Energy Economics ECO622

Lesson 01
Introduction to Energy Economics

Topic 001: Energy Fundamentals

Physicists and engineers define energy as the capacity to do work, leaving us then
with the need to define work. Work is a general term to most of us; it signifies everything
from shoveling snow off the driveway to making out an income tax form, studying for an
examination, or writing an essay. In order to make work a useful concept for scientific
purposes, we must forget about the pleasant and unpleasant aspects and come up with a
definition suitable for quantitative analysis.
We can achieve this by defining work to be the product of force times the distance
through which the force acts. A common example of this definition of work is given by a
force pushing an object along a rough surface. The force could be exerted by any agent:
human, steam engine, sled dog, or electric motor. In the British system of units, the force
is given in pounds (lb) and the distance in feet (ft), so work will then be in units of
pound-feet, or more commonly foot-pounds (ft⋅lb). In the metric system, work has the
units of newton-meter (N⋅m), where the newton is the metric unit of force and the meter
is the metric unit of distance. The metric unit of energy, the joule, is defined as 1 J = 1
N⋅m. The two systems of units (British and metric) are both in common use in the United
States, and conversions between them are not difficult.

Work = force × distance

Energy is often expressed in the units of joules or foot-pounds. We may also find it
convenient to work in terms of the rate of use of energy, as well as with the energy
amounts themselves.We will then speak in terms of joules per second. This is analogous
to the way in which we commonly discuss our wages in dollars per hour (a rate) as well
as in dollars
(an amount). These two quantities are related, but different. Power is the time rate of
using, or delivering, energy:
Power = energy/time
and
Energy = power × time

In the metric system, for power we use units of watts, where 1 W = 1 J∕sec. In the
British system, the unit of power is the horsepower, where one horsepower is 550
footpounds per second. The rating of an electric power plant should be in the power unit
of watts, as it can supply electrical energy at a certain rate. The units of kilowatts (103
W), megawatts (106 W), and gigawatts (109 W) are also often
used. If a power plant operating at a steady power P has run for a time t, then the energy
produced is

E = P × t.

The common unit for energy in this case of electricity generation is the kilowatt-hour
(kWh).

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A well-established law of physics states that the total energy in an isolated region cannot
change. By “isolated,” it is meant that energy can neither enter nor escape that region. In
other words, the total energy in the region is conserved, even though it may be trans-
formed from one form of energy to another. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. This
is The Principle of Energy Conservation, quite different from the more general ideas
about reducing waste of energy.

Topic 002: Introduction: Renewable Energy

In dealing with energy resources and energy use it is often necessary to distinguish
between renewable and nonrenewable resources. The nonrenewable resources are those
that could be exhausted within a relatively short time as a result of our exploiting them;
renewable resources can never be consumed to completion. There is not always complete
agreement on the definitions of renewable and nonrenewable. Some would classify a
given category of resource under the heading of renewable, while others, for equally
valid reasons, would consider it nonrenewable.
Examples of nonrenewable energy sources would be the following: all the fossil fuels
(coal, oil, natural gas, shale oil, tar sands, etc.), uranium-235 nuclear fission fuel,
deuterium nuclear fusion fuel, and some types of geothermal energy. The time to exhaust
a nonrenewable resource depends on the rate of use and size of the resource.
We have only three sources of renewable energy: solar, geothermal, and tidal.
All energy sources based on the solar energy incident on earth—direct sunlight, wind,
hydroelectric power, ocean currents, ocean thermal gradients, and biomass—are
renewable.

Topic 003: Introduction: Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is a form of energy generated through the process of nuclear reactions. It
is produced by either splitting the nucleus of an atom (nuclear fission) or combining the
nuclei of atoms (nuclear fusion). Nuclear power plants primarily use nuclear fission to
generate electricity.

In nuclear fission, the nucleus of a heavy atom, such as uranium or plutonium, is split
into two smaller nuclei, releasing a significant amount of energy in the process. This
energy is harnessed in nuclear power plants by controlling the chain reaction of fission
through the use of control rods and coolants.

Topic 004: Energy Economics and Political Picture

There have been proposed top ten global concerns among which energy is top of the list.

1. Energy
2. Water
3. Food
4. Environment

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5. Poverty
6. Terrorism and War
7. Disease
8. Education
9. Democracy
10. Population

The energy mix of Pakistan includes all sources out of which hyro sources of 29%, R-
LNG is 24%, furnace oil is 14% and so on. The share of renewable energy is just 6% of
the total energy consumption in year 2020 while nuclear energy has 4% share in total
energy of the country.

US Energy Mix 2020

The energy mix of US in 2020 includes petroleum and natural gas with 36% and 32%
while renewable energy is just 12% in the total energy consumed. It is clear that biomass

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sources in the renewable energy has the largest share being wind and hydroelectricity as
second and third respectively.

China Energy Mix 2017

The energy mix in China consists largely on coal which is 59.3% of the total energy
consumed in 2017. While Oil is on second number with hydro sources at third position.
Renewable and nuclear energy are at 7.5% and 1.7% in the country.

It is much clear from the above graph that electricity generation from all sectors in billion
kilowatts-hours (kWh) is based on 40% from natural gas, 21% from renewable energy
sources, 20% from nuclear sources and 19% from coal.

The discussion highlights that there is huge share of fossil fuels in the energy mix of
these countries and renewable and nuclear energy sources have a smaller share therein
showing the potential to increase these renewable shares in the energy mix to improve the
economic and environmental conditions.

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Lesson 02
Energy Demand and Supply

Topic 005: Energy Demand

Energy demand refers to the amount of energy needed or desired by individuals,

organizations, or countries to meet their various needs and activities. It encompasses the
total energy required to power homes, businesses, industries, transportation, and other
sectors.

Energy demand is influenced by several factors, including population growth, economic

development, technological advancements, energy efficiency measures, lifestyle choices,
climate conditions, and government policies. The types of energy demanded can vary and
may include electricity, natural gas, petroleum, coal, renewable energy sources like solar
and wind, and others.

Understanding and managing energy demand is crucial for ensuring a reliable and
sustainable energy supply. It involves assessing current and future energy requirements,
developing energy efficiency strategies, promoting renewable energy sources, and
adopting policies that promote responsible energy consumption.

Energy demand can fluctuate over time due to various factors such as changes in weather
patterns, economic conditions, and shifts in energy prices. It is essential for energy
planners, policymakers, and energy providers to monitor and analyze energy demand
trends to make informed decisions regarding energy infrastructure investments, resource
allocation, and environmental considerations.

Primary energy demand refers to the total amount of energy required to meet the energy
needs of a specific region or country before any conversion or transformation takes place.
It represents the total energy consumed by all sectors, including residential, commercial,

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industrial, transportation, and agriculture, without accounting for any energy losses
during conversion or distribution.

Primary energy demand encompasses various forms of energy sources, such as fossil
fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas), nuclear energy, renewable energy (solar, wind,
hydroelectric, geothermal), and biomass. It provides a comprehensive view of the energy
consumption patterns and requirements of a given area.

Measuring primary energy demand is essential for energy planning, policy-making, and
determining the overall energy infrastructure needed to meet a region's energy needs. It
serves as a fundamental metric for assessing energy security, sustainability, and
environmental impacts associated with energy production and consumption.

It is clear in the table 2.1 that plants under construction by primary fuel type in the world
consists of 66.05% share with natural gas with wind stood at second at 17.69% of share.
There are other sources of energy including solar, nuclear, hyro etc. as well and they have
a relatively low share in primary fuel type. This is also valid with the capacity of these
plants given in megawatt for these fuels in table 2.1.

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Likely, in the next table, the data in percentage form has been given for top 20 nations by
oil reserves. It is clear that most reserves of oil are in Saudi arbia following the Iraq at
second biggest nation in this regard. There are other countries like Kuwain, Iran and
Russia as well in the list as well.

In the next table, leading petroleum producing nations has been given. It is evident that
Russia, Saudi Arabia, USA are among the top three producers of oil production per day
and oil production per capita respectively.

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In the above graph, OPEC share of world crude oil reserves, 2017 has been provided and
it is clear that OPEC countries have 81.89% share in crude oil of the world while non
opec countries produce 18.11% share in this regards.

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Topic 006: US Oil Consumption

The U.S does indeed produce enough oil to meet its own needs. According to the U.S.
Energy Information Administration (EIA), in 2020 America produced 18.4 million barrels
of oil per day and consumed 18.12 million. And yet that same report reveals that the U.S.
imported 7.86 million barrels of oil per day last year.

Here are some concise energy trivia facts:

One barrel of oil contains approximately 42 gallons.

The United States produces around 5,064,000 barrels of crude oil per day, with Texas
leading the state rankings at 1,087,000 barrels per day.
The U.S. imports about 10,031,000 barrels of crude oil per day, with 5,980,000 barrels
per day coming from OPEC countries.
Canada is the top supplier of crude oil to the United States, providing 1,888,000 barrels
per day.
Saudi Arabia was the largest oil-producing country and exporter in 2006, with a daily
production of 10,665,000 barrels.
The United States is the largest oil-consuming country and importer, consuming
20,680,000 barrels of petroleum per day.
el Gallon of oil per barrel 42

U.S. Crude Oil Production 5,064,000 barrels/day

State Ranking of Crude Oil Production Texas - 1,087,000 barrels/day

U.S. Crude Oil Imports 10,031,000 barrels/day

U.S. Crude Oil Imports from OPEC 5,980,000 barrels/day

Top U.S. Crude Oil Supplier Canada - 1,888,000 barrels/day

Top Oil Producing Countries & Exporters #1 - Saudi Arabia (10,665,000 bbls/day in 2006)

Top Oil Consuming Countries & Importers #1 - United States (20,680,000 bbls/day)

U.S. Petroleum Consumption 20,680,000 barrels/day

Dependence on Net Petroleum Imports (2007) 58.2%

Federal Motor Gasoline Tax (average) 18.4 cents/gallon

In 2007, the U.S. had a dependence on net petroleum imports of 58.2%.

The average federal motor gasoline tax in the United States is 18.4 cents per gallon.

let's compare the population and oil consumption figures of the United States in relation
to the world population and oil production.

Population Comparison:
World Population: 7.5 billion
US Population: 0.33 billion
The US population represents approximately 4.4% of the world population. This means
that out of every 100 people in the world, around 4 are residents of the United States.

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Oil Consumption Comparison:

World oil production: 82.5 million barrels per day (MM bbls/day)
US oil consumption: 20.7 million barrels per day (MM bbls/day)
The US oil consumption accounts for approximately 25% of the world's oil production.
This means that out of every 100 barrels of oil produced globally, around 25 barrels are
consumed in the United States.
Thus it is much clear that US population represents about 4.4% of the world population.
The US consumes around 25% of the world's oil production.

Topic 007: Economic Supply and Demand Model for Energy

An energy flow diagram, also known as an energy flow chart or energy flow graph, is a
visual representation of how energy moves through a system or a process. It illustrates
the various forms of energy involved and the transformations or transfers that occur along
the way. Energy flow diagrams are often used in the study of energy systems, such as
power generation, transportation, or ecological systems, to analyze energy inputs,
outputs, and conversions.

In 2017, Pakistan's energy mix was primarily composed of fossil fuels, particularly
natural gas, oil, and coal. Renewable energy sources such as hydropower and wind power
also contributed to the energy production. Here are some key points regarding the energy
sector:

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Natural Gas: Natural gas was the most dominant energy source in Pakistan, accounting
for a significant portion of the energy production and consumption. It was primarily used
for electricity generation, industrial processes, and residential purposes.
Oil: Pakistan heavily relied on imported oil to meet its energy needs. It was mainly used
for transportation, power generation, and industrial sectors.
Coal: Coal played a significant role in electricity generation. Pakistan has substantial coal
reserves, and coal-fired power plants were a significant source of electricity in the
country.
Hydro power: Pakistan has a significant hydro power potential due to its rivers and water
resources. Hydro power plants, such as the Tarbela Dam and Mangla Dam, contributed to
the electricity generation in the country.
Nuclear: Pakistan has a few nuclear power plants that contributed to the energy mix in
2017. These plants generated electricity through nuclear fission.
Renewable Energy: Pakistan has been gradually increasing its focus on renewable energy
sources. In 2017, wind power projects and solar installations were being d
Likely, US energy flow chart has been provided next.
US Energy Flow (2018)

Energy flow diagrams help in understanding the efficiency of energy conversions,

identifying potential losses or waste, and optimizing energy systems for improved
sustainability and resource management. It is clear that at each stage production, imports
energy conversion, energy waste etc has been shown in the diagram for US in 2018.

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Lesson 03
Energy Demand and Supply

Topic 008: Trade Deficit

A trade deficit occurs when the value of a country's imports exceeds the value of its
exports. In other words, it represents a negative balance of trade. When a country has a
trade deficit, it means it is importing more goods and services than it is exporting, leading
to a net outflow of money from the country.

The table indicates that in 2017, Japan, SOuth Korea, Taiwan, Austrailia, Malaysia and
brazil have a trade deficit i.e. their imports were more than exports of the goods.

The figuel shows that from 1985-2017, trade deficit of US with China stood at $375
billions on averages.

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Oil prices have a long and complex history that has been shaped by various geopolitical,
economic, and environmental factors. Here is a brief overview of the key events and
trends that have influenced oil prices over the years:

Early Years: The modern oil industry began in the late 19th century, and prices were
relatively stable during this period due to limited global demand and supply. The industry
was dominated by the United States and Russia.

Rise of OPEC: The formation of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

(OPEC) in 1960 marked a significant turning point. OPEC member countries, led by
Saudi Arabia, gained control over their oil reserves and started to exert influence over
prices by adjusting production levels.

Oil Crisis of the 1970s: In 1973, OPEC imposed an oil embargo on countries that
supported Israel in the Yom Kippur War. This caused a sharp increase in oil prices,
leading to the first major oil crisis. Another crisis followed in 1979 due to the Iranian
Revolution and the Iran-Iraq War, causing further price spikes.

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Price Volatility in the 1980s and 1990s: In the 1980s, oil prices experienced a significant
decline as OPEC members engaged in a price war, resulting in an oversupply. The prices
remained relatively low throughout the 1990s due to weak global demand and increased
non-OPEC production.

2000s Boom and Bust: Oil prices began to rise in the early 2000s due to increasing
demand from emerging economies like China and India. By 2008, prices reached record
highs, surpassing $140 per barrel. However, the global financial crisis and economic
downturn led to a sharp decline in oil prices in late 2008.

Post-2008 Recovery: Oil prices recovered gradually after the financial crisis, supported
by global economic growth, particularly in developing countries. Geopolitical tensions in
oil-producing regions, such as the Arab Spring, conflicts in the Middle East, and
sanctions on Iran, also impacted prices.

Shale Revolution: The development of hydraulic fracturing (fracking) and the extraction
of shale oil in the United States brought about a significant increase in oil production.
The increased supply from the U.S. shale industry contributed to a global oil glut and put
downward pressure on prices.

Recent Years: Oil prices experienced notable volatility in recent years. In 2020, the
COVID-19 pandemic caused a massive drop in global oil demand due to lock downs and
travel restrictions, leading to a historic collapse in oil prices. However, prices rebounded
as economies started to recover and oil production was curtailed through coordinated
efforts by OPEC+ (OPEC and its allies) to stabilize the market.

It's important to note that oil prices are influenced by numerous factors, including global
economic conditions, political events, production levels, inventories, and environmental
concerns. These factors interact in complex ways, making it difficult to predict long-term
oil price trends with certainty.

GDP per capita vs Total Energy Consumption per capita

GDP per capita: GDP per capita is a measure of a country's economic output per person.
It is calculated by dividing the gross domestic product (GDP) of a country by its

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population. GDP represents the total value of goods and services produced within a
country's borders in a specific time period. GDP per capita helps assess the average
economic well-being of individuals in a country.

Total energy consumption per capita: Total energy consumption per capita is a measure of
the amount of energy consumed by individuals in a country. It includes energy used for
various purposes like electricity generation, transportation, industry, residential, and
commercial sectors. Total energy consumption per capita helps gauge the energy
demands and usage patterns of a country's population.

The relationship between GDP per capita and total energy consumption per capita can
vary depending on various factors, including a country's level of economic development,
energy efficiency, industrial structure, and energy sources.

In general, countries with higher GDP per capita tend to have higher energy consumption
per capita (see figure). This is because economic growth often leads to increased
industrial activity, urbanization, and higher standards of living, all of which typically
result in greater energy demand. Developed countries with advanced industries, extensive
transportation networks, and energy-intensive lifestyles generally exhibit higher energy
consumption per capita.

Topic 009: Energy and the Environmental Picture

The graph of global carbon emissions indicates that carbon emission are on the rise from
1950 towards current timings due to fossil fuels, cement and fossil fuels uses. The
predicted level of carbon emissions also reveals rising pattern till year 2050.
Global Carbon Emission

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It is clear in the next graph that global average surface temperature and sea levels are
rising continuously while Northern Hemispherre snow cover are reducing which could
lead toward climate change and floods etc.

There are some risk area highlighted due to environmental consequences in the world
generally and in Us specifically.

Greenhouse Effects

Human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels (coal, oil, and natural gas),
deforestation, industrial processes, and agricultural practices, have significantly increased
the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, particularly carbon dioxide.
This increase in greenhouse gases enhances the greenhouse effect, leading to a
phenomenon known as global warming.

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The consequences of global warming include rising average temperatures, melting

glaciers and polar ice caps, rising sea levels, changes in precipitation patterns, more
frequent and severe weather events (such as hurricanes, droughts, and heatwaves), and
disruptions to ecosystems and biodiversity.

Addressing the greenhouse effect and mitigating climate change requires reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, transitioning to cleaner and renewable energy sources,
improving energy efficiency, promoting sustainable land use practices, and adopting other
measures to limit the human impact on the environment.

Hashimoto Predictions

Hashimoto predicted that energy consumption in increasing from 1.28 fold times since
1990-2014 and 1.018 fold increase every year since 1990. This has caused to have
environmental damages.

Topic 010: Future Energy Challenges

The future global energy prosperity and the terrawatt challenge includes to provide the
energy prosperity to the 10 billion population like of those developed countries. For this,
a couple of kilo-watt hours per person, we would need to generate 60 terrawatts around
the planet which is equivalent of 900 millions barrels of oil per day. It is nonetheless
mentioned that we produce 90 barrels of oil per day. In this decade, we will peak the
amount of oil that is produced world wide.
Energy per capita refers to the amount of energy consumed by an individual within a
specific population. Energy per capita is influenced by various factors such as the level

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of industrialization, technological advancements, energy efficiency, and lifestyle patterns

within a country.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita is a measure of the economic output per person
in a country. It represents the total value of goods and services produced within a
country's borders over a specific period (usually a year), divided by the population. GDP
per capita provides a broad measure of the average economic well-being and is
commonly used to compare the relative prosperity of different countries.
The current paradigm with GDP per capita and oil use per capita indicates that developed
countries with more GDP per capita have higher oil usage per capita e.g. Japan, Norway,
US etc.
Current Paradigm

Likely, the inverted paradigm and environmental brunet's curve (EKC) suggest that
solution towards the environmental problems will be solved at higher level of GDP per
capital.

