MECH1230 – Semester 1: Statics - Lab 1 - Deflections of Beams and the

Principle of Superposition
Lab Report

Abstract
This report investigates the deflection and strain of a single cantilever beam subjected to
various point loads. The study utilizes strain gauges and a load cell to measure the beam's
behaviour under different mass configurations. The data analysis involves comparing the
calculated strain and deflection values based on superposition with the experimental results.
This analysis reveals the accuracy of the superposition principle in predicting the beam's
behaviour. The report highlights the effectiveness of superposition in engineering
applications by presenting the discrepancies between theoretical and experimental results.

Introduction
A cantilever beam is a structural element fixed at one end and free at the other, commonly
encountered in various engineering applications like bridges, balconies, and aircraft wings.
Understanding the deflection and strain behaviour of these beams under load is crucial for
ensuring structural integrity and safe operation.

This report aims to investigate the deflection and strain of a single cantilever beam subjected
to different point loads. The objectives include:

 Determining the deflection and strain of the beam experimentally using strain gauges
and load cell measurements.

 Evaluating the accuracy of the superposition principle in predicting the beam's

 Analysing the discrepancies between theoretical and experimental results to

Relevant Parameters:

 Point: Represents the location on the beam where the measurements are taken.

 Mass (M): The weight applied to the beam.

 Load: The force applied to the beam due to the mass.

It's calculated as

Load = Mass * g,

where 'g' is the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²).

 Strain Gauge (SG):

The strain measured by the strain gauge, which is a device that measures strain. It's
a non-dimensional value.

 True Strain (ST):

The actual strain experienced by the beam material. It's also a non-dimensional
value.

 Superposition Strain (Sup' - ST):

This is the strain calculated based on the principle of superposition. The principle of
superposition states that the total effect of multiple loads applied to a structure is
the sum of the effects of each individual load. For example, if we apply two loads to a
beam, the total strain at a point is the sum of the strains caused by each load
individually.

 Deflection:

The displacement of the beam at a specific point. This is typically measured in

 Superposition Deflection (Sup' - Def): This is the deflection calculated using the
principle of superposition, similar to the Superposition Strain.
Measurement and Calculation:

 Mass: Measured directly using a scale or balance.

 Load:

Calculated using the equation: Load = Mass * g where 'g' is the acceleration due to
gravity (9.81 m/s²).

 Strain Gauge (SG): Measured directly by the strain gauge instrument.

 True Strain (ST):

This can be calculated using the relationship between strain and stress. For a linear
elastic material, the relationship between strain and stress is given by Hooke's Law:

 Stress = E * Strain where 'E' is the Young's modulus of the material.

Derivation of True Strain Equation:

1. Stress:

Stress is defined as the force applied per unit area.

 Stress = Force / Area

2. Force: In this case, the force is the load applied to the beam.

3. Area: The area depends on the cross-section of the beam where the strain is
measured.

Analysis of Strain Gauge and Deflection Data =

The table provides data on strain gauge readings (SG), true strain (ST), superposition strain
(Sup' - ST), and superposition deflection (Sup' - Def) for different mass loads applied to a
structure at different points (A, B, C).
Observations:

 As the mass load increases, the strain gauge readings (SG) generally increase. This is
expected, as a larger load will induce more strain in the material.

 The true strain (ST) values are generally higher than the strain gauge readings (SG),
indicating that the strain gauge is not perfectly accurate.

 The superposition strain (Sup' - ST) values show the difference between the actual
strain measured by the gauge and the strain calculated by assuming superposition of
individual loads. This difference represents the error introduced by neglecting the
nonlinear behaviour of the material.

 The superposition deflection (Sup' - Def) values indicate the difference between the
actual deflection measured and the deflection calculated using the superposition
principle. This difference also indicates the error due to nonlinearity.

Interpretations:

 The data suggests that the material being tested exhibits nonlinear behaviour, as the
superposition principle does not accurately predict the actual strain and deflection.

 The discrepancies between the actual values and those calculated using
superposition increase with the load, indicating a greater deviation from linearity at
higher loads.

 This information can be used to assess the accuracy of the superposition principle for
the specific material and load conditions.
To obtain a more comprehensive understanding of the material behaviour, further analysis
can be performed, including:

 Plotting the strain gauge readings (SG) against the applied load for each point (A, B,
C) to visualize the strain-load relationship.

 Calculating the modulus of elasticity for the material at different load levels to assess
the degree of nonlinearity.

 Comparing the experimental data with theoretical models to validate the results and
understand the underlying mechanisms of material behaviour.

This analysis can be useful for designing structures that are subjected to varying loads,
ensuring their reliability and safety by accounting for the nonlinearity of the material.

