CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
1.1 DEFINITION AND SCOPE OF IRRIGATION

Plants are living beings and do require water and air for their survival as do human beings do
require. This requirement of water varies with their type. Water is normally supplied to the plants
by nature through rain. However, the total rainfall in a particular area may be either insufficient,
or ill-timed. In order to get the maximum yield it is essential to supply the optimum quantity of
water and to maintain correct timing of water. This is possible only through systematic system by
collecting water during the periods of excess rainfall and releasing it to the crops when it is
needed. This art is called irrigation.

In general Irrigation is defined as the science of artificial application of water to the land, in
accordance with the crop requirements throughout the crop period for full nourishment of the
crops. It is the Engineering of controlling and harnessing the various natural sources of water, by
construction of dams & reservoirs, canals & head works and finally distributing the water to
agricultural fields. Generally the following are some of the factors that necessitate irrigation.

 Inadequate rainfall
 Uneven distribution of Rainfall
 Increasing the yield of the crops
 Growing a number of crops
 Insuring against drought.
 Growing perennial crops.

The application of water to soil is essential for plant growth and it serves the following functions

 It supplies moisture to the soil essential for the germination of seeds, and chemical and
bacterial processes during plant growth.
 It cools the soil and the surroundings thus making the environment more favorable for
plant growth.
 It washes out or dilutes salts in the soil.
 It softens clods and thus helps in tillage operations.
 It enables application of fertilizers.
 It reduces the adverse effects of frost on crops.
 It ensures crop success against short-duration droughts

Irrigation water delivered into the soil is always more than the requirement of the crop for
building plant tissues, evaporation, and transpiration. In some cases the soil may be naturally
saturated with water or has more water than is required for healthy growth of the plant. This
excess water is as harmful to the growth of the plant as lack of water during critical stages of the

1
plant life. This excess water can be naturally disposed of only if the natural drainage facilities
exist in or around the irrigated area. In the absence of natural drainage, the excess water has to be
removed artificially. The artificial removal of the excess water is termed drainage which, in
general, is complementary to irrigation.

To keep the optimum content of water in soil, irrigation supplies water to the land where water is
deficient and drainage withdraws water from the land where water is in excess. The objective of
providing irrigation and drainage is to assist nature in maintaining moisture in the root-zone soil
within the range required for maximum agricultural production.

Scope of Irrigation Engineering

Irrigation Engineering is not only confined to the application of water to the land for raising
crops. It includes all aspects and problems extending from the watershed to the agricultural
fields. It deals with hydrology, river engineering, design and construction of dams, weirs, canals
and various other structures. It also deals with surface and subsurface drainage system, soil
reclamation, water-soil-crop relationships. Other allied sciences such as flood control,
hydropower, and inland navigation are also studied in irrigation engineering.

Aspects of Irrigation Engineering:

1. Water Resources and Hydrology Aspect:-To locate various water sources and to study the
hydrology of the region. This includes study of meteorology, precipitation, stream flow, floods,
river engineering, reservoirs and flood control. The following information is required while
designing various irrigation structures.

 The quantity of water that will be available at a reservoir site for storage.
 Maximum discharge at a river site.
 Reservoir capacity that ensures adequate Quantity of water for various purposes.
 Quantity of ground water which can be economically exploited.

2. Engineering Aspect: - Involves the development of a source of water for irrigation and
construction of various irrigation structures.

 Dams and water power Engineering

 Diversion and Distribution structures
 Minor irrigation schemes (well, Tank / Pond, inundation Irrigation).
 Ground water development

3. Agricultural aspect:-Involves irrigation practice and the study of agricultural characteristics of

the land.

4. Management Aspect: - Deals with successful implementation and efficient management of

engineering aspects, water distribution, and agricultural works.

2
 1.2 BENEFITS AND ILL- EFFECTS OF IRRIGATION

There are various direct and indirect advantages of irrigation.