Environmental Kuznets Curve and Inverted Paradigm (Flawed Keynesian Hypothesis)

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This means that countries adds to the environmental degradation at early stages then a
peak level of pollution with higher GDP occurs, then at higher level of GDP, countries
start using those production strategies which are environmental friendly. Thus EKC
hypothesis suggest that initially environmental pollution increase with production then at
higher levels of GDP, it starts decreasing.

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Lesson 04
Energy Fundamentals

Topic 011: Energy Fundamentals

In this topic, we will discuss the Concepts of Work, Energy, Power, Production,
Consumption.

Energy: the capacity to do work

Colloquial perspective:
Being wiped out and unable to work
Getting tired and unable to work
Feeling full of energy

Philosophical Perspective: (Ontological meanings)

Energy as substance
Energy as wave
Scalar quantities:

Velocity (m/s): Velocity is a vector quantity, not a scalar quantity. It represents the rate at
which an object changes its position in a particular direction. It has both magnitude
(speed) and direction.
Vector quantities:

Velocity (m/s): As mentioned above, velocity is a vector quantity as it has both magnitude
(speed) and direction. For example, a car traveling at 60 km/h to the north has a velocity
of 60 km/h in the north direction.

Acceleration (m/s²): Acceleration is also a vector quantity as it involves both magnitude

and direction. It represents the rate of change of velocity. For example, a car accelerating
at 5 m/s² to the east has an acceleration of 5 m/s² in the east direction.

Force (kg·m/s² or Newton): Force is a vector quantity. It is described by Newton's second

law of motion, which states that force equals mass multiplied by acceleration (F = ma).
The unit of force is the Newton (N), which can be expressed as kg·m/s². It has both
magnitude and direction. For example, a force of 10 N acting to the south.

Other quantities:

Work (Newton-meter or Joule): Work is the product of force and displacement. It is

measured in Newton-meters (N·m) or Joules (J). Work is a scalar quantity because it only
has magnitude and does not have a specific direction.

Energy (Newton-meter or Joule): Energy is also measured in Newton-meters (N·m) or

Joules (J). Energy is a scalar quantity as it represents the ability to do work or transfer
heat. It does not have a specific direction.

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Power (Watt): Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. It is
measured in Joules per second (J/s) or Watts (W). Power is a scalar quantity as it
represents the rate of energy transfer or work done, without specifying a direction. One
horsepower is approximately equal to 746 Watts.

Work: (Work and Energy are the same thing)

In physics, the definition of work is the application of a force through a distance

W=Fd

W is the work done

F is the force applied
d is the distance through which the force acts
Only the force that acts in the direction of motion counts towards work
Only the force that causes the motion does the work

Units of Energy

Force is a mass times an acceleration

mass has units of kilograms
acceleration is m/s2
force is then kg·m/s2, which we call Newtons (N)
Work is a force times a distance
units are then (kg·m/s2)m = kg ·m2/s2 = N·m = Joules (J)
One joule is one Newton of force acting through one meter
Imperial units of force and distance are pounds and feet, so unit of energy is foot-pound,
which equals 1.36 J Energy has the same units as work: Joules

To understand the physics part of energy we need to understand:

Velocity m/s (Scalar and Vector quantities)
Acceleration m/s2
Force From Newton’s first law of motion (F=ma) kg x m/s2
(1 Newton = 1 kg x 1 m/s2) (Next 2 slides)
Work Newtons-meter (N-m) (Joule)
Energy Newtons-meter (N-m) (Joule)
Power Rate of energy consumption/generation Joule/sec = Watt
(Other units: Horse Power ~746 Watts)
Other common units of energy:
Kilowatt-Hour (3.6 x 106 Joules), British Thermal Unit (~1000 Joules), calories (~4
Joules), Foot-pounds (1.35 Joules), Joule, Electron-volts (1.6 x 10e-19), etc. Which has
been explained before.

Topic 012: What kind of energies you know?

Energy of Motion: Kinetic Energy: the energy of motion

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Moving things carry energy in the amount:

K.E. = ½mv2
Note the v2 dependence—this is why:
a car at 60 mph is 4 times more dangerous than a car at 30 mph
hurricane-force winds at 100 mph are much more destructive (4 times) than 50 mph gale-
force winds

Numerical examples:
A 1500 kg car moves down the freeway at 30 m/s (67 mph)
K.E. = ½ (1500 kg) (30 m/s)2
= 675,000 kg·m2/s2 = 675 kJ

Same car moving at 15 m/s velocity (33 mph)

K.E. = ½ (1500 kg) (15 m/s)2
= 675,000 kg·m2/s2 = 168 kJ

Energy of Position: (Gravitational) Potential Energy

It takes work to lift a mass against the pull (force) of gravity

The force of gravity is m·g, where m is the mass, and g is the gravitational acceleration
F = mg (note similarity to F = ma)
g = 9.8 m/s2 on the surface of the earth
g 10 m/s2 works well enough for this class
Lifting a height h against the gravitational force requires an energy input (work) of:
E = W = F ·h = mgh

First Example of Energy Conversion

When the boulder falls off the cliff, it picks up speed, and therefore gains kinetic energy
Where does this energy come from??
from the gravitational potential energy
The higher the cliff, the more kinetic energy the boulder will have when it reaches the
ground
Energy is conserved, so
½mv2 = mgh

Can even figure out v, since v2 = 2gh

The Energy of Heat

Hot things have more energy than their cold counterparts

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Heat is really just kinetic energy on microscopic scales: the vibration or otherwise fast
motion of individual atoms/molecules
Even though it’s kinetic energy, it’s hard to derive the same useful work out of it because
the motions are random
Heat is frequently quantified by calories (or BTU)
One calorie (4.184 J) raises temperature of one gram of H2O by 1ºC
One Calorie (4184 J) raises temperature of one kilogram of H2O by 1ºC
One BTU (1055 J) raises temperature of one pound of H2O by 1ºF
Foot-pound = 0.3 calories

Topic 013: Number Game

Energy can be measured in different units and these factors has been provided in table 5.
Usually electricity is measured in kilowatt or megawatts while other energy units may be
measured with more power e.g. terawatt etc.

Exponential Growth (linear, semi-log, log - log representations):

Exponential growth is a type of growth in which a quantity increases at an accelerating
rate over time. It is characterized by a constant proportional increase over equal intervals
of time. Exponential growth can be represented and visualized using different types of
graphs: linear, semi-log, and log-log representations.

Linear Representation:
In a linear representation, the time axis is plotted on the x-axis, and the quantity being
measured is plotted on the y-axis. The graph will show a straight line that continuously
becomes steeper as time progresses. This representation is useful for observing the

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absolute values of the quantity over time but may not clearly depict the exponential
nature of the growth.

Semi-log Representation:
In a semi-log representation, the x-axis represents time (linear scale), while the y-axis
represents the logarithm of the quantity being measured (logarithmic scale). By using a
logarithmic scale for the y-axis, the exponential growth appears as a straight line. This
representation allows for a better visualization of the exponential trend. The slope of the
line in the semi-log plot corresponds to the growth rate of the quantity.

Log-log Representation:
In a log-log representation, both the x-axis and the y-axis are plotted on a logarithmic
scale. This type of graph can provide insights into the relationship between two quantities
that are both subject to exponential growth. In the case of exponential growth, a log-log
plot will show a straight line with a specific slope. The slope of the line represents the
exponent of the exponential growth equation.

By using different representations, it becomes easier to identify and analyze exponential

growth patterns, understand growth rates, and make predictions about future values of the
quantity. Each type of representation has its advantages and can be selected based on the
specific requirements of the analysis or the insights sought from the data. E.g. annual

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energy consumption for different sources like oil, coal, gas etc has been represented with
using exponential growth patterns.

Automotive: Pertaining to vehicles, specifically those designed for transportation on

roads or other public spaces. Non-automotive: Not related to vehicles or transportation on
roads. Energy use for different sectors and walks of the life has been given in graph.

Energy in Quad BTU

Energy mix in quad BTU has been provided with respect to production, trade and
consumption in figure.

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Lesson 05
Origin of Fossil Fuels

Topic 014: Fossil Fuels

Oil, Gas, Coal, (shale oil, tar sand) are the part of fossil fuel based sources.
Petroleum - A broad term which includes both crude oil and natural gas
Crude Oil - a liquid mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons (compounds
containing carbon and hydrogen).
Natural Gas - A gaseous mixture of naturally occurring hydrocarbons.

Global Energy Usage, by source

The above figure shows the composition of primary energy consumption by the world. It
is clear that oil has 34% share, gas has 24%, coal has 275 while others have lesser share
as depicted in the figure.

The first figure presents the energy share from different sources for USA. It is clear that
share of petroleum is at 36%, natural gas at 32% while renewable energy is at 12% only.
Likely, energy mix of Pakistan reveals that The energy mix of Pakistan includes all
sources out of which hyro sources of 29%, R-LNG is 24%, furnace oil is 14% and so on.
The share of renewable energy is just 6% of the total energy consumption in year 2020
while nuclear energy has 4% share in total energy of the country.

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Here's a concise overview of China's energy mix, including coal, oil, biodiesel, and waste
sources, along with the trends observed over time:
Coal: Historically, coal has been the dominant energy source in China. However,
recognizing the environmental and health impacts of coal combustion, China has been
actively transitioning away from coal. Despite this, coal still plays a substantial role in
China's energy mix.
Oil: Oil is an essential component of China's energy mix, primarily used in transportation
and industry. China has been working to secure oil supplies from various international
sources, including through agreements and investments.
Biodiesel: China has been promoting the use of biodiesel derived from renewable
sources, such as vegetable oils and animal fats. Biodiesel helps reduce greenhouse gas
emissions and dependence on imported petroleum. While biodiesel has seen some
adoption in China, it still represents a relatively small portion of the overall energy mix.
Waste Sources: China has been exploring ways to harness energy from waste sources,
such as municipal solid waste and biomass. Waste-to-energy technologies, including
incineration and anaerobic digestion, have been implemented to generate electricity and
heat from waste materials.

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It is evident that in the graph of global energy consumption by sources, modern bio fuels,
nonrenewable, solar etc are rising in the last half a century. Likely share of oil and coal in
the total energy mix has also been rising while traditional biomass a sustained level of
use.

Topic 15: Origin of oil and gas

Oil and natural gas originate from organic matter in marine sediment.
Microscopic organisms such as single-celled algae settle to the sea floor and accumulate
in marine mud.
This organic matter may partially decompose, using up the dissolved oxygen in the
sediment.
As soon as the oxygen is used up, decay stops and the remaining organic matter is
preserved.
Continued burial subjects the organic matter to higher temperatures and pressures, which
cause physical and chemical changes in the organic compounds.
These changes produce tiny droplets of oil and natural gas.
As muddy sediments compact, the oil and gas are squeezed out and move into more
porous and permeable sandy layers.

The formation of oil takes a significant amount of time with oil beginning to form
millions of years ago. 70% of oil deposits existing today were formed in the Mesozoic

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age (252 to 66 million years ago), 20% were formed in the Cenozoic age (65 million
years ago), and only 10% were formed in the Paleozoic age (541 to 252 million years
ago). This is likely because the Mesozoic age was marked by a tropical climate, with
large amounts of plankton in the ocean.

The formation of oil begins in warm, shallow oceans that were present on the Earth
millions of years ago. In these oceans, extremely small dead organic matter - classified as
plankton - falls to the floor of the ocean. This plankton consists of animals, called
zooplankton, or plants, called phytoplankton. This material then lands on the ocean floor
and mixes with inorganic material that enters the ocean by rivers. It is this sediment on
the ocean floor that then forms oil over many years. The energy in oil initially comes
from the Sun, and is energy from sunlight that is trapped in chemical form by dead
plankton.

The process that creates oil is generally the same in most areas, although there may be
different types of plant and animal debris that falls to the ocean floor and slightly
different conditions. To form oil, the following steps have to happen

as radiant energy from the sun where nuclear fusion reactions provided the energy
for the radiant solar output. This radiant energy was then captured in plant life on earth

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through the process of photosynthesis. The highly complex process of photosynthesis

fixes
carbon from the carbon dioxide in the air into carbohydrates when solar radiation
interacts
with carbon dioxide in the presence of an enzyme (biological catalyst) and water.
Hydrogen from the water is also fixed into the molecular structure of the carbohydrates.
In this
way the electromagnetic energy of the solar radiation is stored as chemical energy in the
carbohydrates. Following this, animal life dependent on plant life evolved.
Our petroleum comes from plant and animal life in the ancient seas of hundreds of
millions of years ago. The organic material accumulated on the bottom of these seas and
decomposition occurred through the action of bacteria. Eventually sediments of sand and
mud on top of these organic deposits created conditions of high temperature and pressure
that resulted in loss of oxygen. In this way a variety of hydrocarbon molecules were
created, some of them solid, some of them liquid, and some of them gas.
The liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons could travel rather large distances in the porous
sedimentary rock. Eventually, under the influence of the geologic structures and gravity,
some of the hydrocarbon material accumulated in geologic traps such as shown in
Figure 2.1. These reservoirs now lie beneath dry land as well as offshore under the
oceans.
The profession of locating petroleum deposits has become increasingly more
sophisticated as the undiscovered resources have become less abundant. In one method of
geo-physical exploration, sound waves from an explosion or from vibrating weights are
sent
down into the earth. When these sound waves encounter the interface between layers of
rock with different acoustical properties they are partially reflected back from deep
underground to the surface where they can be read by sensitive receivers called
geophones. In
this way the exploration geologists can determine if an underground geological formation
is likely to contain a significant reservoir of petroleum. The only real proof of an oil or
natural gas deposit must be obtained by drilling.

Topic 16: Seismology and Oil Prospecting

Seismology plays a crucial role in oil prospecting, specifically in the process of locating
potential oil and gas reservoirs beneath the Earth's surface. This branch of geophysics

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focuses on studying and understanding the behavior of seismic waves generated by

various sources, such as earthquakes or man-made explosions.

In the context of oil prospecting, seismology is primarily used to create images of

subsurface geological structures that may contain oil or gas deposits. This technique is
known as seismic reflection or seismic surveying.

Here's a general overview of how it works:

Data Acquisition: Seismic surveys involve the use of seismic sources, typically vibroseis
trucks or explosives, to generate controlled vibrations or shock waves. These waves
propagate through the Earth, and some of them reflect or refract when encountering
subsurface rock layers.

Recording Stations: Geophones or seismometers are strategically placed at various

locations on the Earth's surface to record the seismic waves. These recording stations
measure the time it takes for the waves to travel from the source to the subsurface layers
and back to the receivers.

Data Processing: The recorded data is then processed using advanced algorithms and
techniques. Seismic data processing involves tasks such as noise removal, data
enhancement, and the application of mathematical and computational methods to extract
meaningful information.

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Image Interpretation: The processed seismic data is used to create subsurface images
known as seismic sections or seismic profiles. Geoscientists interpret these images to
identify potential oil and gas reservoirs based on the reflection patterns and geological
characteristics observed. The interpretation also involves integrating other available
geological and geophysical data to refine the understanding of subsurface structures.

By analyzing seismic data, oil exploration companies can identify areas where geological
formations conducive to oil and gas accumulation are more likely to be present. This
helps them make informed decisions regarding the drilling locations for oil wells,
reducing the risks and costs associated with exploration.

It's important to note that while seismology is a valuable tool for oil prospecting, the
presence of oil or gas cannot be determined with absolute certainty based solely on
seismic data. Further exploration, such as drilling exploratory wells, is typically required
to confirm the presence and viability of hydrocarbon reservoirs.

Reflection Seismography

Reflection seismography, also known as seismic reflection surveying or simply seismic

surveying, is a geophysical method used to image subsurface structures and identify
potential hydrocarbon reservoirs in the Earth's crust. It is a widely used technique in the
oil and gas industry for exploration and production purposes.

The principle behind reflection seismography is based on the fact that seismic waves
generated at the Earth's surface can penetrate the subsurface and reflect off different rock
layers or interfaces between rock formations. By analyzing these reflected waves,
geoscientists can infer valuable information about the subsurface geology and identify
potential oil and gas traps.

Discovery and Production of Oil

The discovery of oil in Titusville, Pennsylvania in 1859 by Colonel Edwin Drake is
considered a pivotal event in the history of the oil industry. This discovery marked the
beginning of the modern petroleum industry.

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Colonel Drake drilled a well near Titusville, targeting oil as a potential resource. On
August 27, 1859, at a depth of 69 feet, he struck oil. This discovery led to the
establishment of the first commercial oil well and marked the birth of the American oil
industry.

At the time of Colonel Drake's discovery, the primary use of oil was for lighting
purposes. The oil extracted from the wells, also known as "rock oil" or "petroleum," was
refined into kerosene, which became a popular source of lighting. Prior to this, lighting
was primarily provided by candles, lamps, or gas.

However, the significance of oil expanded greatly with the invention and widespread
adoption of internal combustion engines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. These
engines, fueled by petroleum-based products such as gasoline and diesel, revolutionized
transportation and industrial processes. Oil quickly became a vital resource for powering
automobiles, trains, ships, and various machinery, transforming societies and economies
around the world.

The first successful oil well drilled specifically for the purpose of extracting oil was the
Drake Well, located in Titusville, Pennsylvania, United States. It was drilled by Edwin
Drake and his team, and it marked the beginning of the modern petroleum industry.

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Lesson 06
Fossil Fuels

Topic 017: Economics of Oil Shortage

When the shortage rate reaches 25%, the price of domestic crude oil will rise by 121.2%,
the price of refined petroleum products will rise by 67.8%, and the GDP will decline by
0.7%.

Hubbert's Peak refers to the concept developed by geophysicist M. King Hubbert, who
predicted the peak and decline of oil production in a specific region over time. Hubbert
proposed that oil production in a given area would follow a bell-shaped curve, with an
initial increase, a peak point, and then a decline. The peak represents the maximum
production rate, after which oil extraction becomes increasingly challenging and costly.

While Hubbert's Peak was initially applied to the production of oil in the United States, it
has been used as a general model to analyze global oil production.

