo) n n Z = Zq +
y°'r l2 4~ m2 4- n2
, ( V1 — Aq) / 4- (j/t —//o) m + (Zi — z0) ;i / Kri — r„) al~
fi. 1144. d=
l2 + m2 /i2 V a-
2 •2•a
yi yo 2\ zo ZJ z0 A' J A0 1 *1 — *0 f/i */o
4- T
m n /I / / m
d =
V Z2 + m2 + n2
/l /2 *2 A1
absolute
value of ™i ni2 ys—yi
tl* Ho Zo 2l
1145. d = Lgia2.(/2 —n) 1 d=
™i ni
2
V4a,a2l2
2 /i m1 i*
rn 2 n2
+ n2 12
+ / 2 tfZ2
R /? Rl Rrn
1147. a and a\ *,= £/i =
2
a ai K /2 4- m2 4- n /2 4- ma 4- n2
/?* Rl Rrn
Z, = i and a:2 — . !/ 2 = —
l2 4- m2 4- ft2 K /2 4- m2 4- /ia Vr- 4- m2 + n2 ’
 296 Answers and Hints

Rn R
zo = 1148. r0 + a and r0—— a;
V /2 + m2 + n2 I a | ‘ a
y _ y j__ . Rm
yi2+jn2 + n2 ’ yi y° y l2 + m2 + n2
Rn /?/
Zl~Z0~\~ and *2 = *0
V i2 +m2 + n2 V /2 + m2 + n2 ’
_ Rm Rn
*2 = ^0
V /2 + m2 + n2 u }/ l2 -f- m2 +
1149. (fi —r0) (r—r0) = R2. 1150. (r—r1)2 = ^?^P),; (^-^,)2 +

+ (»->,)■+ 11si.
tir | ft_Q. /l* + #*/ + Cz i4* + £*/ + Cz
/? = 0, + /? = 0.
nI 9 YrA2 + B2 + C2 V A2 + B2 + &
a(r—r0)
+ /? = 0;
'«• |a
1 (x — x0) + m (y-yo)A-n(z — z0)_
/?=:0.
V l2 + rn’2 + fl2
/l*T*o)+'" (y-y.) + »(*-*„) , „_n n53i3 ^3- (2> 3_ 0)>
K /2 + m2 -j- n2
(2, -3, 0), (2, 0, ^3), (2. 0, -]^3). 1154. 4.3; (4. 0, -1),
o \
(—4, 0, -I). 1155. 15; ^0, -6, . 1156. The equations of the

projections on the planes Oxy, Oxz, and Oyz are, respectively:

j x2 -\-4xy + 5y2 — x = 0, x2 — 2xz -f 5z2 — 4x = 0,
(a) (b)
y = 0;
\ z = 0;
2 -\-z2 -\-2y— z — 0,
(c) 1157. An ellipse with centre at
x = 0.
(2, —1, 1). Hint. The centre of the section is projected into the
centre of the projection. 1158. A hyperbola with centre at (I, 1, 2).
1159. 1) An ellipse with centre at (—1, 1, 3); 2) a parabola; has no
centre; 3) a hyperbola with centre at (2, —3, —4). 1160. 1) 1 < | m \ <
V~2; 2) \m | < 1. 1161. 1) m ± 0 and m — ; when m=—
1
, a degenerate ellipse (a point); 2) m — 0. 1162. (9, 5, 2).
1163. (3, 0, —10). 1164. (6, —2, 2). 1165. m= ± 18. 1166. 2x-y-~
— 2z — 4 = 0. 1167. x — 2y + 2z— 1 = 0, *— 2y + 2z + 1 = 0; — .
y2 ij2 _! j2 x2 U2 Z2 , ^ 4
1168 . £ + *-£- = 1. I*69-36 + fc+9-=i n70-<?I=5’^=5-
 Answers and Hints 2S7

1172. f!+£+i!=i. 1173.