 Increase in food production: Irrigation helps in increasing crop yields through controlled
and timely supply of water to the crop.
 Optimum benefits: optimal utilization of water is made possible by irrigation. Optimum
utilization implies obtaining maximum crop yield with any amount of water. In other words,
yield will be smaller for any quantity lesser than or in excess of optimum quantity.
 Elimination of mixed cropping: in areas where irrigation is not ensured, generally mixed
cropping is adapted. Mixed cropping is growing two or more crops simultaneously in the
same field. If the weather condition is not suitable to one of the crops it may be suitable for
the other; and thus at least some yield is obtained. Mixed cropping can be adopted when
irrigation facilities are not available, but if irrigation is assured it can be eliminated. Mixed
cropping is generally not acceptable, because different crops require different types of field
preparations and different types of manures, amount of water etc.
 General prosperity: A Revenue return is sometimes quite high and helps in all round
development of the country.
 Generation of hydroelectric power: cheaper power generation can be obtained on objects
primarily designed for irrigation alone. Also falls on irrigation channels can be utilized to
generate electricity which may help in industrializing the rural area and so in solving the
problem of fuel shortage.
 Domestic water supply: - irrigation helps in augmenting the town water supply where water
is available with great difficulty. It also provides water for swimming bathing, cattle drinking
etc.
 Communication Facilities: Irrigation channels are generally provided with embankments
and inspection roads. These inspection paths provide a good road way to the villagers for
walking, cycling or even motoring.
 In land navigation

Ill-Effects of Irrigation

Ill-effects of irrigation occur only when the scheme is not properly designed and implemented.
Most of these are due to excess irrigation water application. Some of the common ill-effects are

 Water logging: when cultivators apply more water than actually required by the crops,
excess water percolates in to the ground and raises the water table. Water logging occurs
when the water table reaches near the root zones of the crops. The soil pores become fully
saturated and the normal circulation of air in the root zones of the crop is stopped and the
growth of the crops is decreased. Thus crop yield considerably reduces. When the water
table reaches the ground surface, the land becomes saline.

3
 Long term application of pesticides under large scale irrigation system might have a
negative influence on soil microbial activities, on the quality of surface and subsurface
water resources and the survival of the surrounding vegetation.
 Irrigation may contribute in various ways to the problem of pollution. One of these is the
seepage in to the ground of the nitrates that has been applied to the soil as fertilizer.
 Irrigation may result in colder and damper climate causing outbreak of disease like malaria.
 Irrigation is complex and expensive in itself. Sometimes cheaper water is to be provided at
the cost of the government and revenue returns are low.

Note: The impact of irrigation on human environment can be summarized as in the following
table.

Impact Positive Negative

Improvement of the water regime of irrigated Danger of waterlogging and saltation
soils. of soils, rise in ground water table.

Improvement of the micro climate. Possibility Changing properties of water in

provided for waste water use and disposal. reservoirs, deforestation of area
Engineering which is to be irrigated and with it a
Retention of water in reservoirs and possible change of the water regime in the
multipurpose use thereof. area. Reservoir bank abrasion.

Possible spread of diseases ensuing

from certain types of surface
Securing increased agricultural production and irrigation.
Health thus improving the nutrition of the population. Danger of the pollution of water
Recreation facilities in irrigation canals and resources by return runoff from
reservoirs. irrigation. Possible infection by
waste water irrigation, new diseases
caused by retention of water in large
reservoir.
Colonization of the irrigated area.
Social and Culturing the area. Increasing the social and Displacement of population from
Cultural cultural level of the population. Tourist retention area. Necessity of
interest in the area of the newly-built reservoir. protecting cultural monuments in
inundated areas.

Aesthetic New man-made lakes in the area. Project’s architecture may not blend
with the area.
Political Increased self-sufficiency in food, thus lesser
dependence on other countries.

4
 1.3 STANDARDS OF IRRIGATION WATER

Every water is not suitable for irrigation. The quality of irrigation water is very much influenced
by the contents of the soil, which is to be irrigated. Particular water may be harmful for irrigation
on a particular soil but the same water may be tolerable or even useful on some other soil.
Irrigation water may be said to be unsatisfactory for its intended use if it contains:

 Sediment concentration in water

 Total concentration of soluble salts in water
 Proportion of sodium ions to other cations
 Bicarbonate concentrations as related to the concentrations of calcium plus magnesium
 Bacterial contamination
 concentrations of potentially toxic elements present in water

a. Sediment: its effect depends upon the type of irrigated land when fine sediment from water
is deposited on sandy soils the fertility is improved on the other hand if the sediment has
been derived from the eroded areas it may reduce the fertility or decrease the soil
permeability. Sediment water creates troubles in irrigation canals as it increases their siltation
and maintenance costs. In general ground water or surface water from reservoirs does not
have sufficient sediment to cause any serious problems in irrigation.