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The history of oil prices spans several decades and is characterized by significant
fluctuations. Here is a concise overview:

Early Years: In the early 20th century, oil prices were relatively stable and low due to
abundant supply and limited demand. The price of oil was influenced by factors such as
exploration, production, and geopolitical events.

1970s Oil Crisis: The 1970s witnessed a dramatic increase in oil prices due to political
events. The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) proclaimed
an oil embargo in 1973, leading to a quadrupling of oil prices. This was followed by
another surge in prices in 1979 due to the Iranian Revolution.

1980s-1990s: The 1980s saw a decline in oil prices as new sources of supply were
discovered, including North Sea oil. Prices remained relatively stable until the early
1990s when the Gulf War caused a temporary spike.

Late 1990s-2000s: Oil prices remained relatively low and stable throughout much of the
late 1990s and early 2000s, supported by increased production and economic growth.
However, prices started rising steadily from the mid-2000s onwards.

2008 Financial Crisis: In 2008, a global financial crisis resulted in a sharp drop in oil
prices. The combination of reduced demand and financial turmoil led to a significant
decline.

Post-2008: Following the financial crisis, oil prices gradually recovered and reached
historic highs in mid-2008, surpassing $140 per barrel. However, prices dropped again
during the global economic downturn that followed.

Shale Revolution: The discovery and development of shale oil in the United States led to
a surge in production, contributing to increased supply and putting downward pressure on
prices. This trend persisted throughout the 2010s, with periodic fluctuations due to
geopolitical events and OPEC decisions.

COVID-19 Pandemic: The pandemic caused an unprecedented decline in oil demand as

lockdowns and travel restrictions were implemented worldwide. This led to a sharp drop
in prices in early 2020, with futures contracts briefly turning negative.

Strategic Oil Reserves

The United States maintains a Strategic Petroleum Reserve at four sites in the Gulf of
Mexico.
This reserve was created in 1975 following the 1973-1974 oil embargo, and as of 2005 it
is the largest emergency petroleum supply in the world
Total capacity of 0.727 gigabarrels of crude oil.
The sites are enormous salt caverns

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The US SPR has never been filled to capacity; the largest amount reached thus far was
0.7 gigabarrels on August 17, 2005, whereafter reserves were drawn down to meet
demand in the aftermath of Hurricane Katrina.
At current US consumption rates (over 7 gigabarrels per year), the SPR would supply all
normal US demand for approximately 37 days.

Topic 18: Oil Production and Transportation

Oil production involves the extraction of crude oil from underground reservoirs, typically
through drilling wells. Once extracted, the oil is transported to refineries and other
facilities for processing and distribution. Transportation methods for oil vary depending
on the distance, location, and infrastructure available. Common modes of oil
transportation include pipelines, tanker ships, and railroads. Pipelines are the most
commonly used method for long-distance transport, while tanker ships are used for
international shipments. Rail transportation is often utilized when pipelines or ships are
not available or economically viable.

The meaning of the world's biggest oil spills refers to significant incidents where large
quantities of oil are released into the environment, typically due to accidents or human
error during oil exploration, production, transportation, or storage. These spills result in
severe environmental damage, harming marine and coastal ecosystems, wildlife, and
local communities. They can also have long-lasting effects on the environment and
human health, requiring extensive cleanup efforts and mitigation measures.

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Topic 19: Petroleum Refinery

The main function of refineries is to get as much gasoline out of a barrel as possible.

Distillation
A process in which a liquid or vapor mixture of two or more substances is separated into
its component fractions of desired purity, by the application and removal of heat.

Very few of the components come out of the fractional distillation column ready for
market. Many of them must be chemically processed to make other fractions.
For example, only 40% of distilled crude oil is gasoline; however, gasoline is one of the
major products made by oil companies. Rather than continually distilling large quantities
of crude oil, oil companies chemically process some other fractions from the distillation
column to make gasoline; this processing increases the yield of gasoline from each barrel
of crude oil.

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Distillation and Chemical Processing Combined

Chemical Processing of Oil

You can change one

fraction into another by
one of three methods:
breaking large hydrocarbons into smaller pieces (cracking)
combining smaller pieces to make larger ones (unification)
rearranging various pieces to make desired hydrocarbons (alteration)

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Lesson 07
Market of Oil and Natural Gas

Topic 020: Global Oil Production

The major oil-producing countries of the world are listed in Table 2.2 along with their
current production rates, proved reserves, and number of wells. The total world
production in
2003 was 68, 561 × 103 bbl∕day. The countries belonging to the Organization of
Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) account for 27, 654 × 103 bbl∕day, or 40% of the
total.

It can be seen that the United States has a very large number of wells producing
a relatively modest amount of oil. The average production from a single well in the
United States is only about 11 bbl∕day. In Saudi Arabia the production per well is over
500 times greater, about 5800 bbl∕day. The comparatively small per-well production rate
for the United States is indicative of the fact that we are now getting our domestically
produced oil from relatively small reservoirs as compared with those producing oil in the
Middle East.

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It is much clear that OPEC share of world crude oil reserves, 2018 which is 79.4% of the
total reserves are based given countreis includin Algeria, Congo, Iran, Irqa, UAE et.

Gasoline: Where does the money go?

The money made from oil can be divided into various components:

Taxes (13%): A portion of the revenue generated from oil goes towards taxes imposed by
the government.

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Distribution and Marketing (8%): A percentage of the revenue is allocated to cover the
costs associated with distributing and marketing oil. This includes transportation, storage,
logistics, advertising, and other related expenses.

Refining (14%): Another portion of the revenue is dedicated to refining the crude oil into
various petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, jet fuel, and others. Refining
involves complex processes that require investments in infrastructure, equipment, and
skilled labor.

Topic 21: Shale Oil from Oil Shale

About 50 million years ago, the Green River Formation, the most extensive deposit of oil
shale in the United States, was covered by two large tropical lakes. Organic matter from
the
surrounding hills was deposited along with sedimentary material on the lake bottoms to a
depth of about 3000 feet over a period of many millions of years. The combined materials
from plants and possibly some aquatic animals formed a carbon-bearing mudstone, or
marlstone, on the lake bottoms. This is the source of shale oil. Through geological
changes
in the earth’s crust, these deposits were brought up to their present elevations. Erosion by
rivers cut into the formations, leaving much of the oil shale now exposed.
The oil shale, or marlstone, contains an organic substance called kerogen. Kerogen is
a solid hydrocarbon, waxlike substance that vaporizes when heated sufficiently. The shale
oil that results from condensing these vapors can be further refined to produce gasoline,
fuel oil, and coke.

Tar sands (also referred to as oil sands) are a combination of clay, sand, water, and
bitumen, a heavy black viscous oil

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Tar Sand Processing for Oil Extraction

Tar sands are deposits of sand impregnated with a thick, tarlike hydrocarbon substance
which is a very viscous crude oil called bitumen. Because of the high viscosity of the bit
men, it will not flow like normal liquid petroleum into wells from which it can be
pumped
to the surface. Instead, the tar sands must be mined as a solid material and transported
to a processing plant where the bitumen is extracted by steam or hot water. The bitumen
then can be refined by the same methods used for heavy crude oil.
Known deposits of tar sands are sufficient in size to make an impact on the petroleum
resource picture.

Topic 22: Natural Gas

Same origin as oil.

Compared to oil or electrical energy, natural gas is a less costly source.
Gas: $15/Million BTU, Electricity (Resistive): $26/Million BTU
Fuel Oil: $23/Million BTU, Coal: $14/Million BTU
Gas is preferred where heat from burning is desired.
It is least polluting of the three major fossil fuels.

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Major Gas Reserves: Terra Cubic Feet, 1012 cf) 1 cf = 0.03 m3

Russia 1680
Iran 940
Qatar 910
Saudi Arabia 231
UAE 212
USA 189

It is clear in the table given below that Pakistan natural gas ranked among 29th in the
world in gas reserves, while at 26th in gas production and 21st in gas use. Net exports of
gas is 48382 million cubic feet as Pakistan exported no amount of gas in 2015

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Lesson 08
Market of Oil and Natural Gas (Continued)

Topic 023: Fracking (Hydraulic Fracturing)

There is an impressive amount of natural gas in the reserves of the countries of the world.
The proved reserves of the United States are about 3% of the total.
Large shale gas reserves were discovered mainly in Sindh and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The
US Energy Information Administration (EIA) puts the estimates even higher than 51
trillion cubic feet of shale gas reserves in Pakistan which has ranked Pakistan 17th in the
world in terms of shale gas reserves.
Sui Produces 8.5 million cubic meters (300 million cubic feet) per day

Fracking

The significant increase in natural gas production in recent years can be attributed to the
widespread use of hydraulic fracturing, commonly known as "fracking," in low-

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permeability formations such as shale. Fracking involves injecting high-pressure fluids

into these previously inaccessible formations, creating fissures that enable the flow of
gas. This technique utilizes well-bores drilled to depths of 6,000 to 10,000 feet, and with
horizontal drilling, wells can extend horizontally for 1,000 to 10,000 feet within the shale
layer, greatly expanding the amount of gas that can be accessed from a single well.

Fracking, short for hydraulic fracturing, is a method used to extract natural gas from
underground shale formations. It involves injecting large volumes of water, sand, and
chemicals at high pressure into the shale, creating fractures that release the trapped gas.

Issues with Fracking

Land rights
Air pollution
Ground water pollution
Toxic Chemicals Discharge
Water use (500,000 to 10 million gallons per bore)
Sand and proppants (small pellets)
Toxic chemicals
Health concerns
Surface water and soil contamination
Waste disposal
Chemical disclosure

Topic 24: Coal

Coal deposits come from Carboniferous period, some 320 million years ago.
Long before the dinosaurs reigned, there was a time ruled by forests of giant ferns, reeds,
and mosses.
As these plants died, they fell into the swampy waters to form rich layers of peat.

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These layers were typically sandwiched between layers of sediment like shale, deposited
when waters temporarily retreated.
Time, pressure and temperature converted the plant material to Coal.

Peat bogs are wetland ecosystems composed of partially decomposed plant material
called peat. They form in areas with high water tables and low oxygen levels, preventing
complete decay of organic matter. They are important for carbon storage, acting as
significant sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Peat bogs also play a role in regulating
water flow, improving water quality, and providing habitat for diverse wildlife. However,
peat bog degradation and drainage pose threats to their ecological functions and
contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.

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In the early 1600s, coal was discovered in the New World.

Topic 25: World Coal Supply and Demand

The table presents the countries with highest level of coal reserves in the world. It is
evident that USA, Russia and Australia are among first three position while China is on
4th postion though China consumption of coal is among the highest in the world.

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The data of the annual coal consumption, measured in equivalents of terawatt-hours per
year has been present in graph below. It is evident that middle east, South and Central
America are among the highest coal user as a region wise segregation.

Consumption of Coal has been presented in the next chart wherein it is clear that China,
India and USA are among first three consumers of coal in the world.

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Pakistan Coal Production

It is clear from the given graph that coal production in the last decade has been
witnessing an upward trend. It is good to use local reserves however use of coal is
somewhat wanting in terms of environmental damages.

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Lesson 09
Coal and Environment
Topic 026: Types of Coal

Anthracite
Carbon content, between 86 and 98 percent Heat value of nearly 15,000 BTUs
per-pound.
Used for home heating

Bituminous
The most plentiful form of coal in
the United States.
Primarily used to generate
electricity and make coke for the
steel industry.

Subbituminous
Carbon content 35-45 percent
Heat value between 8,300 and 13,000 BTUs-per-pound.

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Lignite
Geologically young coal.
Lowest carbon content, 25-35 percent,
Heat value ranging between 4,000 and 8,300 BTUs-per
pound.

Coal can be classified into different ranks based on its carbon content and moisture
content. Low-rank coal, also known as lignite or brown coal, has a lower carbon content
and higher moisture content compared to higher-rank coals. Hard-rank coal, which

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includes bituminous and anthracite coal, has a higher carbon content and lower moisture
content.

Low-rank coal (lignite) is less energy-dense and has a higher moisture content, which
makes it less efficient for combustion compared to higher-rank coals. It is often used for
electricity generation in power plants, particularly in regions where it is abundant. Lignite
is also used in some industrial processes and as a fuel source in residential heating.

Hard-rank coal, on the other hand, has a higher carbon content and lower moisture
content, making it more energy-dense and efficient for combustion. Bituminous coal is
commonly used for electricity generation, steel production, and as a source of heat in
industrial processes. Anthracite coal, the highest rank of coal, has the highest carbon
content and is mainly used in residential and commercial heating due to its high energy
value and low moisture content.

China Environmental Awareness

For many years, four huge electric power plants
burned coal within the capital city, Beijing,
contributing to the city's choking smog. But within
the past four years, all fours stopped coal burning
and switched to gas.
• The government has promoted wind and solar
energy — it has produced so many solar panels that
it has reduced prices for them worldwide
• China is still exporting Coal Burning Power Plant
technology abroad.

China’s Effort to Clean the Air

China has made significant efforts to clean its air, and one aspect of these efforts is
reducing coal use.

Topic 27: Coal Mining

Open Pit Coal Mine in Pakistan

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In Pakistan, there are two 330 MW power plants that rely on coal as their energy source.
These power plants are supported by an open pit coal mine.

Open Seam Coal Mining

Mining Monsters

In Pakistan, an open seam coal mine has been established, surrounded by thriving plant
life. However, this mining operation has also given rise to colossal mining monsters.

Over the past 10 years, there has been an average of 20 fatalities per year, making it one
of the most dangerous jobs in the country.

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Topic 28: Environmental Issues with Coal Burning

• Mercury, a known nervous system toxin;

• Sulfur, which leads to formation of acid rain;
• Nitrous oxide, which also contributes to acid rain as well as to smog;
• Carbon dioxide, the chief global warming gas.

Environmental Comparison

It is clear that net generation by coal is reducing in the last decade while renewable
sources excluding solar/hydro are increasing measured in thousand megawatt hours.

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Lesson 10
Market Structure of Electricity
Topic 029: Electricity

Why consideration of electricity is important in Energy Economics

discussion?
•6.6 Million cars in Pakistan (2019)
•240 Million Population
•Approximately 0.028 cars/person
That is one in 40 person owns a car.
75% of Pakistan is electrified
3 out of 4 people have electricity

Electricity is produced from low carbon sources while this is not true for total energy use.

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The global electricity production is generated from various sources, including:

Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuel power plants, such as those fueled by coal, natural gas, and oil,
remain a significant source of electricity worldwide.

Renewable Energy: Renewable energy sources, such as hydropower, wind power, solar
power, geothermal energy, and biomass, are increasingly contributing to the electricity
production mix.

Nuclear Power: Nuclear power plants produce electricity by harnessing the energy
released from nuclear reactions, and they play a significant role in electricity generation
in several countries.

It's important to note that the exact distribution of electricity production sources varies by
country and region. Additionally, the transition towards cleaner and more sustainable
sources of energy is gaining momentum, leading to a shift away from fossil fuels and
towards renewable energy.

It is clear that per capita electricity generation by source (2022) contains fossil fuels as a major source
in South Africa, India, China, USA and in the world, 62% of the electricity has been generated from
fossil fuels while 28% percent from renewable while 9.8% from nuclear sources.

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Global Share of Electricity

from Low Carbon Sources (2022)
Nuclear, solar, wind, hydropower, tidal and some biomass

It is clear from the above graph that in 2022, global share of electricity from low carbon
sources like nuclear, solar, wind etc are rising from the last decade.

Pakistan Electricity Sources

Pakistan is producing electricity from fossil fuels source at 61% while renewable source
at 34%. Renewable sources include hydro, wind, solar respectively.

Topic 030: Market structure of Electricity Industry

There are several stake holders that are defined by:

•Generation

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•Transmission
• Distribution
• Retail supply
•These can be either provided by one firm or by separate firms; and they can be working
under competition or as regulated monopolies.

Vertically integrated electricity utilities

The same entity owned production, transmission, distribution and
retail supply of electricity in a given area, and it had no competitors
(Monopoly)
• Prices are set by regulatory bodies, usually on the basis of “cost-ofservice” regulation.
• KESC. Privatized in 2005 (KE) is the only vertically integrated utility
in Pakistan supplying electricity within a 6500 km square territory
including Karachi and its adjoining areas.
• In some countries, companies are publicly owned (Owned and
operated by the government) (Scotland, Ireland, Greece, etc.)
• Problem: Lack of competition causes inefficiencies.

Deregulated Structure
Utilities are responsible for delivering electricity to
their customers; the electricity is generated by
other entities. Those generating entities typically
sell the electricity they generate through
competitive power markets known as “independent
system operators” (ISO) and “regional
transmission organizations.” (RTO)
This helps competition and keep the prices
Regulated
Market structure of Electricity Industry

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Pakistan Power Sector Structure

Topic 031: Cost of Electricity, Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE)

Fix and Variable cost of generation

Fixed costs:
•Equipment, land, financing, project
management, grid connection, and
construction of the power plant.
•These are usually expressed per unit of
installed capacity (per kW or per MW).
•Fixed costs are regarded as “sunk costs”

Variable costs:
• Fuel cost, operation and maintenance (FOM)
expenses and carbon dioxide emission charges,
if applicable.
•They are typically calculated per unit of electricity
generated (per MWh).
•Only variable costs play a role when it is
necessary to decide whether to use an existing
plant to produce electricity or not.

Annualized fixed cost

• Cost spread over the lifetime of the plant (60 – 70 years)

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• Annualized fixed cost (AFC) in PKR/kw/year

• Cfix are the fixed costs in PKR per kW
• r is the discount rate (Weighted average cost of Capital)
• Y is the technical lifetime of the power plant in years

Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE)

Aggregated discounted lifetime cost (fixed plus variable
costs) of generating electricity

Cfix is the fixed, Cy are other costs incurred in year y, r is

the discount rate, Y is the technical lifetime in years.
Gy
is electricity generation in MWh.
The costs are called levelized because they are “leveled”
over all units of output.

LCOE for Various Energy Generation Sources

It is clear that levelized cost of energy for various generation sources have varied cost for
renewable and conventional energy sources (see table above). This varying cost may
affect the decision of the consumer to purchase a specific source which has a low cost.

Topic 032:Electricity Tariff and Demand Side Energy Management

• Energy management is the procedure of monitoring and
optimizing energy usage.

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• The goal of energy management is:

• sustaining optimal energy purchasing and utilization
within the various utilities
• minimizing energy prices without reducing productivity
•lowering expenses by effectively reducing consumption
•increasing market competencies.

Factors affecting electricity tariff

Electricity Tariff in Pakistan

Rs39 per unit, taking the net additional increase to Rs7 per unit for the domestic
consumers. These consumers are already paying a cost of up to Rs32. 7 per unit,
excluding taxes. The government approved the withdrawal of electricity subsidy of
Rs12.