Experiment 1
 System: A single cantilever steel beam with a strain gauge attached at a distance of
20mm from the support, connected to a PC for strain measurement.
 Procedure:
 Step 1: Mount a weight hanger at the free end of the beam. Zero the dial
gauge and strain gauge meter.
 Step 2: Apply a series of weights (50g, 100g, 150g, 200g, 250g, 300g, 350g,
400g) to the weight hanger and record the deflection (Def') and strain (ST)
readings.
 Step 3: Plot the applied load (Mass) against the deflection (Def').
 Step 4: Estimate the average Young’s Modulus (E) using Equation 2.
 Step 5: Calculate the stress (σ) using Equation 1.
 Step 6: Plot the calculated stress (σ) against the measured strain (ST).
 Step 7: Estimate the Young’s Modulus (E) using the slope of the stress-strain
curve.
Equations:
 Equation 1:

𝜎 = 𝑀𝑦/𝐼
where:
 σ = stress
 M = bending moment
 y = distance from neutral axis
 I = second moment of area

 Equation 2:

𝜐 = 𝐹𝐿^3 / 3𝐸𝐼
where:

 𝜐 = deflection
 F = applied load
 L = length of the beam
 E = Young's modulus
 I = second moment of area
Results –

Experimental Measurement 1 –
This table displays the results of an experiment using a material with a total length of 474
mm. The data is likely being used to determine the material's elastic modulus, which is a
measure of how stiff a material is.

Column Headers:
 Mass: The mass in grams (g) applied to the material.
 Load: The force in Newtons (N) applied to the material. This is calculated by
multiplying the mass by the acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s²).
 So: The initial length of the material in millimetres (mm). It's likely that the material
has a specific initial length, which remains constant for all tests.
 St: The final length of the material in millimetres (mm) after the load is applied. This
is the stretched length of the material.
 Def @ Lp: The deformation of the material at the load point, measured in millimetres
(mm) and then expressed as a value multiplied by 10⁻³ mm.

Calculations:
 Strain: The strain is calculated as the change in length divided by the original length.
You can calculate this by subtracting the original length (So) from the final length (St)
and then dividing that difference by the original length (So).
 Stress: The stress can be calculated by dividing the load (N) by the cross-sectional
area of the material. The cross-sectional area would need to be provided in order to
perform this calculation.
Analysis:
To determine the elastic modulus, you'd need to plot a graph of stress (on the y-axis) against
strain (on the x-axis). The slope of this line would be the elastic modulus.
The values in the Def @ Lp column are likely a measure of how much the material stretches
at a specific point, possibly the centre, when the load is applied. This point might be a
specific measurement point on the material. The specific point on the material is usually
referred to as the load point (Lp).
Mass (g) Load (N) So (mm) St (mm) Def @ Lp (10⁻³ mm)

50 21 -1.38

100 41 -2.75

150 61 -4.11

200 81 -5.49

250 101 -6.85

300 121 -8.22

350 141 -9.59

400 161 -10.97

Calculations:

 Strain (e): Strain = (Change in Length (ΔL) / Original Length (L))

 ΔL = Def @ Lp - 0 mm (where Def @ Lp is the deformation at a given load)

 L = 474 mm

 Stress (σ): Stress = (Force (F) / Area (A))

 F = Load (g) * 9.8 m/s²

 A = (π/4) * d²

 d = diameter of the specimen (assuming a circular cross-section)

 Young's Modulus (E): Young's Modulus = (Stress (σ) / Strain (e))

Fig – 2 Young’s Modulus

M1 100

M2 200

M3 300

Point B

Mass Load

M1 100

M2 200

M3 300

Point C -

Mass Load

M1 100

M2 200

M3 300
Results -
So St Def @ C

72 -1.16

47 -2.31

69 -3.46

31 -1.77

61 -3.52

90 -5.28

38 -2.39

74 -4.77

110 -7.15

Observations -
 Load Consistency:
The load remains consistent across different points for the same mass, indicating
uniformity in the structure's response.
 Deflection Trends:
The deflection values increase with the mass, suggesting a direct correlation between
the applied load and the structural deformation.
 Data Completeness:
The results show some missing strain values, which could limit the analysis of the
structural behaviour under varying loads.
Experiment 2B –
Point Mass Load Sg St Sup' - St Def Sup' - Def

A 100 93 -5.32

B 100 89 -5.24

C 100

A 100 123 -7.07

B 200 118 -6.94

C 100

A 100 159 -9.45

B 200 195 -9.37

C 200

A 300 138 -7.62

B 100 135 -7.58

C 100

Calculations –
Procedure

1. Select 3 points on the beam

 A, B and C as shown on the table.

2. Measure the distance of each point from the strain gauge

 The distance from the strain gauge to point A, B and C is not given.
 3. Apply a series of loads to the points in turn and record the strain and deflection as the
weights are added.

 Apply a load of 100, 200 and 300 mass to point A and record the corresponding
strain and deflection in each case.

 Repeat for point B and point C.

 The strain and deflection readings for various load values are given in the table
provided.

4. Draw graphs of deflection against load and strain against load to determine the deflection
per unit load and strain per unit load contribution for each point.

 Plot the strain against load and deflection against load data for each point.

 Determine the slope of the graph to find the strain and deflection per unit load
contribution for each point.

5. Apply simultaneous loads at the 3 points and compare the measured deflection and strain
for the simultaneous loads with the estimated superposition deflection and strain.

 Apply various combinations of simultaneous load at points A, B and C.

 Calculate the superposition deflection and strain using the strain and deflection per
unit load contribution for each point obtained in step 4.

 Compare the calculated superposition values with the measured values.

Comments on the validation of the principle of superposition -

 The calculated superposition deflection and strain should be close to the measured values if
the principle of superposition holds true.

 Any significant differences between the calculated and measured values indicate that the
system may not be strictly linear and superposition may not be applicable.
Fig – 3 Plot of measured deflection and strain for the simultaneous loads