b. Total concentration of soluble salts: There are two main causes of salinity: Salinity caused
by the supply of irrigation water and Salinity caused by the upward movement of water and
salts, related to high water tables and lack of drainage; it is only indirectly related to salts in
the irrigation water. The general solution to these problems is to remove the salts from the
soil by providing extra water, which dissolves the salts and percolates to the saturated zone
where it is removed by drainage. The process is called leaching. This is one of the reasons
why irrigation systems also require drainage systems. Salts, when present in excessive
quantities, reduce osmotic activities of the plants and may prevent adequate aeration causing
injuries to plant growth. The effect of salts on plant growth depends largely upon the total
amount of salts in the soil solution. The salinity concentration of the soil solution (Cs) after
the consumptive use (Cu) has been extracted from the soil is given by

C *Q
Cs=

Q  (Cu  Peff ) 
Where Q = quantity of water applied

Peff = useful rainfall

C= concentration of salt in irrigation water

5
 Concentration of salt is measured in PPM (equivalent to mg/l). Concentration of salt above 2000
PPM is generally harmful for almost all crops. Salt concentration is measured by determining
electrical conductivity.

c. Proportion of sodium ions to other cations: most of the soils contain calcium and
magnesium ions and small quantities of sodium ions. The percentage of sodium ion is
generally less than 5% of the total exchangeable ions. If this percentage increases to 10% or
more, the aggregation of soil grains breaks down. The soil becomes less permeable. It starts
crusting when dry and its pH increases towards that of an alkaline soil. High sodium soils are
therefore, plastic, sticky when wet, and are prone to form clogs and they crust on drying.

The proportion of sodium ions present in the soil is generally measured by a factor called
sodium-absorption ratio (SAR) and represents the sodium hazards of water. SAR is defined
as:
Na 
SAR =
 Ca    Mg   
 
 2 

When SAR lies between 0-10 it is low sodium water (S1)

10-18 medium sodium water (S2)
18-26 High sodium water (S3)
>26 very high sodium water (S4)

6
The value of SAR can be reduced by adding gypsum (CaSo4) to the water or to the soil.

Depending upon the Electrical conductivity EC (representing salt content ) of water, the
exchangeable sodium percentage ESP (representing percentage of sodium with respect to total
exchangeable cations) and the PH value of the soil, the soils are classified as alkaline, saline or
saline-alkali as shown below

No. Classification EC ESP PH

1 Saline soils 4000 <15 8.5
2 Alkaline <4000 15 8.5 to 10
3 saline-alkali 4000 15 <8.5

7
 1.4 IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT IN ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia is the “water tower” of North Eastern Africa. Many rivers arising in Ethiopia are also
the sources of the major water resources in neighboring countries. The country is endowed with
water resources that could easily be tapped and used for irrigation. Ironically this country is
already suffering from food shortage because of the increasing population and chronic drought
occurrence in most part of the eastern and northern part of the country. There is an annual food
deficit to the extent of 0.5 to 1.0 million tones in the country. During the period from 1984 to
1992 the food aid annually received was around 0.9 to 1.0 tones (World Bank Report), to meet
the demand of the ever growing population (over 72 million). The need for utilizing these
resources is most urgent, in particular, in areas of the country where the length of the growing
period is short and the precipitation is erratic. In Ethiopia, rainfed agriculture contributes the
largest share of the total production. However, over the past few decades, irrigated agriculture
has become more important.

Prior to the mid-1980s, irrigation in Ethiopia was concentrated on the production of commercial
crops, principally cotton and sugarcane on large state farms. By 1980 it was estimated that
85,000 ha. Mainly in the Awash valley, had been developed under this form of production. In
addition some 65,000 ha of traditional irrigation was estimated to exist. Predominantly in the
highlands and developed on the farmer’s own initiative. These schemes were typically small
runoff river diversion, with low production levels. During this period government involvement in
irrigation concentrated on the state farms and was channeled through various agencies.

The 1984 drought had a considerable impact on Ethiopia’s development policy, and the 1984
Ten-Year perspective plan allocated top priority to agricultural development with objective of
achieving self-sufficiency in food production, establishing a strategic reserve meeting the raw
material requirement of industries and expanding output of exportable agricultural products to
increase foreign exchange earnings.