Hyderabad Electric Supply Corporation (HESCO) (2023)

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Lesson 11
Heat Engines
Topic 030: Heat Engines

A heat engine is any device that can take energy from a warm source and convert a
fraction of this heat energy to mechanical energy

One BTU is approximately:

1,054—1,060 Joules
252—253 (cal, small)
778—782 ft·lbf (foot-pound force)

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In simplified form, the burning of hydrocarbon fuels is merely the combining of the
carbon and the
hydrogen from the fuel with oxygen from the air.

Topic 034: Diet Calories

The energy consumption per capita per year can vary significantly depending on various
factors, including diet, lifestyle, and regional differences. In general, a diet's energy
consumption can be measured in terms of calories (or kilocalories). The average daily
caloric intake per capita varies across different countries and regions.

It's important to consider that this figure represents the total caloric intake from all
sources, including beverages and processed foods. However, the proportion of calories
derived from specific food sources can vary widely among individuals and cultures.

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Different diets have different energy requirements, and individual dietary choices can
influence energy consumption.

In Pakistan, the average daily caloric intake per capita was around 2,735 kilocalories in
2021-22, according to economic survey 2021-22. However, this figure may have changed
since then.

Topic 035: Energy of Different Fuels

The heat of combustion is the definite maximum amount of energy available from a fuel,
which cannot be exceeded by even the most clever techniques of combustion or
carburetion. For a fossil fuel, the heat of combustion can be considered a measure of the
solar energy stored in the fuel since ancient times. For firewood or other biomass, the
heat of combustion is the solar energy stored in the plant life during the growing process.

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Burning of Fuels:
Burning produces heat.
C + O2 = CO2 + Heat energy -393.5 kJ/mol
H2 +½O2 = H2O + Heat energy -285.8 kJ/mol
CH4 + O2 = CO2 + 2H2O + Heat energy -891 kJ/mol

Similarly, burning of heptane gives:

C7H16 + 11 O2 = 7CO2 + 8 H2O + 1.15 x 106 calories per gram of C7H16) (Appx.
−4501kJ/mol)

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The carbon cycle refers to the continuous movement and exchange of carbon between
living organisms, the atmosphere, the oceans, and the Earth's crust. It involves various
processes such as photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition, combustion, and fossil fuel
formation. These processes play a crucial role in maintaining the balance of carbon
dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, which is important for regulating Earth's climate and
heat energy.

Heat Engines
A heat engine typically uses energy provided in the form of heat to do work and then
exhausts the heat which cannot be used to do work.

Heat engines such as automobile engines operate in a cyclic manner, adding energy in the
form of heat in one part of the cycle and using that energy to do useful work in another
part of the cycle.

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Lesson 12
Heat Engines (continued-1)
Topic 036: Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics is the study of the relationships between heat and work.

The First Law and Second Law of Thermodynamics limit the operation of a heat engine.
The first law is the application of conservation of energy to the system.
The second sets limits on the possible efficiency of the machine and determines the
direction of energy flow.

First Law of Thermodynamics: Energy can not be created or destroyed (law of

conservation of energy). It can be converted from one form to the other.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: When converting heat energy to mechanical energy,
as in heat engines, not all the heat can be converted into mechanical energy. The
conversion is limited by the efficiency of the engine.

Concept of Entropy
In thermodynamics, entropy is associated with the dispersal of energy within a system. A
high entropy indicates a highly disordered or random distribution of energy, while low
entropy implies a more organized or concentrated energy distribution.

Topic 037: Efficiency

The Carnot efficiency, a number always less than 100%, is the percentage of the energy
taken from the heat source which is actually converted to useful mechanical work, under

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the important assumption of an ideal engine. The ideal engine has never been achieved;
there are practical realities which keep us from ever achieving this ideal. Bearings do
have
friction, insulation is never perfect enough to stop all leakage of heat, and so forth. But
the
concept of an ideal engine does lead to an expression for the maximum efficiency of a
heat
engine if all practical engineering problems could be overcome. It is perhaps surprising
that this ideal efficiency is always less than 100%; for it to be 100% one would have to
have a source of energy at an infinitely high temperature or reject heat energy at zero
degrees Kelvin.

An automobile engine temperature is 800 C (1073K). The outside Temperature is 40 C

(313k).

Efficiency = (1-313/1073) 100 = 70%

Generally, automobile engines run with 20 -30% efficiency

Topic 038: Power Plants

In 1831, in London, Michael Faraday (1791–1867) discovered that there exists in nature
a phenomenon we now call electromagnetic induction. This was certainly one of the
greatest discoveries of all time. It made the generation of electricity possible and also the
transmission of electricity. Electric motors and all of our communications and computer
systems
were developed as a result of this discovery.

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Faraday's Law
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to
be "induced" in the coil.

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Conversion of mechanical energy to electrical energy.

Uses mechanical energy to create electrical energy; rotation of wire loop in a magnetic field causes
current to be induced. This current changes direction every 180 degrees, producing alternating current
(AC current).
This is called electromagnetic induction. (M. Faraday 1791-1867)

A standard large modern power plant that provides 1000 MWe of electric power typically
releases 2000 MWt of thermal power as waste heat to the environment. The power from
the fuel into the steam boiler is 3000 MWt. It is generally true
that for electric power plants of this type, three units of fuel must be burned to put one
unit of electric energy into a home.

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Lesson 13
Heat Engines (continued-2)
Topic 039: Generators and Turbines

Examples of Generators

Generators are devices that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy. They are
commonly used in various applications to produce electricity. Heat engines are a type of
generator that convert thermal energy into mechanical energy, which is then used to
generate electricity. Here are a few examples of heat engines used as generators:

Steam Turbine Generator: Steam turbines are widely used in power plants to generate
electricity. In this system, high-pressure steam is produced by heating water using a fuel
source such as coal, natural gas, or nuclear energy. The high-pressure steam is then
directed onto turbine blades, causing the turbine to rotate. The rotational motion is used
to drive a generator, which produces electrical power.

Gas Turbine Generator: Gas turbines, also known as combustion turbines, generate
electricity by burning a fuel, such as natural gas or diesel, in a combustion chamber. The
hot exhaust gases produced by the combustion process expand through a series of turbine
blades, driving the turbine. The rotation of the turbine is connected to a generator, which
converts the mechanical energy into electrical energy.

Internal Combustion Engine Generator: Internal combustion engines, like those found in
cars or portable generators, can also be used as generators. In this setup, the engine burns
a fuel-air mixture inside a combustion chamber. The resulting combustion forces a piston
to move up and down, creating mechanical energy. This mechanical energy is then used
to rotate a shaft connected to a generator, producing electricity.

Stirling Engine Generator: Stirling engines operate based on the temperature difference
between hot and cold regions. They can be fueled by various heat sources such as solar

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energy, biomass, or waste heat from industrial processes. The temperature difference
causes a working fluid inside the engine to expand and contract, driving a piston or a
displacer. The mechanical motion is then converted into electrical energy using a
generator.

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A turbine-based power plant is a type of heat engine that generates electricity by

converting thermal energy into mechanical energy, and then into electrical energy. This
process involves the combustion of fuel to produce high-pressure and high-temperature
gases, which are then used to drive a turbine. The turbine is connected to a generator that
converts the rotational energy of the turbine into electrical energy.

In a fuel-burning power plant, the primary source of energy is the combustion of a fuel,
such as coal, natural gas, or oil. The fuel is burned in a boiler to produce steam, which is
then directed into a turbine. The steam expands in the turbine, causing the turbine blades
to rotate. As the turbine rotates, it drives the generator to produce electricity.

The fuel burning process in power plants involves the controlled burning of the fuel in a
combustion chamber, where air and fuel are mixed and ignited. The heat generated from
the combustion raises the temperature and pressure of the working fluid (steam or gas),
which is then used to drive the turbine. The exhaust gases from the combustion process
may be further treated to minimize environmental impact before being released into the
atmosphere.

Turbine-based power plants are widely used for electricity generation due to their
efficiency and scalability. They can range from small-scale gas turbine units to large-
scale coal-fired or combined-cycle power plants, depending on the specific requirements
and available resources.

Topic 040: Practical Heat Engines

Steam Engine
Water expands 1000 times when it converts into steam.
This expansion increases the pressure inside a vessel (Boiler) tremendously.

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This pressure can be used to move a piston as in a steam locomotive, or move the blades
of a turbine.
These are External Combustion Engine. Fuel is burned outside the pressurized vessel
(Boiler)

Steam Locomotive

Topic 041: Gasoline Engines

These are Internal Combustion Engines. In these engines, fuel is mixed with air,
compressed to 6-10 atmospheric pressure, and ignited by a spark, inside the engines.
An explosion occurs, gases expand, move the piston that moves the crank shaft.
Product of burning at 1000ºC are CO2, CO, NO2 water, etc.
NO2, CO, un-burnt fuel, and steam come out from the exhaust. (Where did NO2 come
from?)
First three are environmentally problematic and need to be treated in the catalytic
converter.
Typical efficiency of gas engines is 20%.

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A four-stroke engine is a type of internal combustion engine commonly used in

automobiles. It is called a four-stroke engine because it completes four distinct stages or
strokes in each operating cycle. These strokes are intake, compression, combustion, and
exhaust.
Here is a brief overview of each stroke:

Intake Stroke: The intake valve opens, and the piston moves downward, creating a
vacuum that draws in the air-fuel mixture from the intake manifold.

Compression Stroke: Both the intake and exhaust valves are closed, and the piston moves
upward, compressing the air-fuel mixture into a smaller volume. This increases the
mixture's pressure and temperature.

Combustion Stroke: When the piston reaches the top of the compression stroke, the spark
plug ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture. The burning mixture expands rapidly,
generating high pressure and pushing the piston back down.

Exhaust Stroke: The exhaust valve opens, and the piston moves upward again, pushing
out the burnt gases from the previous combustion stroke into the exhaust manifold.

The crankshaft is a crucial component of an engine. It converts the reciprocating (back-

and-forth) motion of the piston into rotary motion, which is necessary to drive the wheels
of an automobile. The crankshaft is connected to the piston via a connecting rod. As the
piston moves up and down, it rotates the crankshaft, which transfers the power generated
during the combustion stroke to the drive train of the vehicle.

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Lesson 14
Heat Engines (continued-3)
Topic 042: Two Stroke Engines

Two-stroke engine, that is commonly found in lower-power applications. Some of the

devices that might have a two-stroke engine include:
Lawn and garden equipment, Chain saw, leaf blowers, etc.)
Dirt bikes, Mopeds, etc.

Advantages of 2-Stroke Engines

Two-stroke engines do not have valves, which simplifies their construction and lowers
their weight.
Two-stroke engines fire once every revolution, while four-stroke engines fire once every
other revolution. This gives two-stroke engines a significant power boost.
Two-stroke engines can work in any orientation, which can be important in something
like a chainsaw. A standard four-stroke engine may have problems with oil flow unless it
is upright.
These advantages make two-stroke engines lighter, simpler and less expensive to
manufacture. Two-stroke engines also have the potential to pack about twice the power
into the same space because there are twice as many power strokes per revolution.

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Disadvantages
In a four-stroke engine, the crankcase is completely separate from the combustion
chamber, so you can fill the crankcase with heavy oil to lubricate the crankshaft bearings,
the bearings on either end of the piston's connecting rod and the cylinder wall.
In a two-stroke engine, on the other hand, the crankcase is serving as a pressurization
chamber to force air/fuel into the cylinder, so it can't hold a thick oil. Instead, you mix oil
in with the gas to lubricate the crankshaft, connecting rod and cylinder walls. If you
forget to mix in the oil, the engine isn't going to last very long!

Two-stroke engines don't last nearly as long as four-stroke engines. The lack of a
dedicated lubrication system means that the parts of a two-stroke engine wear a lot faster.
Two-stroke oil is expensive, and you need about 4 ounces of it per gallon of gas. You
would burn about a gallon of oil every 1,000 miles if you used a two-stroke engine in a
car.
Two-stroke engines do not use fuel efficiently, so you would get fewer miles per gallon.
Two-stroke engines produce a lot of pollution -- so much, in fact, that it is likely that you
won't see them around too much longer.
Source of Pollution:
Burning of the oil
Fuel and oil leaking from the chamber.

Topic 043: Diesel Engine and Other Heat Machines

Diesel Engine
Large vehicles are generally powered by diesel.
Diesel engines do not have spark plugs and do not mix fuel with air before introducing it
into the cylinder.
Diesel engine is more efficient than gas engines (~30%).

World’s first Diesel Engine

Rudolf Diesel 1892 (75%
Efficiency)

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Air is taken in in the the intake stroke.

The air is compressed (15 atmospheres). Compressed air temperature rises.
At the peak of the compression stroke, diesel fuel is sprayed onto the hot air.
Fuel ignites and the mixture expands to move the piston and the crank shaft.

Advantages:
Higher carbon containing fuel also gives higher efficiency.
Exhaust has lower CO content because there is lot more air (oxygen).
Mixture burns at a higher temperature than gasoline engines
Diesel is generally cheaper than gasoline (except in the USA)
Disadvantages:
Noisy
Larger weight.
Larger initial cost
Hard to start in cold weather (generally fuel is pre-heated)
Because the temperature is higher, NO2 emission is also higher.

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Lesson 15
Renewable energy
Topic 044: Solar Energy
Primary energy consumption 2018 consists on the oil, gas coal etc. While it is clear that
renewable energy has just 4% share in the global energy consumption. This means that
there is vast scope for this kind of clean energy in the primary energy use of the world.

Likely, in the US, renewable energy has 13% share in the total energy use of the country
while in China it is less than 10%. There are different sources of renewable energy

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including but not limited to wind, solar, geothermal and biomass etc.

Likely in Pakistan, the share of energy mix for renewable is a bit low standing at 6%
though hyro sources of energy are around 29% in the total energy use.

Topic 045: PV Plants

PV plants, also known as photovoltaic plants or solar power plants, are facilities that
generate electricity by converting sunlight into electrical energy using solar panels. These
plants utilize photovoltaic (PV) technology, which involves the use of solar cells to
capture photons from sunlight and convert them into direct current (DC) electricity.

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China, US, Japan have installed PV plant to produce energy while there is capacity of
250 GW in all of Europe to produce energy from solar pv.
Pakistan is also producing solar based energy e.g. quiade azam solar park.

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Topic 046: Basic Science in PV

Energy increases as frequency increases and wavelength decreases.

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Points to Note: Angstrom(A)=10-10 meter, Nanometer(nm)=10-9 meter

Hotter Suns give higher energy Electromagnetic Radiations
Maximum of Our Sun’s radiation is in the visible range (green)
There is a long infrared (heat) tail
PV, or photovoltaics, is a field of study that focuses on the conversion of sunlight into
electricity using semiconductor materials. It is based on the principle of the photovoltaic
effect, which involves the generation of an electric current in a material when it is
exposed to light.

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Lesson 16
Renewable energy (Continued 01)
Topic 047: Solar Insolation

Solar constant (Insolation): The average amount of radiant energy received by the earth's
atmosphere from the sun; its value is about 2 calories per min incident on each square
centimeter of the upper atmosphere. 430 BTU/hr/sq. ft
Energy reaching earth is only 20% – 70% of the solar constant. (320 BTU/hr/sq. ft
MAX)

What happens to the rest of the energy?

The remaining energy that does not reach the Earth's surface is primarily absorbed or
scattered by the Earth's atmosphere. This energy is absorbed by molecules and particles

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in the atmosphere, including gases such as water vapor and carbon dioxide, as well as
dust and other suspended particles. Some of the energy is also reflected back into space
by clouds, aerosols, and the Earth's surface.

Topic 048: Earth’s Albedo

Earth's albedo refers to the amount of sunlight that is reflected back into space by the
Earth's surface. A high albedo means that a large portion of incoming sunlight is
reflected, while a low albedo indicates that more sunlight is absorbed.

Climate change: A decreasing Earth's albedo contributes to global warming. When

surfaces with high albedo, such as ice caps or glaciers, melt and expose darker surfaces
like land or water, they absorb more sunlight, leading to increased temperatures.

Positive feedback loop: Reduced albedo can trigger a positive feedback loop. As
temperatures rise, ice and snow melt, which decreases the albedo and further accelerates
warming. This can lead to more melting and further temperature increases.

Melting ice caps: The decline in albedo due to melting ice caps contributes to rising sea
levels. As glaciers and ice sheets melt, more water is added to the oceans, posing risks to
coastal regions and low-lying islands.

Ecosystem disruptions: Changes in albedo can disrupt ecosystems. Alterations in

temperature and precipitation patterns due to shifts in albedo can affect the distribution
and behavior of plant and animal species, potentially leading to habitat loss and species
extinction.
Agricultural impacts: Changes in albedo can impact agriculture. Altered temperature and
precipitation patterns can affect crop yields and the viability of certain agricultural
regions, potentially leading to food scarcity and economic instability.

Understanding Earth's albedo and its implications is crucial for studying and mitigating
the effects of climate change. Efforts to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, preserve ice
caps, and maintain natural ecosystems can help maintain a healthy albedo and minimize
the negative consequences associated with its decline.

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Remember Solar constant is 2, out of which only ½ cal/min.cm2 reaches earth.

This is for one day.

This is equal to 1520 BTU/ft2
USA receives 5.6 x 1019 BTU/year
USA consumes about 1017 BTU/year
We we get enough energy to fulfill our needs just from solar energy. So what is the
problem?

Topic 049: Solar Energy Collection: Flat Plate

since sun energy fluctuates from summer to winter, day to night and on cloudy days, a
means to store the energy is required.
Flat Plate Collector System: (Active System)
A fluid is circulated through an absorber where it absorbs heat and brings the hot
fluid into the household.

Flat-plate collector
A typical flat-plate collector is a metal box with a glass or plastic cover (called glazing) on top and a
dark-colored absorber plate on the bottom.
Sunlight passes through the glass and strikes the absorber plate, which heats up, changing solar energy
into heat energy.
Light (higher energy) enters the glass plate but heat (Lower energy) can not come out.

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Lesson 17
Solar system and Energy
Topic 050: Flat Plate Collector
Temperature inside the collector can be as high as 400ºF. All material should be
compatible to this high temperature.
The heat is transferred to liquid passing through pipes attached to the absorber plate.
In locations with average available solar energy, flat plate collectors are sized
approximately one-half- to one-square foot per gallon of one-day's hot water use.
Collectors, like water tanks, can be used to store the energy.
Liquids used in flat plate collectors are:
a. Water b. Anti-freeze (for low temp. use)
c. Other low melting point salts
Specific heat capacity: The heat required to raise the temperature of the unit mass of a
given substance by a given amount (usually one degree).