*2 + y* — -5=1.
1178. --y— = 2z.
A2 l/2

b- a 2
a cl P Q
1180. 1) (3, 4, —2) and (6, —2, 2); 2) (4, —3, 2)—the line touches
the surface; 3) the line and the surface have no points in common;
| 2x—\2y — z -f 16 = 0,
4) the line lies on the surface. 1181. <
-2y + 4 = 0;
f 2*—12# — z + 16 = 0, (182 I J/ + 2z = 0, 2a — 52 = 0,
I * + 2i/ —8 = 0. 1 x — 5=0; | y -f- 4 = 0.
,,oo X _ y+1 _ z-1 x //-f-9 z-f-3 _ * a— 3 z
U83. __

12 "«■ T-~o —2 *

y_ 1
y- z X
1185. aiccos 17- ,186- ') ^+^2-^ = 0; 2)
0 3 4 ‘ c* a2
U2 22
Z2 A'2 l/2 Z2
1188. x2 -\-y2 — z2 = 0.
yb2 +c-2=0; 3> -^2+i+c2=0-
x2 u2 (z — cl2
1189. — + — —^- = 0. 1 190. 3x2 —5//2 + 722 6ay + \0xz — 2yz —
a2 b2 c2
2 o 4

-4* + 4f/-4z + 4=0. 1191. ^5 + fg-|g = 0. 1192. x2 —3t/2 +22 = 0

1193. 35*2 + 35y2 — 52z2 — 232xt/ — 116*z + 116i/z + 232* — 70// — 116z +
+ 35 = 0. 1194. xi/+*z + i/z=0— the axis of the cone is situated in
the first and seventh octants; xy + xz— //z = 0 — the axis of the cone
is situated in the second and eighth octants; xy — xz—yz = 0—the
axis of the cone is situated in the third and fifth octants; xy — xz+
+ yz = 0—the axis of the cone is situated in the fourth and sixth octants.
1195. 9*2 — 16i/2 — 16z2 — 90* + 225 = 0 H9G. *2 + 4i/2 — 4z2 + 4xy +
+ 12*z —6i/z = (). 1197. 4*2 — 15</2 — 6z2 — 12*z — 36* + 24z + 66 = 0.
1198. 16x 2 + 16i/2 + 13z2 — 16*z + 24 i/z + 16* — 24i/ — 26z — 23 = 0.
1199. *2 — (/2-2*z + 2i/z+* + (/-2z = 0. 1200. 5*2 + 5i/2 + 2z2 — 2xy +
+ 4*z + 4yz—6 = 0. 1201. 45*2 + 72(/2 + 45z2 + 36*(/ + 72*z—36yz +
+ 54* + 216i/—54z — 567 = 0. 1202. 5x2 + 10i/2 + 13+ + \2xy-6xz +
+ 4yz + 26x + 20y—38z + 3 = 0. 1203. *2 + 4i/2 + 5z2 — 4xy— 125 = 0.
1204. 1) 18; 2) 10; 3) 0; 4) -50; 5) 0; 6) *2-*i: 7) 0; 8) 1.
1205. 1) *= 12; 2) * = 2; 3) xx = — 1, *2 = —4; 4) *1 = —1/6; *2 = 3/2;
*1,2= ±2i; 6) *i — 2*2)3 = —2 ±/; 7) * = (—1>" + n< " here

n is any integer; 8) * = -^-(2n + l), where n is any integer.