The Water Sector Development programme of MoWR (2002) organizes irrigation schemes in
Ethiopia under four different ways with sizes ranging from 50 to 85,000 ha

Traditional small scale schemes: These includes up to 100 ha in area, built and operated by
farmers in local communities. Traditionally, farmers have built small scale schemes on their own
initiative with government technical and material support. They manage them in their own users’
associations or committees and irrigate areas from 50 to 100 ha with the average ranging from 70
to 90 ha. A total of 1,309 such schemes existed in 1992 covering an estimated area of 60,000ha.

Water users’ associations have long existed to operate and manage traditional schemes. They
comprise about 200 users who share a main or branch canal and further grouped in to several
teams of 20 to 30 farmers each.

8
 Modern communal schemes: schemes up to 200 ha, built by government agencies with farmer
participation. Modern communal schemes were developed after the catastrophic drought of the
1973 as a means to improve food security and peasant livelihoods by providing cash incomes
through production and marketing of crops. Such schemes are capable of irrigating about
30,000ha of land.

These schemes are generally based on run-of - diversion of streams and rivers and may also
involve micro dams for storage. On-farm support from the respective agricultural departments
and maintenance of headworks by water, mines and energy sections as well as technical support
from the authorized irrigation development Bureaus in different regions is giving supports and
trying to strengthen the system.

Modern private schemes: up to 2000 ha, owned and operated by private investors individually,
in partnership, or as corporations. Medium to large scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia are
private enterprises. The private estates are the pioneers in the development of medium and large
scale irrigation development projects in the upper Awash during the 1950s and 1960s. During the
1990s some private schemes, mostly in the form of limited companies re-emerged with the
adoption of market based economic policy but have expanded relatively slowly.

Currently 18 modern private irrigation projects are operating in some form over a total area of
6000 ha in Oromiya, SNNPR, and Affar regions.

Public Schemes of over 3,000 ha, owned and operated by public enterprises as estate farms.
They are recently developed irrigation schemes during the late 1970s. Gode West, Omo Ratti and
Alwero- Abobo began late in the 1980s and early in the 1990s but have not yet been completed.
Public involvement towards large scale schemes was withdrawn due to government changes and
most of such schemes with the exception of Fincha sugare estate have been suspended. Large
scale schemes being operated by public enterprise extend over an area estimated at 61,000 ha.
Oromiya and Affar account nearly 87% of all irrigation schemes and about 73% of this is located
in Awash valley. The SNNPR and Somali regions contain 9.9 and 3.3 percent respectively,
WSDP (2003).

Irrigation potential: In 1990 a team of consultants working for WAPCOS, a consultancy group in
India, prepared a preliminary water resource development master plan for Ethiopia. The potential
for medium and large scale irrigation projects was identified as 3.3 Mha. Areas having irrigation
potential were identified from 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 topographic maps and 1:1000:000
geomorphologic maps. The study was carried out almost entirely as a desk exercise with minimal
field verification. It should be noted that the assessment of irrigation potential is to a large
degree subjective as it is dependent on the physical resources of land and water, but also on the
economic and social feasibility of their exploitation.

9
Another study conducted by FAO argues the estimation of the potential irrigable land by
WAPCOS is over estimated. That of the total potential irrigable area identified by WAPCOS,
some 3 Mha of the soils or 90% of that of the total were classified as only marginally suitable
and in some case non-suitable with the technology available. The main reason for this is the
predominance of vertisols and nitosols in the areas identified. Theses soils are characterized by
high clay content, restricted damage and difficult workability. To avoid water logging under
irrigated conditions it is necessary to adopt a low cropping intensity or to install expensive sub-
surface drainage. Either alternative significantly reduces the economic viability of irrigation.
However, such soils are frequently classified as highly suitable for rice production.

Ethiopia has a rich water resources potential, but water can be very short in many places. Except
for the Awash and the Omo, all the large rivers originating in Ethiopia flow into neighboring
countries. Unlike in the past Ethiopia is now taking genuine steps towards fostering close ties,
joint planning and harmonious relationships among riparian countries.

Irrigation potential: In 1990 a team of consultants working for WAPCOS, a consultancy group in
India, prepared a preliminary water resource development master plan for Ethiopia. The potential
for medium and large scale irrigation projects was identified as 3.3 Mha. Areas having irrigation
potential were identified from 1:50,000 and 1:250,000 topographic maps and 1:1000:000
geomorphologic maps. The study was carried out almost entirely as a desk exercise with minimal
field verification. It should be noted that the assessment of irrigation potential is to a large
degree subjective as it is dependent on the physical resources of land and water, but also on the
economic and social feasibility of their exploitation.