Joules/gm ºC
BTU/pound ºF
Calories/gm ºC

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Applications: The main use of this technology is in residential buildings where the
demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills.
Payback time: 2-5 years
Cost: Flat plate water heating systems range in price from about $2,000 to $4,000
installed for residential systems (for 40 to 80 gallons per day usage), and $2,000 to
$50,000 for commercial systems (for 40 to 1700 gallons per day usage).

Topic 051: Passive Solar Systems and Heat Transfer

A passive home has three design elements:
Insulation
Collection
Storage
Insulations: Minimize heat loss (heat insulation, sealing cracks and joints, proper glass
selection, etc.)
Collection: South facing windows, large windows, etc.
Storage: Large thermal mass e.g. Masonry floor, water storage (indoor swimming pools

Conduction: Transfer of heat through, atom to atom, by thermal vibrations.

Protection from Conductive heat losses: Use material with low thermal
conductivity. Metals have high thermal conductivity. Fiber glass, vacuum, air, have low
thermal conductivity.
Convection: Transfer of heat through motion of fluids (air, liquids).
Protection form Convective heat losses: Slow down the motion of the fluids. Fill empty
spaces with insulation.
Radiation: Transfer of heat without a medium, by Infra Red radiations. Use reflective
layers to reflect IR radiations back.

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Topic 052: Solar Thermal Electric Power

Use solar energy into steam to make electricity

Problem:
Solar energy is very diffused
Solution
Concentrate or focus the light
To Focus, use lenses or mirrors:

By traveling through water, glass and air, the light waves are bent slightly (or refracted).
This makes the stick look as though the bit under the water is broken.

Refraction in glass (a) flat (b) lens

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Reflection from curved mirrors:

When the rays strike a concave mirror, they are reflected so they go through a common
point and then go on their way; this point is called the focal point. The distance from the
mirror to the focal point F is called the focal length and is labeled f. The focal length f is
positive for a concave mirror.

Parabolic mirror is type of curved mirrors, used for focusing not only light but all kinds of
electromagnetic radiations. It is used in applications like optical telescope, radio telescope, TV dish
antenna, solar cookers, etc.
A special molten salt is circulated through the receiver, heated by the concentrated solar energy to
1050 F, and collected in an insulated "hot" salt tank.
This energy is used to make steam to run turbines to make electricity.

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Luz power plant in Mojave desert produced 355 MW of electricity.

There are development programs in Hawaii, Australia, etc.

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Lesson 18
Solar system and Energy Continued-01

Topic 053: Power Tower

The Power Tower Project "Solar II" (California):
1,926 sun-tracking heliostats (mirrors)
Molten salt thermal storage system
Tower (300 ft) with central receiver
Conventional steam driven turbine and generator
Produces about 10 MW, enough power to serve 10,000 homes with electricity
Costs about 40 million US$

Topic 054: Direct Conversion of Solar Energy to Electricity (Photovoltaics)

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Photovoltaic technology makes use of the abundant energy in the sun with little impact
on our environment.
Photovoltaics can be used in a wide range of products, from small consumer items to
large commercial solar electric systems.
The Bad:
PV just achieved grid parity.
The system will appear expensive because you have to bear a large capital expense up
front.
Generating enough electricity to power a home inherently takes a large area.
The most efficient way of utilizing PV, "grid attach", in which the electric utility buys
back energy from you, and basically acts like a giant battery, is frequently discouraged by
electric utilities (Austin is an exception). The fate of this "net metering" after
deregulation is uncertain.
Batteries, used for energy storage, can be idiosyncratic and short lived, compared to the
rest of the system.
As a way of displacing fossil fuel use (and pollution), it is less cost effective than basic
conservation, passive solar techniques, and solar water heating. These should be
considered first.
There is very little federal tax break. A power company can write off capital investment
in a power plant, but a homeowner cannot.
No free Si. Need fossil fuel to make Si from SiO2.
Weather effects on efficiency (Clouds, Dust, etc.)

The Good:
The 1970 cost of a PV watt was $100. It is now close to $0.2 - $0.5 per Watt. In inflation
adjusted dollars, this is a staggering advance.
It is now cheap enough to be seriously considered as a home energy source.

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PV is an extremely rugged and reliable technology, the power of choice in space and in
remote applications.
PV is a very long-lived technology, needing no maintenance other than occasional
washing. Expect 20-30 year lifetime.
PV is a “truly” clean electric source, generating no pollution other than that caused by its
manufacturing.
PV "locks in" electricity costs: it is immune to future electricity price instability.
A PV system with battery backup provides true energy independence.
As a status symbol, PV is far more cost effective, less polluting and longer lived than a
Lexus!

Solar cell is a device that converts solar energy to electricity.

Photovoltaic (PV) Cell is more general term for a device that can convert any light, not
necessarily from sun, to electricity.
Solar cells generate DC power (like a battery).
Solar cells resistance changes depending on how much light is shining (unlike a battery).

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Lesson 19
Solar system and Energy Continued-02

Topic 055: Solar Cells

Photovoltaic Effect

The energy of the absorbed light is transferred to electrons in the atoms of the PV cell.
With their newfound energy, these electrons escape from their normal positions in the
atoms of the semiconductor PV material and become part of the electrical flow, or
current, in an electrical circuit.
A special electrical property of the PV cell—what we call a "built-in electric field"—
provides the force, or voltage, needed to drive the current through an external "load,"
such as a light bulb.

Topic 056: Cost of Solar Electricity

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Levelized Cost of Electricity (USA)

he Levelized Cost of Electricity (LCOE) is a metric used to evaluate the cost of

generating electricity from different sources over the lifetime of a power plant. It
represents the average cost per unit of electricity produced, taking into account all the
costs incurred during the plant's lifetime, including construction, operation, maintenance,
fuel, and financing.

LCOE is often used to compare the economics of different energy sources or different
technologies within the same energy source. It helps in understanding the
competitiveness of various energy generation methods and determining which ones are
more cost-effective. It is decreasing both in USA and China.

The LCOE calculation typically involves estimating the total costs of building and
operating a power plant over its lifetime and then dividing that by the total amount of
electricity the plant is expected to produce over the same period. This calculation takes
into consideration factors such as capital costs, operating costs, fuel costs (if applicable),
maintenance costs, and the expected lifetime of the plant.

It's important to note that the LCOE alone does not provide a complete picture of the
economic viability of a particular energy source or technology. Other factors, such as the
availability and reliability of the energy source, environmental impacts, policy incentives,
and grid integration costs, should also be considered when evaluating the overall
feasibility and sustainability of a power generation project.

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Lesson 20
Alternate energy sources

Topic 057: Alternate Energy Sources: Hydroelectricity

These are some alternate sources of energy production.

Hydroelectric Power
Wind Power
Ocean Thermal Energy
Energy from Biomass
Geothermal Energy
Tidal Energy

Topic 058: Hydro Power: History

It was used by the Greeks to turn water wheels for grinding wheat into flour, more than
2,000 years ago.
In the 1700s mechanical hydropower was used extensively for milling and pumping.
(1800 DuPont Gunpowder Mills)
By the early 1900s, hydroelectric power accounted for more than 40 percent of the
United States' supply of electricity. In the 1940s hydropower provided about 75 percent
of all the electricity consumed in the West and Pacific Northwest, and about one third of
the total United States' electrical energy.
With the increase in development of other forms of electric power generation,
hydropower's percentage has slowly declined and today provides about one tenth of the
United States' electricity.

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Niagra Falls was the first of the American major hydroelectric power plant for long
distance electricity delivery.
The early hydroelectric plants were direct current stations built to power arc and
incandescent lighting during the period from about 1880 to 1895.
When the electric motor came into being the demand for new electrical energy started its
upward spiral. The years 1895 through 1915 saw rapid changes occur in hydroelectric
design and a wide variety of plant styles built. Hydroelectric plant design became fairly
well standardized after World War I with most development in the 1920's and 1930's
being related to thermal plants and transmission and distribution

First hydroelectric power plant was built to aid construction of the Theodore Roosevelt
Dam on the Salt River about 75 miles northeast of Phoenix, Arizona.
Same dam was also used for pumping irrigation water, also helped pay for construction,
enhanced the lives of farmers and city dwellers, and attracted new industry to the Phoenix
area.
Oldest Power Plant: Appleton, WI, USA completed 1882, A waterwheel on the Fox river
supplied the first hydroelectric power for lighting of two paper mills and a house, two
years after Thomas Edison demonstrated incandescent lighting to the public.
Largest hydro-electric power stations
Three Gorges Dam, China, 2009, 18,200 MW (22 GW)
Itaipu, Brazil/Paraguay, completed 1983, 12,600 MW
Guri, Venezuela, completed 1986, 10,300 MW
Tucurui, Brazil, completed 1984, now 8400 MW
Grand Coulee, USA, completed 1942, 6,900 MW

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Topic 059: Some Interesting Hydroelectric Power Plants

Hydroelectric power, is a form of hydropower that harnesses the energy of moving or falling water.
This is usually in the form of hydroelectricity from a dam, but it can be used directly as a mechanical
force. The term refers to a number of systems in which flowing water drives a Water turbine or
waterwheel.

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Lesson 21
Alternate energy sources Continued 01

Topic 060: Advantages and Disadvantages of Hydroelectric Power

Advantages

Fuel is not burned so there is minimal pollution

Water to run the power plant is provided free by nature
Hydropower plays a major role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions
Relatively low operations and maintenance costs
The technology is reliable and proven over time
It's renewable - rainfall renews the water in the reservoir, so the fuel is almost always
there

Disadvantages

High investment cost

Hydrology dependent (precipitation)
In some cases, inundation of land and wildlife habitat
In some cases, loss or modification of fish habitat
Fish entrainment or passage restriction
In some cases, changes in reservoir and stream water quality
In some cases, displacement of local populations

Issues with Hydroelectric Power Plants

Question of lifetime:
What do we do after the structures reach their life time.
Silt problem
Loss of land to reservoir.
Several cities have been drowned to make room for a reservoir.
Reservoirs change local climate
Disturbing the eco-cycle of native species
Columbia river salmon migration (fish ladders)
Dart fish in Lake Mead
Restriction of water flow down stream
The grand canyon experiment
Disaster Danger to the cities downstream
33 major Dam failure (1918-1958)
9 Dam failures in the world (1959-1965)

Worst disaster: Henan province of China (Bangqiao Dam), in August 1975, was caused
by the failure of two dams with a combined capacity of 600 million cubic meters of
water. Between 86,000 and 230,000 people were killed

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Topic 061: Wind Power

The Wind Energy Pioneer: Charles F. Brush
During the winter of 1887-88 Brush built what is today believed to be the first
automatically operating wind turbine for electricity generation.
The turbine ran for 20 years and charged the batteries in the cellar of his mansion in
Cleveland, Ohio.

Topic 062: What is wind energy?

Wind energy is a converted form of solar energy.

The sun's radiation heats different parts of the earth at different rates—most notably
during the day and night

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Also, different surfaces (for example, water and land) absorb or reflect at different rates.
(Flow change and heat capacity)
This causes portions of the atmosphere to warm differently.
Hot air rises, reducing the atmospheric pressure at the earth's surface, and cooler air is
drawn in to replace it.
The result is wind.
Air has mass, and when it is in motion, it contains the energy of that motion — "kinetic
energy."
Some portion of that energy can be converted into other forms — mechanical force or
electricity — that we can use to perform work.

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Lesson 22
Alternate energy sources Continued 02

Topic 063: Wind Turbines

The wind turbine generator converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

The turbines are different from hydroelectric turbines in that they operate efficiently with
varying input power (wind speed varies)

It is clear that global wind power capacity is increasing from 1996 to 2018 and most
recent years.

Also, China, USA, Germany are among the top three leaders of the wind turbine capacity
installation in 2016.

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Topic 064: Issues with Wind Energy

Issues

Esthetics
Noise
Effect on wildlife
Variable output

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Noise
The closer people are to wind turbines, the greater the negative impacts to them.
o Some more sensitive people suffer adverse health effects as a result of living near large wind
turbines.
o Scientific studies show wind turbines disturb sleep, and sleep disturbance is proven to cause
impaired health.
o Peer-reviewed scientific studies have proven the existence of infrasound (McPherson), and how it
physically affects people (Salt and Kaltenbach), (Salt and Lichtenhan). “Large wind turbines generate
very low frequency sounds and infrasound (below 20 Hz) when the wind driving them is turbulent.

Topic 065: Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)

A great amount of thermal energy (heat) is stored in the world's oceans.

Oceans cover more than 70% of Earth's surface, making them the world's largest solar collectors.
Each day, the oceans absorb enough heat from the sun to equal the thermal energy contained in 250
billion barrels of oil.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) systems convert this thermal energy into electricity —
often while producing desalinated water.
Ocean thermal energy is used for many applications, including electricity generation.
There are three types of electricity conversion systems:
closed-cycle, open-cycle, and hybrid.
Closed-cycle systems use the ocean's warm surface water to vaporize a working fluid, which has a
low-boiling point, such as ammonia (-33.5 C). The vapor expands and turns a turbine. The turbine
then activates a generator to produce electricity.

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Closed-Cycle OTEC System

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Open-cycle systems actually boil the seawater by operating at low pressures. This produces steam that
passes through a turbine/generator.

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Lesson 23
Alternate energy sources Continued 03

Topic 066: Biomass Energy

Biofuels are fuels derived from renewable plant-based organic matter: beetroot, rapeseed,
sunflower, cereals, agricultural waste, forestry residues, etc.

Photosynthesis

All plant base biomass are derived from the Photosynthesis reaction:
CO2 + 2H2O + Light CH2O +H2O + O2
112 kcal of light energy is needed for 1 mole of CH2O.
CH2O is a carbohydrate.
Carbohydrate formed by photosynthesis are glucose (C6H12O6) and fructose
(C6H12O6), that make sucrose (sugar) (C12H22O11)

Respiration: is opposite of photosynthesis. Plants “burn” carbohydrates to get energy

for growth. This “burning” produces CO2 an H2O.
Old saying- sleep under a tree during the day but not at night. What is the reason?
Estimate of how much plant biomass is produced every year on earth.
Earth annual plant production is 329 grams per square meter. Therefore, total
production is
4p(6.37 x 106)2m2 x 329 g/m2.yr=16 x 1016 g/yr
(How would you like to burn wood for your energy needs!!)

Topic 067: Conversion of Biomass into useful fuel: Gasohol

Vegetable matter can be converted to gaseous or liquid fuels.

90% petroleum gasoline and 10% bioderived alcohol form Gasohol. (E-10)
The use of ethanol as an automobile fuel in the United States dates as far back as 1908, to
the Ford Model T.

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Henry Ford was a supporter of home-grown renewable fuels, and his Model T could be
modified to run on either gasoline or pure alcohol.
Ethanol was used to fuel cars well into the 1920s and 1930s as several efforts were made
to sustain a U.S. ethanol program.
Standard Oil marketed a 25-percent ethanol by volume gasoline in the 1920s in the
Baltimore area.
After World War II, there was little interest in the use of agricultural crops to produce
liquid fuels.
Fuels from petroleum and natural gas became available in large quantities at low cost,
eliminating the economic incentives for production of liquid fuels from crops.
Federal officials quickly lost interest in alcohol fuel production, and many of the wartime
distilleries were dismantled. Others were converted to beverage alcohol plants.
Interest in ethanol was renewed in the 1970s, when oil supply disruptions in the Middle
East became a national security issue and America began to phase out lead (an octane
booster) from gasoline.

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Topic 068: US Ethanol Production Capacity

Biofuels for Transportation
Ethanol Fuels

Gasohol: usually E6-E10 (6-10% ethanol)

E85: 70-81% ethanol, 19-30% gasoline
E95: denatured ethanol
E20? –Minnesota has 20%
E-Diesel (O2Diesel)
Biodiesel (B2 –B100)
Biodiesel from recycled cooking oil, soybean oil and animal fats.

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Lesson 24
Alternate energy sources Continued 04

Topic 069: Biofuel from Algae

Biofuel from algae, also known as algae-based biofuel or algal biofuel, is a renewable energy source
that is derived from various types of algae. Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic

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microorganisms that can convert sunlight and carbon dioxide (CO2) into biomass through the process
of photosynthesis. This biomass can be further processed to produce different types of biofuels, such
as biodiesel, bioethanol, and biogas.

Issues

The present cost of algae production from open ponds is too high to make fuel production
economically viable.
2. Photobioreactors (PBRs) are too expensive.
4. Some algae don’t need sunlight, and can produce oil in a fermentor.
5. Don’t believe the cited per acre yields that some proponents claim.

$50 - $100/gallon cost

Topic 070: Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is a renewable and sustainable form of energy derived from the heat
generated within the Earth's core. The word "geothermal" comes from the Greek words
"geo" (earth) and "therme" (heat). This energy source has been used for thousands of
years for bathing, heating, and cooking purposes in various regions with geothermal
activity.

The Earth's core is a hot and molten layer, and heat is continuously generated by the
natural decay of radioactive isotopes like uranium, thorium, and potassium. This heat
flows outward toward the Earth's crust, creating geothermal resources in certain regions,
particularly along tectonic plate boundaries, volcanic regions, and hot spots.

There are several methods to tap into geothermal energy:

Geothermal Power Plants: These plants use steam or hot water from underground
reservoirs to power turbines and generate electricity. There are three main types of
geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle.

Direct Use Applications: Geothermal energy can be used directly for heating homes,
buildings, greenhouses, or industrial processes without electricity generation. It's a cost-
effective and environmentally friendly way to utilize geothermal resources.

Geothermal Heat Pumps: These systems use the constant temperature of the Earth just a
few meters below the surface to provide heating, cooling, and hot water for residential

and commercial buildings.

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Heat flows outward from Earth's interior. The crust insulates us from Earth's interior heat.
The mantle is semi-molten, the outer core is liquid and the inner core is solid.

Earth's crust is broken into huge plates that move apart or push together at about the rate
our fingernails grow. Convection of semi-molten rock in the upper mantle helps drive
plate tectonics.

Topic 071: Geothermal Process as a Source of Energy

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Respiration: is opposite of photosynthesis. Plants “burn” carbohydrates to get energy for

growth. This “burning” produces CO2 an H2O.
Old saying- sleep under a tree during the day but not at night. What is the reason?
Estimate of how much plant biomass is produced every year on earth.
Earth annual plant production is 329 grams per square meter. Therefore, total
production is
4p(6.37 x 106)2m2 x 329 g/m2.yr=16 x 1016 g/yr

New crust forms along mid-ocean spreading centers and continental rift zones. When
plates meet, one can slide beneath another. Plumes of magma rise from the edges of
sinking plates.