1206. 1) * > 3; 2) *>—10; 3) * < —3; 4) — 1 < * < 7.
1207. 1) *=16, i/ = 7; 2) * = 2, // = 3; 3) the system has no solu¬
tions; 4) the system has an infinite number of different solutions,

each of which may be determined from the formula = by

assigning arbitrary values to * and computing the corresponding
values of y\ 5) * = —. y = ^2_^f ; 6) the system has no solu¬
tions. 1208. 1) ayk-2; 2) « = -2, 6 # 2; 3) a = — 2 6 = 2
1209. a = 10/13. 1210. 1, * = -2f, y = It, 7=4/; 2) * = 2t. y= it]
 298 Answers and Hints

= 0; 3) * = 0, y = t, z = 3f, 4) x = 0, y = t, z = 2t\ 5) * = 11, u = 5t,

2
z=4t; 6) x = 41, y = 2t, z = 3/; 7) x=t, y = 5t, z=llt; 8) x = 3t,
y — 4t, z=llt; 9) x = 0, y = t, 2 = 3/; 10) * = (a + l)/, y=(\-a2)t,
2 = _(a + 1)/ provided that a^=— 1. (If a = —1, then any solution
of the system will consist of three numbers x, y, z, where x, y may
be chosen at will and z = x + y)-, 11) x = (b — 6)t, y=(3a — 2)t,
z=(ab—4) t provided that a ^ ~ or b ^ 6. ^ If a = -| and b= 6,

then a:, y may be chosen at will and 2 = -|-* + 2(/j ;

12) * = 3(1—2 a)t, _y = (ab -f- 1) t, z = 3(b-\-2)t provided that

1 I
a or b ^ —2. If a = and b = —2, then x, y may be

chosen at will and z = 2(3y—x). 1211. —12. 1212. 29. 1213. 87.
1214. 0. 1215. —29. 1216. 2a3. 1223. -4. 1224. 180. 1225. 87.
1226. 0. 1227. (x—y) (lJ — 2)(z — x). 1229. 2a2b. 1230. sin 2a
1231. xyz(x — y) (y—z) (z — x). 1232. (a-f-b-j-c) (a2 + b2-t-c2 — ab —
— ac — bc). 1234. 1) * = —3; 2) x^-—10, x2 = 2. 1235. I) x > 7/2;
2) —6 < x <—4. 1236. * = 24 1-, y = 21^, z = 10. 1237. x=\,
2 ' 2 ’

// = 1, z=l. 1238. a: = 2, f/=3, 2 = 4. 1239. x = 1, y = 3, 2 = 5.

1240. x= 13 4- • </ = 8 , z=14-i. 1241. a; = 2, // = — 1, 2=1.
4 4 2

1212. x = b—r—,
1040 +C a—b
// = —-— , 2 = °—C
—-— . ,040
1243. a: = a- +
n—^ , y = ^ + C
2 * v 2 ' ~ 2 * --- -- 2 ’ 17 2
a -fc 1244. The system has an infinite number of solutions,
2 =

each of which can be found from the formulas x = 2z—1, y = z-\-\

by assigning arbitrary values to 2 and calculating the corresponding
values of a:, ij. 1245. The system has no solutions. 1246. The system
has no solutions. 1247. 1) a ^ - 3; 2) a = —3, b ^ 3) a = -3,
3 ’

&= 1249. The system has the unique solution x = y = z=--0.

1250. The system has an infinite number of solutions, each of which
can be found from the formulas x = 2t, y = —2>t, 2 = 5/ by assigning
arbitrary values to / and calculating the corresponding values of xt
u, 2. 1251. a = 5. 1252. 30. 1253. —20. 1254. 0. 1255. 48. 1256. 1800.
1257. (b -f-c -\-d) (b — c — d) (b — c-\-d)(b+c— d) 1258. (a -f- bcd) X
X{a-\-b—c — d) (a — b-\-c — d) (a — b — c+ d). 1259. (a -f- b -\-c + d) X
X (a — b + c — d)[(a—c)2-\-(b-d)2]• 1260. (be-cdf.

ALLAHA IQBAL LIBRARY

150028
 TO THE READER

Peace Publishers would be glad to have your opinion

on the translation and the design of this book.
Please send all your suggestions to 3, Pervy Rizhsky
Pereulok, Me scow, U.S.SR.

Printed in the Union oj Soviet Socialist Republics

/»
f