Another study conducted by FAO argues the estimation of the potential irrigable land by
WAPCOS is over estimated, that of the total potential irrigable area identified by WAPCOS,
some 3 Mha of the soils or 90% of that of the total were classified as only marginally suitable
and in some case non-suitable with the technology available. The main reason for this is the
predominance of vertisols and nitosols in the areas identified. Theses soils are characterized by
high clay content, restricted damage and difficult workability. To avoid water logging under
irrigated conditions it is necessary to adopt a low cropping intensity or to install expensive sub-
surface drainage. Either alternative significantly reduces the economic viability of irrigation.
However, such soils are frequently classified as highly suitable for rice production.

10
Ethiopia has a rich water resources potential, but water can be very short in many places. Except
for the Awash and the Omo, all the large rivers originating in Ethiopia flow into neighboring
countries. Unlike in the past Ethiopia is now taking genuine steps towards fostering close ties,
joint planning and harmonious relationships among riparian countries. The irrigation potential of
the12 major river basins is given in the Table below.

Rivers Basin area Mean Ground water 1 2

(Km)2 annual potentialx109m3
potential Net area
9 3
Vol.x10 m gross
irrigable Under
area(ha) irrigation(ha)

Awash 112696 4.60 0.14 205400 69900

Abay(Blue 204000 52.62 1.80 1001550 21010

Nile)

Baro-Akobo 75912 11.81 0.13 600000 350

Rift valley 52739 56.3 0.10 139300 12270

lakes

Omo-Gibe 79000 17.96 0.10 86520 27310

Genale- 17104 5.88 0.03 423300 80

dawa

Wabi- 202697 3.16 0.04 204000 20290

Shebelle

Tekeze 865000 8.20 0.02 189500 1800

Oaden 72121 0.86 - - -

Denakil 62882 0.86 - 3000 -

Aysha 2223 0.22 - - -

Mereb-Gash 5700 0.65 0.05 67560 8000

Total 1127312 112.45 2.59 2920130 161010

11
Ethiopia has not developed irrigation to the potential it has, i.e. according to the availability of
physical resources, land and water. At present only a little more than 3% of the irrigable land is
currently irrigated both in large and medium scale. The development of irrigated areas in the
country has also been unevenly spread. Over 70% of the area developed for irrigation to date is
in the Awash river basin. Most of the development has been in the Awash valley, which is the
most accessible basin to Addis and has the best infrastructure to support irrigation development.

1.5 PLANNING OF IRRIGATION PROJECTS

Agricultural establishments capable of applying controlled amounts of water to lands to produce

crops are termed irrigation projects. These projects mainly consist of engineering or hydraulic
structures which collect, convey, and deliver water to areas on which crops are grown. Irrigation
projects may range from a small farm unit to those serving extensive areas of millions of
hectares. A small irrigation project may consist of a low diversion weir or an inexpensive
pumping plant along with small ditches (channels) and some minor control structures. A large
irrigation project includes a large storage reservoir, a huge dam, hundreds of kilometers of
canals, branches and distributaries, control structures, and other works. Assuming all other
factors (such as enlightened and experienced farmers, availability of good seeds, etc.) reasonably
favorable, the following can be listed as conditions essential for the success of any irrigation
project.

 Suitability of land (with respect to its soil, topography and drainage features) for
continued agricultural production,
 Favorable climatic conditions for proper growth and yield of the crops,
 Adequate and economic supply of suitable quality of water, and
 Good site conditions for the safe construction and uninterrupted operations of the
engineering works.

Irrigation schemes can be broadly grouped into two main categories: (i) surface water
irrigation schemes, and (ii) ground water irrigation schemes. The former use diversion and
storage methods and obtain their supplies from rivers. Ground water irrigation schemes use open
wells, and deep and shallow tube wells to lift water from the water-bearing strata below the
earth’s surface. The choice of an irrigation scheme depends on several factors, such as surface
topography, rainfall characteristics, type of source available, subsoil profile, etc. One should,
however, always plan to use surface and ground waters together to derive maximum benefits.
Such use is termed conjunctive use of surface and ground waters.

Types of Irrigation projects

Any plan, which ultimately aims at satisfying the paramount need of adequate water provision
for crop production, is an irrigation project. Based on the scope of the irrigation project,
irrigation projects can be classified as:

12
 Type of project Command area(ha)

Large scale >10,000

Medium scale 2,000-10,000
Small scale <2,000
Note: In Ethiopia, Small scale irrigations are those which have command areas <200 ha, medium
scale 200-3000 ha and large scale >3000 ha.