Thinned or fractured crust allows magma to rise to the surface as lava. Most magma
doesn't reach the surface but heats large regions of underground rock.

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Lesson 25
Alternate energy sources Continued 05

Topic 072: Geothermal Process as a Source of Energy

Natural steam from the production wells power the turbine generator. The steam is
condensed by evaporation in the cooling tower and pumped down an injection well to
sustain production.

Production-sized wells require large drill rigs like these and can cost as much as a million
dollars or more to drill. Geothermal wells can be drilled over two miles deep.

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Geothermal power could serve 100% of the electrical needs of 39 countries (over
620,000,000 people) in Africa, Central/ South America and the Pacific. See:
www.geotherm.org/PotentialReport.htm

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Today, about 95% of the buildings in Reykjavik are heated with geothermal water. Reykjavik is now
one of the cleanest cities in the world.

Topic 073: Tidal Energy

Tidal energy is one of the oldest forms of energy used by humans.
Indeed, tide mills, in use on the Spanish, French and British coasts, date back to 787 A.D.
Tide mills consisted of a storage pond, filled by the incoming (flood) tide through a sluice
and emptied during the outgoing (ebb) tide through a water wheel.
The tides turned waterwheels, producing mechanical power to mill grain. We even have
one remaining in New York- which worked well into the 20th century.

Origin of Tides
Tidal and current streams are caused by the effects of the solar energy and the moons
gravitational force acting upon the surface of the planet.
The combined effect of these phenomena creates, run of river, ebb and flow of tides and
ocean currents.
An attractive property of this energy type is its occurrence in an entirely predictable
consistent fashion that may be very accurately forecast.
Vertical tides on US coast range from 2 feet in Florida to more than 18 feet in Maine
Potential Sites in the US
Alaska (Cook Inlet)
Bay of Funday (US-Canadian Border; NE Coast of US) --> most favorable site in the
World --> would produce about 30,000 MW in total (1/2 for the US)
A 20 MW demonstration plant has been built here
Locally (New England) this is a potential important source of power but on national scale
is just a few percent of our (insatiable) need for power
Annapolis Tidal Generating Station

Annapolis Tidal Generating Station

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Tidal power is non-polluting, reliable and predictable. It can produce power 24/7.
Tidal barrages, undersea tidal turbines - like wind turbines but driven by the sea - and a
variety of machines harnessing undersea currents are under development.
Unlike wind and waves, tidal currents are entirely predictable.
However, the technology is still to be proven feasible.

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Lesson 26
Nuclear Power

Topic 074: Nuclear Power

History of Nuclear Technology

1896: Antoine Henri Becquerel discovered radioactivity in uranium.
Becquerel, of course, did not envision the atom bomb when he made his discovery.
1902: Marie and Pierre Curie isolated a radioactive metal called radium.
Three years later there was another electrifying breakthrough, when Albert Einstein
published his theory of special relativity. Einstein asserted that matter (mass) and energy
were two forms of the same thing. E=mc2
According to Einstein, if some how we could transform mass into energy, it would be
possible to "liberate" huge amounts of energy.

1934, the Italian physicist Enrico Fermi disintegrated heavy atoms by spraying them with
neutrons. Unfortunately, he didn't realize that he had achieved nuclear fission.
December 1938, however, Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassman in Berlin did a similar
experiment with uranium and were able to verify a world-shaking achievement.
They had split an atom into two new atoms, in a process called nuclear fission.
In creating two nuclei from one uranium nucleus, they had transformed part of the
original mass into energy--33 years after Einstein had said it could be done.

Topic 075: The Nuclear Bomb

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Hungarian Jew, educated in Berlin, escaped in 1933 to London and came to USA in 1936
(Columbia University).
Has patent on fission process (in UK) and on nuclear reactors (with Fermi).
He convinced Einstein that the Germans are developing the atomic bomb and therefore
USA should start a program. Wrote the Einstein-Szilard letter to Franklin D Roosevelt.

Topic 076: Manhattan Project, Oppenheimer, and Alma Gorda

At the time Roosevelt received the letter, U.S. scientists believed that Nazi Germany was
ahead of them in building this type of bomb. Roosevelt gave the note to an aide saying:
"This requires action."
For the next six years scientists, engineers, generals and government officials joined
hands in the Manhattan Project--a massive enterprise to produce an atomic bomb.

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The government spent more than $2 billion (130,000 people) constructing a number of
special research laboratories, hiring scientists and engineers, and building thirty-seven
installations in nineteen states and Canada.
Oddly enough, despite the scope of the effort, the secret was so well kept that practically
no one outside a small select circle knew what was going on.

The Second World War

The development of the bomb continued. And on August 6, 1945, the Enola Gay, an
American airplane, dropped the first atomic bomb ever used in warfare on Hiroshima,
Japan, eventually killing over 140,000 people.
On August 9, 1945, the United States dropped a second atomic bomb, this time on the
Japanese city of Nagasaki. The drop was one mile off-target, but it killed 75,000 people.

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Lesson 27
Nuclear Power continued-01

Topic 077: Nuclear Energy

The first test of the world's first man-made nuclear reactor, Enrico Fermi's famous "pile," CP-1, took
place on December 2, 1942, in a squash court under the stands of the University of Chicago's Stagg
Field.
The pile was a black, greasy, flattened mass. It was odd looking, combining the size of an average
garage with the shape of a doorknob. Inside, it was stacked with 771,000 pounds of 16-inch graphite
bricks, 80,590 pounds of uranium oxide pucks, and 12,400 pounds of uranium-metal slugs.
The uranium pucks fitted into holes bored into the graphite bricks in a roughly spherical pattern. CP-1
cost about $1 million to build. It had no shielding or emergency cooling devices.

Fermi’s Pile (Dec. 1942)

Fermi intended to keep the reactor at less than half a watt of power, but no one doubted that its
mechanism, if it worked, could someday be applied to the production of power.
Fermi's young physicist colleague Walter Zinn, were already thinking about power for civilian
electricity.
When enough initial fissions in the U-235 nuclei took place, Fermi reasoned, a chain reaction would
occur, each fission causing two more fissions, two causing four, four causing eight, eight causing
sixteen. The geometric progression could ultimately have generated enough heat and radiation to
cause an uncontrolled runaway chain reaction in the pile, if Fermi didn't limit the reactions with
control rods.

Suicide Squad

In CP-1 the handmade wooden rods were wrapped with sheets of cadmium, a metal that hungrily
absorbs neutrons. By moving one or more control rods in or out of holes in the pile, allowing the
cadmium to absorb greater or lesser numbers of neutrons, Fermi could accelerate, slow, or stop the
chain reaction. If something happened to the control rods, he had a suicide squad in reserve: three
young scientists with jugs of cadmium-sulfate solution waited near the ceiling of the squash court,
ready to flood the pile with cadmium and quench any runaway reaction at the risk of their lives. `

Through the morning and early afternoon the historic experiment proceeded. By midafternoon, an
eyewitness remembers, "suddenly Fermi raised his hand. 'The pile has gone critical,' he announced.
No one present had any doubt about it." The reaction had become self-sustaining. The pile's neutron
intensity at that point was doubling every two minutes as the chain reaction proceeded. Left

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uncontrolled for an hour and a half, that rate of increase would have carried CP-1 to a million
kilowatts. Nothing very spectacular had happened. Nothing had moved and the pile itself had given no
sound. For some time they had known that they were about to unlock a giant; still, they could not
escape an eerie feeling when they knew they had actually done it.

Topic 078: Nuclear Reactor

The Government Steps In

Through many acts and organizations including the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 and the
Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, the government made atomic energy
in all its manifestations an absolute government controlled monopoly and sought to
monitor and control nuclear development, building test reactors and even test weapons.
Between 1964 and 1970, U.S. utility companies placed orders for some 100 reactors.
Most of those reactors are still in operation today.

Nuclear Power Plants

Currently, there are 109 nuclear power plants in operation.
No new plant had been ordered since 1978.
Nuclear Power contributes 22% to total USA need.
France generates 70% of its power from Nuclear technology. (Highest in the world)

Rebirth of Nuclear Technology

As of 2006, Watts Bar 1 (Spring City Tennessee), which came on-line in 1997, was the
last U.S. commercial nuclear reactor to go on-line.
On September 22, 2005 NuStart Energy selected Port Gibson (the Grand Gulf site,
Mississippi) and Scottsboro (the Bellefonte site, Alabama) for 2 new nuclear units.
It is possible that the first new nuclear power plant to be built in the United States since
the 1970s may be installed in the remote town of Galena, Alaska. The town's City

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Council approved the idea, and Toshiba proposed to install its model 4S "nuclear battery"
in Galena free of charge as a test.

Topic 079: The Science of Fission

A Little Mass Goes a Long Way

Remember Einstein’s Formula, E = mc2, shows that energy and mass are related. You can
convert mass into energy.
‘c’ the speed of light which is 300,000 kilometers per second, then c2=90,000,000,000
km2/s2.
Small amount of mass gives a lot of energy.
1 gram of mass is equal to 30 tons of TNT.
Hiroshima or Nagasaki bombs were small but still had 20,000 tons of TNT power.
Eisenhower: “More bang for the buck”

A Sense of Scale for the Nuclear World

If we set the height of an average adult human being at about 170cm (5'7") then:
a human red blood cell would be about 70,000 times smaller than we are
an atom would be about 10,000,000,000 times smaller than we are
an atom's nucleus would be about 100,000,000,000,000 times smaller than we are
a proton (positively charged unit inside an atom's nucleus) would be about
1,000,000,000,000,000 times smaller than we are

Atomic Number (Z)

# of protons or # of electrons. Written as Z. e.g. Hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 electron, therefore
atomic number is 1.
Equal number of electrons and protons guarantee charge neutrality.
If the electron leaves the hydrogen atom, the atom will become positively charged.
H+. This is called an “ion”.

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Other examples: Atomic number 8 means 8 electrons and 8 protons. This is Oxygen.
Atomic number is written as subrscript: 8O, 1H, 6C….

Mass Number (A)

Total number of protons and neutrons is Mass number A, e.g., Hydrogen has one proton. Therefore,
Mass number of hydrogen is 1. It is written as 11H. (AZX)
Another example: Helium has a mass number 2. Two proton, two neutron, two electron. 24He
This is all about nucleus. (Nucleons)
This does not explicitly tell you how many neutrons are there in the nucleus.
Since there is no charge consideration, there could be more neutrons than protons.
For example, Carbon can have 12, 13 or 14 neutrons. These are called isotopes.126C, 136C, 146C
Notice, you can not change number of proton. (Why?) If we add a proton, it becomes Nitrogen.

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Lesson 28
Nuclear Power continued-02

Topic 080: Fissile Materials and Fission

Uranium

Uranium 235 (Mass Number 235, the sum the protons and neutrons in its nucleus) is a
very rare element. In nature, uranium is usually found as uranium 238.
Uranium 235 is special because within its nucleus, the repelling electromagnetic forces
of the protons and neutrons are very close to overcoming the nuclear force binding them
together. In fact, it only takes adding one more neutron to make it break open and split.
This splitting was called fission, after a similar process that happens during cell division
(Mitosis).

(Work it out to see how many electrons, protons, neutrons for 235U and 238U have)

Relative Abundance of Uranium Isotopes

Isotope U-238 U-235 U-234

Natural Abundance (%) 99.27 0.72 0.0055
Half-life (years) 4.47 billion 700 million 246,000

Plutonium 239

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In examining the results of his experiment Fermi also found an important serendipitous
side effect. Some of the neutrons freed by the fission of Uranium 235 entered the nuclei
of the plentiful Uranium 238 atoms and transformed them into Plutonium 239.
The significance of this side effect being that Plutonium 239, it just so happens, is also an
easy atom to fission.
Ironically, the immediate application of Fermi's work became the creation of breeder
reactors to make the Plutonium 239 necessary for future nuclear bombs.
Plutonium 239 was used in the bomb dropped over Nagasaki, while Uranium 235 was
used on Hiroshima.
Later on, however, Fermi's reactor became the model upon which the nuclear power
industry was created.

Fission Products

Adding a neutron to 235U makes in unstable.

It breaks apart giving 2-3 neutrons, lots of energy and gama rays.
Gamma-rays have the smallest wavelengths and the most energy of any other waves in
the electromagnetic spectrum.

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Topic 081: Half Life

The half-life describes the amount of time needed for half of a sample of unstable atoms
or particles to undergo decay. Thallium-208, for example, decays into lead-208 with a
half-life of 3.05 minutes. This means that half of a sample of thallium-208 will decay into
lead-208 over the course of 3.05 minutes.

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Topic 082: Chain Reaction and Moderator

If you get those two neutrons to enter other uranium nuclei, you can start a chain reaction
and release an enormous amount of energy.
The neutrons released by the fission of uranium move very fast. To get the released
neutrons into other uranium nuclei, they have to be slowed down. The substance that
slows the neutrons is called a moderator. Enrico Fermi, was the first to make this
adjustment. He used graphite, a form of carbon, as the neutron-slowing moderator.

Nuclear Reactors

Heat is produced in a nuclear reactor when neutrons strike Uranium atoms causing them
to fission in a continuous chain reaction.
Control elements, which are made of materials that absorb neutrons, are placed among
the fuel assemblies. (Cadmium)
When the control elements, or control rods as they are often called, are pulled out of the
core, more neutrons are available and the chain reaction speeds up, producing more heat.
When they are inserted into the core, more neutrons are absorbed, and the chain reaction
slows or stops, reducing the heat.
Moderators Used to slow down the neutrons so that they can interact with the U235
atoms. Heavy water, carbon, etc.

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Natural Reactor
More than 1.5 billion years ago, a nuclear fission reaction took place in an underground
uranium deposit in Oklo, Gabon, Africa.
The fission reaction continued - off and on - for hundreds of thousands of years.
Eventually, the reactor shut down.
While it was active, the natural reactor generated fission products (wastes) very similar to
those produced when fission occurs in modern nuclear reactors at power plants.

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Lesson 29
Nuclear Power continued-03

Topic 083: Types of Reactors?

There are two type of reactors:
Pressurized water reactor (PWR)
What happens to boiling point when the pressure increases?
Boiling water reactors (BWR)

In a typical commercial pressurized light-water reactor, the reactor core creates heat
Pressurized-water in the primary coolant loop carries the heat to the steam generator
The steam generator vaporizes the water in a secondary loop to drive the turbine, which
produces electricity.
PWRs keep water under pressure so that it heats, but does not boil. Water from the
reactor and the water in the steam generator that is turned into steam never mix. In this
way, most of the radioactivity stays in the reactor area.
Boiling Water Reactor (BWR)

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The reactor core creates heat and a single loop both delivers steam to the turbine and
returns water to the reactor core to cool it.
The cooling water is force-circulated by electrically powered pumps.
Emergency cooling water is supplied by other pumps, which can be powered by onsite
diesel generators.
Other safety systems, such as the containment building air coolers, also need electric
power

Breeder Reactors
Plutonium-239 produces significantly more energy than Uranium-235
Plutonium-239 can be produced in reactors in which Uranium-238 covers the main
fission material Uranium- 235.
These are called breeder reactors.
These are the most protected reactors.
The time required for a breeder reactor to produce enough material to fuel a second
reactor is called its doubling time, and present design plans target about ten years as a
doubling time. A reactor could use the heat of the reaction to produce energy for 10 years,
and at the end of that time have enough fuel to fuel another reactor for 10 years.

It is possible to extend the availability of nuclear fuel by 10,000 years by using Breeder
reactors
Most French reactors are breeder reactors.
No US reactor is a breeder reactor although we invented the technology.
In 1977 Jimmy Carter, due to the fear that the Plutonium might be stolen from the
reactors, banned the Breeder Reactor technology in USA.
All weapons now are made from Pu-239.

Topic 084: Nuclear Technology in Medicine what are the major nuclear accidents?
Other Uses:
Nuclear Weapons
Materials Research
Medicine
Agriculture: Sterilization

Medical Uses of Nuclear Technology

Diagnostic Uses of Radioactive Materials
Tracers: bone scans, kidney scans, and others. Radioactive isotopes are used as tracers to
identify abnormal bodily processes. This is possible because some natural elements tend
to concentrate in certain parts of the body: iodine in the thyroid, phosphorus in the bones,
potassium in the muscles. When a patient is injected with a radioactive element, a special
camera can take pictures of the internal workings of the organ.
Diagnostic Uses
Examples of radioactive tracer medical procedures.
Myocardial perfusion imaging maps the blood flow to the heart.
Bone scans can detect the spread of cancer six to 18 months sooner than X-rays.

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Kidney scans are much more sensitive than X-rays or ultrasound in fully evaluating
kidney function.
Imaging with radioactive technetium-99m can help diagnose bone infections in young
children at the earliest possible stage.
Laboratory techniques using radioactivity can detect underactive thyroids in newborn
babies, making prompt treatment possible and saving many children from mental
retardation.
Therapeutic Uses of Radioactive Materials in Medicine
Direct internal and external radiation. Radiotherapy has the advantage over chemotherapy
of being specific to the cancer or tumor involved. It is applied directly to the site of the
cancer and, therefore, does less damage to healthy tissue.

The example of thyroid disease and cancer. Graves’ disease, a thyroid condition, can be
cured by drinking a form of radioactive iodine that concentrates naturally in the thyroid
and destroys the diseased portion. This treatment is so successful that it has virtually
replaced thyroid surgery. (Iodine-131)
Nuclear batteries. Nuclear batteries based on thermoelectric conversion and containing
radioactive isotopes are used as micro-watt power sources for pacemakers. A larger
version has been proposed for use in an artificial heart.

Topic 085: Problems and Issues with Nuclear Technology

Nuclear Proliferation

Civilian nuclear technology could be used to create fissile materials for use in nuclear
weapons.
This concern is known as nuclear proliferation, and is a major reactor design criterion.
While the enriched uranium used in most nuclear reactors is not concentrated enough to
build a bomb, the technology used to enrich uranium could be used to make the highly
enriched uranium needed to build a bomb.
In addition, breeder reactor designs such as CANDU can be used to generate plutonium
for bomb making materials.
It is believed that the nuclear programs of India and Pakistan used CANDU-like reactors
to produce the fissionables for their weapons.

Waste Disposal

Low level radiation garbage: Gloves, tailings, equipment, etc.

Spent nuclear fuel: The safe storage and disposal of nuclear waste is a difficult problem.
Because of potential harm from radiation, the spent nuclear fuel must be stored in
shielded basins of water, or in dry storage vaults or containers until its radioactivity
decreases naturally ("decays") to safe levels.
This can take days or thousands of years, depending on the type of fuel. Most waste is
currently stored in temporary storage sites, requiring constant maintenance, while suitable
permanent disposal methods are discussed.

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Lesson 30
Nuclear Power continued-04

Topic 086: Nuclear Accidents

The accident at the Three Mile Island Unit 2 (TMI-2) nuclear power plant near
Middletown, Pennsylvania, on March 28, 1979, was the most serious in U.S. commercial
nuclear power plant operating history.
No deaths or injuries to plant workers or members of the nearby community.
But it brought about sweeping changes involving emergency response planning, reactor
operator training, etc.
It also caused the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to tighten and heighten its
regulatory oversight.

Chernobyl Accident
The only known Nuclear Power Plant accident where there was a loss of life.* (Japanese
Takaimura accident)
On April 25th -26th, 1986 the World's worst nuclear power accident occurred at
Chernobyl in the former USSR (now Ukraine).
The Chernobyl nuclear power plant located 80 miles north of Kiev had 4 reactors and
whilst testing reactor number 4 numerous safety procedures were disregarded.
The chain reaction in the reactor became out of control creating explosions and a fireball
which blew off the reactor's heavy steel and concrete lid.
The Chernobyl accident killed more than 30 people immediately, and as a result of the
high radiation levels in the surrounding 20-mile radius, 135,000 people had to be
evacuated.

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Topic 087 Aftermath of Chernobyl Disaster the major nuclear accidents?

Following a major earthquake, a 15-metre tsunami disabled the power supply and cooling of
three Fukushima reactors, causing a nuclear accident on 11 March 2011. All three cores largely melted
in the first three days.

Topic 088: Units of Exposure to Radiation

The unit of radiation dose is called a rad (the SI term is gray or Gy). A rad is equal to
0.01 Joules of energy absorbed per kilogram of tissue.
In order to convert this unit into a unit of biological dose (rem), we have to understand
the characteristics of the ionizing radiation. Different types of radiation can produce
more or less biological damage, per unit of absorbed dose, depending upon the
characteristics of the ionizing radiation.

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The unit of rem (the SI term is Sievert or Sv) is determined by multiplying the dose in
rads to a quality factor (QF) assigned that particular radiation. The QF for most gammas,
betas and x-rays is 1. For neutrons, the QF is 2 - 11 (depending on neutron energy) and
20 for alpha particles.

Approximately 134 plant workers and firefighters battling the fire at the Chernobyl power
plant received high radiation doses--80,000 to 1,600,000 mrem-- and suffered from acute
radiation sickness. Of these, 28 died within the first three months from their radiation
injuries. Two more patients died during the first days as a result of combined injuries
from the fire and radiation.

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Topic 089: Fusion Reactions

Fusion reactions, in the context of nuclear physics, are processes in which two atomic
nuclei come together to form a single, more massive nucleus. These reactions release a
tremendous amount of energy, which is the result of the conversion of mass into energy,
according to Einstein's famous equation, E=mc^2.

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Lesson 31
Automobiles

Topic 090: Transportation

2020 Numbers:
247 Million Registered Vehicles in USA (0.87/person)
350 Million cars in China (0.25/person)
6.5 Million Cars in Pakistan 2020 (0.28/person)
1 Billion Motor vehicles in the world (0.13/person)

70% of oil goes towards transportation

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Topic 091 Energy consumption in automobiles

Where does the energy go in automobiles?

Remember:
Energy (Work) = Force x Distance (Joules)
Force = mass x acceleration (Newtons)
Power:
P = E/t = Force x distance/t = Force x velocity

Force needed to move a vehicle

There are four type of forces that are needed to move a vehicle:
Force required for Acceleration:
Fa=ma
Force to climb hill:
This force depends on the mass, the slope of the hill “s”, and the acceleration due to
gravity “g=32 ft/sec2
Fh=msg (s=slope or grade)

If a car is moving at a constant velocity on a level road, both Fa and Fh are ?

There are four type of forces that are needed to move a vehicle:
Force required for Acceleration:
Fa=ma
Force to climb hill:
This force depends on the mass, the slope of the hill “s”, and the acceleration due to
gravity “g=32 ft/sec2
Fh=msg (s=slope or grade)

If a car is moving at a constant velocity on a level road, both Fa and Fh are zero.
Force to overcome ground frictional forces (resistance from the ground):
Depends on the mass, the velocity, and the quality of tires and bearings.
Fr = Crmv (Cr is .01 for miles/sec)
Cr reflects the quality of tires and bearings.
Force needed to overcome Aerodynamic Drag:
This force is small at low speeds but grows very rapidly.
Above 40 MPH this is the dominating force and have the highest effect on the fuel
economy.
Fad = CDAfv2/370 Af=front area
CD is the Aerodynamic Drag Coefficient

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Topic 092: Automobile Efficiency

Vehicle Design and Fuel Efficiency
The fuel efficiency is directly related to the factors discussed in power loss slide.
There is not much you can do about the heat loss due to engine efficiency: Remember

But something can be done about other design factors:

First 3 factors (Fa, Fh, Fr) are proportional to the mass of the vehicle. This is difficult to reduce due to
safety considerations.
Fourth, Fad, is related to the vehicle frontal area which can be modified.
The third and the fourth terms (Fr, Fad) increase as the velocity increases. Therefore, slower speed
reduces fuel consumption.

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Lesson 32
Automobiles continued 01

Topic 093: What a drag !!!

Energy Eater
At an average speed of 48 mph, 45% of the energy required to move a car goes into
aerodynamic drag. Since drag increases with the square of speed, more than twice as
much energy would be required to overcome drag at 70 mph.
Drag Reduction
Concept vehicles being developed by government/industry partnerships have 40% less
aerodynamic drag than conventional vehicles.
Truck Drag
It's estimated that 65% of a truck's engine output goes into overcoming drag when
traveling at high speeds.

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Topic 094: Automobile Fuel Standards

Fuel efficiency have generally an increasing trend over time

Average fuel economy by major vehicle have been given in the below graph. Better lubrication and
bearings, auto ignitions, auto mixing, etc., all these actions have improved the fuel efficiency

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Topic 95: Alternative Fuels for Transportation

LPG, LNG, CNG:
Advantage- Lower emission, almost same cost as gasoline, local resources,
delivery infrastructure already present.
Issues – Still emits CO2, Natural gas also used for electricity generation so there
is a competition, Engine modification is required
Bio Diesels: from cooking oil and soybean oil
Advantages: Similar to diesel, can be used directly without any engine modification,
lower emissions than gasoline.

Issues: more expensive (20 -30%), harsh on polymers so some delivery problems, still
emits CO2, Higher NOx emission.
Ethanol: Simple alcohol from Plant material
Methanol: Natural gas or coal
Positive: Renewable resource (Ethanol), emissions are reabsorbed by plants, used be
existing engines, Methanol used in fuel cells.
Negative: Low fuel efficiency so it is only used as blend (10 -25% in gasoline),
more expensive, hard to ignite in cold weather
Hydrogen: Derived from water or Methane
Positive: No CO2 or other emissions, can be carried on board so not limited like
batteries, used in fuel cells.
Negative: No free H is available, so it has to be generated from other gases with
“high energy cost”, cost, storage, transportation, safety.

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Lesson 33
Transportation

Topic 096: The Electric Car

Acronyms

EV: Electric Vehicle

ZEV: Zero emission vehicle (Hydrogen, EV).
BEV: Battery-powered electric vehicle
HEV: Hybrid electric vehicle
PHEV: Plug-in hybrid electric vehicle

Alternative Fuels for Transportation

Electricity is used by Tesla, Nissan Leaf, Chevy Volt, E2 Cars ($7000 – 10,000)

Chinese EVs
China has one of the fastest growing EV markets in the world with an estimated 500
electric car makers.
Home-grown brands: Nio, Xpeng and Li Auto.
China plans for a larger slice of the market under the “Made in China 2025 industrial
master plan”.
There are issues related to infrastructure limitations, socioeconomic factors, and battery
market competition.

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Topic 097: Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEV) (BEV)

Alternate Energy Sources for Automobiles
Electric Cars: Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEV) (BEV)

Advantage: Electric cars are more efficient (40%) as opposed to gasoline cars (15%).
Disadvantage: However, energy stored in batteries is only 1% of the same weight of
gasoline. 13,0000 Wh/kg to 25 Wh/kg
Disadvantage: Therefore, the range of electric vehicles is very short.
Advantages:
Quiet operation
Lower maintenance
Regenerative breaking
Reduction of emissions
Energy can be derived from a variety of sources

Battery Operated Cars (BEV)

Disadvantage: How is the electricity for recharging is being produced in the first place?
Advantage: Power plants generate electricity at 38% efficiency and automobiles use
gasoline at only 15% efficiency, so it might be better to let the power plants generate
electricity and cars recharge the batteries.
Advantage: Pollution is isolated.
Disadvantage: It takes a longer time for the batteries to charge.
Possible solution: Completely change the batteries instead of charging, Fast charging
batteries.
Disadvantage: Life of the battery

Topic 98: Hybrid Cars

A combination of gasoline and batteries, or gasoline and flywheel.
The gasoline and batteries are available right now. These automobiles can go up to 70
mpg.
Reclaiming energy from the brakes to charge the battery

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Using the battery to assist the gas engine when the power is needed
Running completely on the battery when you come to a stop

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Lesson 34
Transportation continued 01

Topic 099: Materials in Electric/Hybrid Cars

China and the Material Strength

China has 72 gigawatt hours of domestic battery demand, controls 80 per cent of the
world’s capacity for raw material refining, with the capacity to produce 77 per cent of
worldwide battery cells and 60 per cent for components.
Control over the global supply of EV batteries are expected to remain in the hands of the
Chinese, Japanese and South Korean producers.

Rare Earth Elements for Motors in Electric Vehicles

Rare Earth Elements: The 17 rare earth elements are: lanthanum (La), cerium (Ce),
praseodymium (Pr), neodymium (Nd), promethium (Pm), samarium (Sm), europium
(Eu), gadolinium (Gd), terbium (Tb), dysprosium (Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er),
thulium (Tm), ytterbium (Yb), lutetium (Lu), scandium (Sc), and yttrium (Y).
Scandium and yttrium are not part of the lanthanide family, but end users include them
because they occur in the same mineral deposits as the lanthanides and have similar
chemical properties.

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The global reserves of rare earth minerals have been provided in the next table and it is
clear the China have the 38% of total reserves, Vietnam have 19%, Brazil have 18.1%
while Russia and India have 10% and 6% of total reserves of rare earth minerals.

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Topic 100: Hydrogen Fuel Cells

Hydrogen is extremely abundant in nature but not as free gas.
In combination with other elements, it is present as methane (CH4), water (H2O), etc.
However, free hydrogen is rare. It is so light that it escapes the earth’s gravitational field
into the universe.
Hydrogen can be used as a fuel:
H2 + O2 H2O + Energy

Hydrogen is obtained by a process call electrolysis in which electric power is used to

break hydrogen into H2 and O2.
H2O + Electric Energy H2 + O2

It takes more energy to get hydrogen then the energy generated by burning hydrogen.
There is another way Hydrogen gas can be used to power automobiles in an
environmentally friendly way.

These hydrogen fuel cells will be used in the transportation of different vehicles.

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Topic 101: Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Transportation

Steam on heated carbon, BLACK HYDROGEN

C + H2O H2 +CO
decomposition of certain hydrocarbons with heat,
CH4 C +2H2
reaction of sodium or potassium hydroxide on aluminum
2Al + 6H2O = 2Al(OH)3 + 3H2
electrolysis of water,
2 H2O 2H2 + O2 GREEN HYDROGEN
displacement from acids by certain metals.

Issues:
Catalyst: Mostly platinum based (Carbon Problem)
Hydrogen storage Safety
Fuel economy How much hydrogen can be carried on a car?
Infrastructure for Hydrogen Delivery: No easily available hydrogen pump
stations.

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Lesson 35
Air Pollution

Topic 103: Economic and Human Cost of Air Pollution

The human population has been increasing at different rates in different parts of the
world. In most developed countries, population growth rates have been relatively stable
or even declining. This is often due to factors such as improved healthcare, access to
contraception, higher levels of education, and lower infant mortality rates, which lead to
lower birth rates and longer life expectancies.

On the other hand, many less developed countries have experienced rapid population
growth in recent decades. This can be attributed to a combination of factors including
high birth rates, limited access to family planning and contraception, inadequate
healthcare and education systems, and high levels of poverty. These factors contribute to
a higher population growth rate in less developed countries compared to more developed
ones.

It is important to note that population growth rates can have significant social, economic,
and environmental implications. Managing population growth and ensuring sustainable
development are important challenges that need to be addressed globally.

Life expectancy which measures the average number of years a person is expected to live
based on various factors such as their country, gender, and overall health. It is an
important indicator of the overall health and well-being of a population. Life expectancy
can vary significantly across different countries and regions, with factors such as access

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to healthcare, quality of life, socioeconomic status, and lifestyle choices influencing the
expected lifespan. In Pakistan life expectancy is 67.5 years

There are different factors including air pollution, smoking, alcohol, unsafe water etc
which can result in shortening of life expectancy. In Pakistan, Air pollution is causing
shorting of life expectancy by almost 2.7 years while in the global scale, air pollution
caused to reduce life expectancy by 1.9 years.

Likely there are different sources which report the death toll of air pollution.

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Both anthropogenic (human-caused) and natural sources of pollution can contribute to

health issues and deaths. Here are some examples of both:

Anthropogenic sources:
1. Industrial emissions:
2. Vehicle emissions:
3. Power generation:
4. Indoor air pollution: Anthropogenic sources such as cooking and heating with solid
fuels (e.g., wood, coal) in poorly ventilated indoor environments can release pollutants

Natural sources:
1. Volcanic eruptions:
2. Forest fires:
3. Dust storms:

While both anthropogenic and natural sources of pollution can contribute to health issues
and deaths, it is important to note that human activities have a greater influence on air
pollution levels and associated health impacts. Therefore, efforts to reduce anthropogenic
sources of pollution are crucial for protecting public health and preventing premature
deaths.

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Likely, economic cost of air pollution from fossil fuels as a share of GDP in 2018 were
6.6 percent in China while India and Russia were at 5.4 percent and 4.1 percent. This
means that air pollution have negative external effects on output.
These numbers highlight the substantial economic burden that air pollution imposes on
these countries. The negative external effects of air pollution on output can manifest in
various ways. For example, air pollution can lead to increased healthcare costs due to the
treatment of pollution-related illnesses, decreased productivity and labor output due to
health impacts on the workforce, and damage to infrastructure and agricultural
productivity.

Moreover, air pollution can also have indirect effects on the economy, such as reduced
tourism, increased absenteeism from work, and decreased foreign direct investment. All
these factors can contribute to lower economic growth and hinder overall development.

Recognizing the economic costs of air pollution, many countries have been taking
measures to reduce emissions and improve air quality. These efforts often involve
transitioning to cleaner energy sources, implementing stricter emission regulations,
promoting sustainable transportation, and investing in pollution control technologies.

Topic 104: The Atmosphere

Troposphere: The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and extends 8 to 14.5
kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). This part of the atmosphere is the most dense. As you
climb higher in this layer, the temperature drops from about 17 to -52 degrees Celsius.
Almost all weather is in this region. The tropopause separates the troposphere from the
next layer. The tropopause and the troposphere are known as the lower atmosphere

The atmosphere is primarily composed of Nitrogen (N2, 78%), Oxygen (O2, 21%), and
Argon (Ar, 1%). A myriad of other very influential components are also present which
include the water (H2O, 0 - 7%), "greenhouse" gases or Ozone (O3 0 - 0.01%), Carbon
Dioxide (CO2, 0.01-0.1%), CFC

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Topic 105: Temperature Inversion

Normal atmospheric conditions: Under normal circumstances, air is hottest at the ground.
Air is fairly transparent to sunlight. When the sunlight reaches the ground it is almost
entirely absorbed, heating the land. Some of this energy is then re-radiated, and due to the
average temperatures involved, much of this is in the infrared.
Unlike the original sunlight, infrared light interacts more strongly with air, which is then
heated from below.

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Hot air, however, rises. This leads to constant convection which draws the warmer air up,
to be replaced with cooler air which is then heated. It is this process that leads to cloud
building, thermals, and other convection related atmospheric behavior.
However, it is sometimes possible to find situations where the gradient is inverted, so that
the air gets actually colder as you approach the surface of the Earth. This is a temperature
inversion.
It is most commonly created by the movement of air masses of different temperature
moving over each other. A warm air mass moving over a colder one can "shut off" the
convection effects, keeping the cooler air mass trapped below.

Warmer, less dense air mass moves over a cooler, more dense air mass. This type of
inversion occurs in the vicinity of warm fronts, and also in areas of oceanic upwelling
such as along the California coast. With sufficient humidity in the cooler layer, fog is
typically present below the inversion cap.

An inversion is also produced whenever radiation from the surface of the earth exceeds
the amount of radiation received from the sun, which commonly occurs at night.
Inversion also occurs during the winter when the angle of the sun is very low in the sky.
This effect is virtually confined to land regions as the ocean retains heat far longer. In the
polar regions during winter, inversions are nearly always present over land.

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Lesson 36
Air Pollution continued 01

Topic 106: Examples of Temperature Inversion

Temperature inversions can have significant impacts on local weather and air quality. In
areas with persistent temperature inversions, such as some valleys or basins, air pollution
can become trapped and accumulate, leading to smog and reduced visibility. Temperature
inversions can also affect temperature distribution, leading to cooler temperatures near
the surface while warmer air remains aloft.

It is important to note that temperature inversions can vary in intensity and duration,
depending on local weather conditions and geographic features. They are temporary
phenomena that typically dissipate as the sun rises and surface heating increases, causing
the inversion layer to mix and disperse.

Topic 107: Air Quality Index

The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a measure used to quantify and communicate the level of
air pollution in a specific location. It provides information about the quality of the air and
its potential impacts on human health. The AQI is typically reported on a scale from 0 to
500, with higher values indicating poorer air quality and increased health risks.

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The AQI is calculated based on the levels of various air pollutants, including particulate
matter (PM2.5 and PM10), ground-level ozone (O3), carbon monoxide (CO), sulfur
dioxide (SO2), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). These pollutants are known to have adverse
effects on respiratory health and can contribute to other health issues.

Each pollutant is assigned a specific index value based on its concentration in the air.
These index values are then combined to calculate an overall AQI value. The AQI is
typically categorized into different levels or color-coded categories to provide a clear
understanding of the air quality:

1. Good (0-50): Air quality is considered satisfactory, and the general public is unlikely to
experience any adverse health effects.