Development of an Irrigation Project

A small irrigation project can be developed in a relatively short time. Farmers having land
suitable for agriculture and a source of adequate water supply can plan their own irrigation
system, secure necessary finance from banks or other agencies, and get the engineering works
constructed without any delay. On the other hand, development of a large irrigation project is
more complicated and time-consuming. Complexity and the time required for completion of a
large project increase with the size of the project. This is due to the organizational, legal,
financial administrative, environmental, and engineering problems all of which must be given
detailed consideration prior to the construction of the irrigation works. The common procedures
adopted in the development of an irrigation project are:

1. Sites are located on the top sheet.

2. The marked sites are inspected (reconnaissance) to decide their feasibility.
3. The feasibility investigations are carried out for one or more of the possible alternatives
and estimates based approximate details are prepared.
4. Detailed investigations are then taken up and technical sanctions are granted.
5. After the technical sanction, agency of execution (i.e., contractor) is fixed and
construction started
The principal stages of a large irrigation project are:

(i) the promotional stage,

(ii) The planning stage,
(iii) The construction stage, and
(iv) The settlement stage.

Engineering activities are needed during all stages (including operation and maintenance) of
development of an irrigation project. However, the planning and construction stages require most
intensive engineering activities.

13
Feasibility of an Irrigation Project

A proposed irrigation project is considered feasible only when the total estimated benefits of the
project exceed its total estimated cost. The feasibility of an irrigation project is determined on the
basis of preliminary estimates of area of land suitable for irrigation, water requirements,
available water supplies, productivity of irrigated land, and required engineering works. Once the
project is considered feasible, the process of planning starts. Sufficient planning of all aspects
(organizational, technical, agricultural, legal, environmental, and financial) is essential in all
irrigation projects. The process of planning of an irrigation project can be divided into the
following two stages:

1. Preliminary planning, and

2. Detailed planning.

The preliminary planning of an irrigation project consists of collecting and analyzing all
available data. Based on preliminary planning, the detailed measurements are taken and the
detailed plans are prepared. Obviously, detailed plans are more accurate. Alterations in the
detailed plans may be necessary at all stages of the project. The preparation of plans of an
irrigation project is a complicated task and needs the expertise of specialists in areas of
engineering, agriculture, soil science, and geology. The following are the main factors which
must be determined accurately during the planning stage of an irrigation project:

 Type of project and general plan of irrigation works,

 Location, extent and type of irrigable lands,
 Irrigation requirements for profitable crop production,
 Available water supplies for the project,
 Irrigable (culturable) areas which can be economically supplied with water,
 Types and locations of necessary engineering works,
 Needs for immediate and future drainage,
 Feasibility of hydroelectric power development,
 Cost of storage, irrigation, power, and drainage features,
 Evaluation of probable power, income, and indirect benefits,
 Method of financing the project construction,
 Desirable type of construction and development,
 Probable annual cost of water to the farmers,
 Cost of land preparations and farm distribution systems, and
 Feasible crops, costs of crop production, and probable crop returns.

Most of these elements of project planning are interrelated to some extent. Hence, the studies of
the factors listed above should be carried out concurrently so that necessary adjustments can be
made promptly as planning progresses.
14
For detailed planning, accurate data on all aspects of the proposed irrigation project are required
to work out the detailed plans and designs of various engineering works and to determine their
economic site locations. When the idea of an irrigation project is conceived (after reconnaissance
survey), the data to be collected at the feasibility study stage are

1. Physical data: Location, size, physiography (description of land form which includes only
physical aspects), climate, etc.
2. Hydrological data: Precipitation, Evaporation, transpiration, stream flow, sediment, water
quality etc.
3. Agricultural data: Land classification, crop water requirements, types of crops etc
4. Geological data: Rock & Soil types, ground water, minerals, erosion, etc.
5. Cartographic data: Topographic & other maps of the area.
6. Ecological data: Types of vegetation, fish & wild life.
7. Demographic data: Population statistics, data of people etc.
8. Economic data: Means of transportation, market, land taxes, etc.
9. Legal data: Water rights, land ownership administrative pattern, etc
10. Data in existing project: Types of Location of various projects.
11. Data on public opinion: Opinions of different section of the society
12. Flood control data: Records of past flood, extent of damage caused, drainage requirements

15