2. Moderate (51-100): Air quality is acceptable, but there may be a moderate health
concern for sensitive individuals, such as those with respiratory conditions.

3. Unhealthy for Sensitive Groups (101-150): Some members of the population,

particularly those with respiratory or heart conditions, may experience adverse health
effects. The general public may also notice some discomfort.

4. Unhealthy (151-200): The general public may experience health problems

5. Very Unhealthy (201-300): increased risk for everyone

6. Hazadous (301-above) Health warning of emergency conditions.

Related to the concentrations of ground level ozone

particle pollution (also known as particulate matter, including PM2.5 and PM10),
carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide

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Topic 108: Culprits of Air Pollution: Carbon Monoxide

Thermal Inversion (Smog)

Carbon Monoxide (CO)
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx)
Hydrocarbon Emission and Photochemical Smog
Sulfur Dioxide
Particulates
Acid Rain

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Reason: Incomplete combustion of Carbon due to insufficient oxygen.

2C + O2 2CO
With abundant oxygen, combustion produces CO2 which is not as toxic.
Source: Internal combustion engines
See table in the next slide. Gasoline powered vehicles contribute about 50% of the carbon
monoxide.

Good insulation in houses means dangerous levels of CO in houses. (CO detectors)

Internal sources are: House furnace, gas water heater, gas stoves, etc.
The maximum permissible indoor concentration for continuous exposure for healthy
bodies is 50 ppb.
Inexpensive CO detectors are available, and houses with basements where most of the
heating appliances are, should have at least one in the basement.

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Lesson 37
Air Pollution continued 02

Topic 109: Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

There are two sources of oxides of nitrogen NOx i.e. Industrial and residential. These can
be further categorized into non-road mobile source, road mobile source and other (non
mobile source.

1. Non-road mobile sources: This category includes emissions from equipment and
vehicles that are not used on roads. Examples of non-road mobile sources include
construction equipment, agricultural machinery, and aircraft.
2. Road mobile sources: This category encompasses emissions from vehicles used
on roads. This includes cars, motorcycles, trucks, buses, and other vehicles used
for transportation purposes.
3. Other non-mobile sources: This category includes stationary sources of NOx
emissions that are neither associated with road mobile nor non-road mobile
sources. These sources can include power plants, industrial facilities, residential
heating, and other similar activities.
By categorizing the sources of NOx emissions, it becomes easier to identify and regulate
the different sectors that contribute to the overall NOx pollution. This helps in developing
targeted strategies and measures to control and reduce the emissions of oxides of nitrogen.

Deleterious Effects on the Environment

• NOx is one of the main ingredients involved in the formation of ground-level
ozone, which can trigger serious respiratory problems. (More later)

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• Reacts to form nitrate particles, acid aerosols, as well as NO2, which also cause
respiratory problems.
• Contributes to the formation of acid rain.
• Contributes to the nutrient overload that deteriorates water quality. Eutrification.
• Disturbs aqueous ecosystem (Indian Corn)
• Contributes to atmospheric particles, that cause visibility impairment most
noticeable in national parks.
• Reacts to form toxic chemicals.
• Contributes to global warming.
• NOx and the pollutants formed from NOx can be transported over long distances

Ground Level Ozone and NOx

• Under solar radiation the following reaction occurs.

NO2 + sunlight → NO + O
• The UV part of the sunlight is responsible for this reaction.
• The above reaction is followed by:
O + O2 → O3
This is ground level ozone, which can combine with other chemicals to form
environmentally dangerous chemicals.

Topic 110: Hydrocarbon Emission and Photochemical Smog

Sources of Hydrocarbons-Volatile Organic Compounds (VOC)

• Auto exhaust, unburned gasoline.

• Evaporated gasoline during production, transport, handling, storage, underground
tanks, etc.
• Organic solvents in paints, dry cleaning, inks, solvents, etc.
• Chemical manufacturing.2-CP, 5-CP disaster.
• Incineration of various materials.
Photochemical Smog

• Needed ingredients to form Photochemical Smog:

Nitrogen Oxides
Hydrocarbons
Sunlight
• And time for these ingredients to react with each other. This is provided by the
temperature inversions which keep these gases at ground level.
• The product is Peroxyacetyl Nitrate (PAN) C2H3NO5.

Effects

• Lung tissue damage. Chronic problem can lead to lung cancer

• Visibility
• Degradation of materials (plastics and synthetic fabrics)

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• Damage to plants

The remedy of this is to reduce hydrocarbon (losses) and NOx emission

Topic 111: Sulfur Dioxide

Sources

• Combustion of fossil fuels containing sulfur, such as coal or oil, is a primary

source of SO2.
• Petroleum refining,
• Chemical manufacturing
• Metal smelting is another major source of SO2.
• Natural Source: Volcanoes, Vegetable decay (H2S), sulfates from the ocean.
Effects

• SO2 attacks the respiratory tract directly, affecting both upper and lower airways.
• It may provoke wheezing and exacerbate asthma and can be associated with
chronic bronchitis.
• SO2 can increase and aggravate pre-existing inflammatory conditions of the lower
airways and increase susceptibility to respiratory tract infections.
• Epidemiological studies show associations between long-term exposure to SO2
and increased incidence of symptoms of respiratory disease and decreased lung
function.
• In heavily industrialized areas, the combined effects of SO2 and particulate
pollution can increase the incidence of chronic lung disease, especially bronchitis.
• Recent studies reinforce the conclusion that the effects of SO2 in the presence of
other pollutants may be greater than the effects of SO2 alone at the same level.
• Emissions of SO2 also have the potential to mix with water vapor to form acids
which can damage vegetation and corrode materials. Acid Rain component.

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Lesson 38
Air Pollution continued 03

Topic 112: Particulates Matter in Atmosphere

Particle Size

Size distribution has a peak in the range 0.1-2.5 µm, and a second peak in the range 2.5-
50 µm.
Particles with a diameter of up to 2.5 µm (PM2.5) are commonly referred to as fine
particles.
There is also a distinction in the health effects of different sized particles.
Particles of up to about 10 µm (PM10) diameter are inhaled whereas larger particles are
not. On this basis the term fine particles is also often used to refer to PM10.
Nanoparticles

Different sources of Pm2.5 are increasing over time in the world generally and in
Pakistan Specifically.

Health Affects

• Respiratory tract problem.

• Sinus problems
• Brown haze effect: Visibility
• Other physiological problems

Topic 113: Acid Rain

• Acid rain is rainfall that has been acidified.

• Rain is acidified by oxides of sulfur and nitrogen.
• Acid rain usually has a pH of less than 5.6.

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• Acid rain is formed when oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, contained in power plant
smoke, factory smoke, and car exhaust, react with the moisture in the atmosphere.
• Dry deposition, such as soot and ash, sleet, hail, snow, smog and low level ozone
are forms that acid rain can take, despite its name.

The pH of a solution is a measure of the molar concentration of hydrogen ions in the

solution and as such is a measure of the acidity or basicity of the solution.
The letters pH stand for "power of hydrogen" and numerical value for pH is just the
negative of the power of 10 of the molar concentration of H+ ions.

Causes

• Industrial emissions from factories and power plants that burn fuels such as
natural gas, coal or oil, emit smoke that gives off oxides of sulfur and nitrogen is
one cause.
• Another cause is vehicles (e.g. cars, buses) that burn gasoline and diesel. The
exhaust emitted by burning these fuels contains sulfur dioxide, an oxide of sulfur.
Also, vehicles that have gas engines will produce oxides of nitrogen, another
cause of acid rain.
• One other cause is home fires giving off smoke that contains sulfur dioxide.
• Some fairly minor causes are natural causes which are volcanoes, swamps and
rotting plants giving off sulfur dioxide. Natural causes only account for 10% of
the pollution causing acid rain.

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Effects and Problems

• Determining just how much the planet is being hurt by acid rain is very difficult
because the ecosystems that it affects are so diverse and complex.
• Many ecosystems are affected by acid rain. Bodies of water, such as lakes and
rivers, see many of their inhabitants die off due to rising acidity levels.
(Adirondacks)
• Acidic water also ruins plant nutrients, hurting plants' ability to survive and to
give life to other organisms. (North sea forests)
• Human-made products are also experiencing degradation from acid rain. Cars can
lose their finishes, and outdoor statues are beginning to rust. (Taj Mahal,
Acropolis, etc.)
• Acid rain's effects are destructive and long lasting.
•
Topic 114: Acid Rain Effects

• Eutrophication (NOx related)

• Direct effect of reduced pH on sea creatures
• Erosion

Policy and action

• Acid rain reduction efforts are underway in many countries throughout the world.
In a 1991 agreement between Canada and the United States, the US committed to
the following:
• to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions by 10 million short tons from their 1980 levels
by 2000
• to limit electrical utility emissions nationwide to 8.95 million short tons of sulfur
dioxide per year by 2010
• to place a national limit on industrial source emissions of 5.6 million short tons
per year

Prevention

• In some cases, industries have attempted to curb acid rain production. The
Northern States Power company began working to reduce acid rain in the 1980s,
and has invested over a billion dollars to that end.

• There are many ways that power plant companies like Northern States can reduce
acid rain creation. They can use coal with a low sulfur content, they can remove
the sulfur from smoke their plants release, and they can limit processes known to
generate high levels of acid rain.
• Environmentalists advocate the installation of sulfur cleaning scrubbers in
factories, washing sulfur out of coal, and finding new methods of burning
coal. Power plant operators are looking for less expensive solutions to the
problem.

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Lesson 39
Global Effects

Topic 115: Global Effects and Sustainability: Ozone Story

We live in the "Troposphere" where most of the weather occurs; such as rain, snow and
clouds. Above the troposphere is the "Stratosphere"; an important region in which effects
such as the Ozone Hole and Global Warming originate

UV b c s b o

Ozone is created when ultraviolet radiation (sunlight) strikes the stratosphere,

dissociating (or "splitting") oxygen molecules (O2) to atomic oxygen (O). The atomic
oxygen quickly combines with other oxygen molecules to form ozone:
O2 + UV light → O + O

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It's ironic that at ground level, ozone is a health hazard - it is a major constituent of
photochemical smog.
Up in the stratosphere it absorbs some of the potentially harmful ultra-violet (UV)
radiation from the sun which can cause skin cancer and damage vegetation, among other
things. O + O2 → O3

Topic 116: Ozone Depletion in the Atmosphere

Ozone is not evenly distributed in the atmosphere; its concentration varies with altitude.

Stratospheric Ozone: The ozone layer is found in the stratosphere, which is located
about 10 to 30 miles above the Earth's surface. Here, ozone molecules are concentrated,
forming the ozone layer. The concentration of ozone in the stratosphere can vary but is
usually measured in parts per million (ppm). In this region, ozone plays a crucial role in
absorbing the majority of the sun's harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Tropospheric Ozone: Ozone is also found in the troposphere, the lower layer of the
atmosphere where weather occurs. Tropospheric ozone is considered a pollutant and is a
key component of smog. Its concentration is usually measured in parts per billion (ppb).
Tropospheric ozone is not emitted directly into the air but is formed by chemical
reactions between nitrogen oxides (NOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in the
presence of sunlight.
The concentration of ozone in the atmosphere can vary due to natural processes and
human activities.

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M s m of Ozo Co c o : Dobso U

Column of air, 10 deg x 5 deg. The amount of ozone in this column is conveniently measured in
Dobson Units.

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Ozone depletion refers to the gradual thinning and destruction of the ozone
layer in Earth's stratosphere. The ozone layer plays a crucial role in
protecting life on Earth by absorbing most of the sun's harmful ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. The process of ozone depletion primarily involves human-
made chemicals called ozone-depleting substances (ODS), such as
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), halons, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl
chloroform.

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Lesson 40
Global Effects Continued 01

Topic 117: Ozone Depletion and Consequences

Ozo D p o S osph

• Ozone can be destroyed by the following reaction:

O + O3 → O2 + O2
The Chapman Reactions
• Dramatic loss of ozone in the lower stratosphere over Antarctica was first noticed
in the 1970s.
• Over Antarctica (and recently over the Arctic), stratospheric ozone has been
depleted over the last 15 years at certain times of the year. This is mainly due to
the release of manmade chemicals containing chlorine such as CFC's (Chloro
Fluoro Carbons), but also compounds containing bromine, other related halogen
compounds and also nitrogen oxides (NOx).
• CFC's are a common industrial product, used in refrigeration systems, air
conditioners, aerosols, solvents and in the production of some types of packaging.
Nitrogen oxides are a by-product of combustion processes, e.g., aircraft
emissions.
•

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Topic 118: What Is Being Done?

• The first global agreement to restrict CFCs came with the signing of the Montreal
Protocol in 1987 ultimately aiming to reduce them by half by the year 2000.
• Revised agreement calls for the control of industrial production of many
halocarbons until the year 2030.
• The main CFCs will not be produced by any of the signatories after the end of
1995, except for a limited amount for essential uses, such as for medical sprays.
• The countries of the European Community have adopted even stricter measures
than are required under the Montreal Protocol agreements. Recognizing their
responsibility to the global environment they have agreed to halt production of the
main CFCs from the beginning of 1995. Tighter deadlines for use of the other
ozone-depleting compounds are also being adopted.
• It was anticipated that these limitations would lead to a recovery of the ozone
layer within 50 years of 2000; the World Meteorological Organization estimated
2045 (WMO reports #25, #37), but recent investigations suggest the problem is
perhaps on a much larger scale than anticipated.

Pos Mo P o oco Ozo R cov

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Lesson 41
Global Effects Continued 02

Topic 119: Global Warming

N G Ho s Eff c

• Without the natural “greenhouse effect,” temperatures would be much lower than
they are now, and life as known today would not be possible.
• Instead, thanks to greenhouse gases, the earth’s average temperature is a more
hospitable 60°F.
However, problems may arise when the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases
increases.

H m Co b o oG ho s G s Co c o c s

• What has changed in the last few hundred years is the additional release of carbon
dioxide by human activities.
• Fossil fuels burned to run cars and trucks, heat homes and businesses, and power
factories are responsible for about 98% of U.S. carbon dioxide emissions, 24% of
methane emissions, and 18% of nitrous oxide emissions.
• Increased agriculture (WHY?), deforestation, landfills, industrial production, and
mining also contribute a significant share of emissions.

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• In 1997, the United States emitted about one-fifth of total global greenhouse
gases.

H s o c CO2 Co c o s

Topic 120: Source of Greenhouse Gasses

Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are primarily emitted from human activities such as:

1. Energy use: This includes coal, oil, and natural gas used for energy and
transportation.
2. Deforestation: Trees absorb carbon dioxide; when they are cut down or burned,
CO2 is released into the atmosphere.
3. Industrial Processes: Certain industrial activities release GHGs, such as cement
production and chemical manufacturing.
4. Agriculture: Livestock digestion and manure release methane, and certain
agricultural practices release nitrous oxide.
5. Waste Management: Landfills and waste treatment processes produce methane.
6. Transportation
7. Buildings etc.

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These activities contribute to the increase in GHGs in the atmosphere, leading to climate
change and global warming with given share towards emissions.

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China is contributing to the global emissions at 28% of the total emissions, USA at 16%,
EU-28 at 10%, India at 6%, Russia at 6%, Japan at 4% while other countries contribute at
30% collectively.

It's important to note that these figures can change over time due to various factors such
as economic development, changes in energy sources, and environmental policies
implemented by different countries. Efforts to mitigate climate change often involve
international cooperation to reduce emissions and transition to more sustainable practices.

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Lesson 42
Global Effects Continued 03

Topic 121: Effects of Greenhouse Phenomenon

Eff c o G ob T mp

• Increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases are likely to accelerate the rate of

climate change.
• Scientists expect that the average global surface temperature could rise 1-4.5°F
(0.6-2.5°C) in the next fifty years, and 2.2-10°F (1.4-5.8°C) in the next century,
with significant regional variation.
• Evaporation will increase as the climate warms, which will increase average
global precipitation.
• Soil moisture is likely to decline in many regions, and intense rainstorms are
likely to become more frequent.
• Sea level is likely to rise two feet along most of the U.S. coast.

S L v Rs s Eff c s

• Warmer temperatures are expected to raise sea level by expanding

ocean water, melting mountain glaciers, and melting parts of the
Greenland Ice Sheet.
• IPCC estimates that sea level will rise 9 to 88 cm by the year 2100. A
recent EPA study estimated that global sea level has a 50 percent

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chance of rising 45 cm (1-1/2 ft) by the year 2100, but a 1-in-100

chance of a rise of about 110 cm (over 3-1/2 ft).

Topic 122: Glacial Shrinking

Grinnell Glacier viewed from the top of Mount Gould during late summer 1938 (left) and
1981 (right), Glacier National Park, Montana.
In just 43 years, dramatic climatic response is evident, including loss of volume and
formation of the proglacial lake.
By 1993, the glacier had shrunk about 63% in area and the terminus had receded about
1.1 km since the end of the Little Ice Age (1850 moraines, right).

Topic 123: Global Warming and Effect on Weather

F g p s of G ob W m g

• Edmonton, Canada -- Warmest summer on record, 1998. Temperatures were

more than 5.4ºF (3ºC) higher than the 116-year average.
• Glasgow, Montana -- No sub-zero days, 1997. For the first time ever,
temperatures remained above 0ºF (-17.8ºC) in December. The average
temperature was 10.9ºF (6ºC) above normal.
• Little Rock, Arkansas -- Hottest May on record, 1998.
• Texas -- Deadly heat wave, summer 1998. Heat claimed more than 100 lives in
the region. Dallas temperatures were over 100?F (37.8?C) for 15 straight days.
• Florida -- June heat wave, 1998. Melbourne endured 24 days above 95ºF
(35ºC); nighttime temperatures in Tampa remained above 80ºF (26.6ºC) for 12
days.

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• USA -- Late fall heat wave 1998. An unprecedented autumn heat wave from
mid-November to early December broke or tied more than 700 daily-high
temperature records from the Rockies to the East Coast. Temperatures rose into
the 70ºF (20ºC) as far north as South Dakota and Maine.
• Eastern USA -- July heat wave, 1999. More than 250 people died as a result of a
heat wave that gripped much of the eastern two-thirds of the country. Heat indices
of over 100?F (37.8ºC) were common across the southern and central plains,
reaching a record 119?F (48.3?C) in Chicago.
• New York City -- Record heat, July 1999. New York City had its warmest and
driest July on record, with temperatures climbing above 95ºF (35ºC) for 11 days --
the most ever in a single month.
• Chesapeake Bay -- Marsh and island loss. The current rate of a sea-level rise is
three times the historical rate and appears to be accelerating. Since 1938, about
one-third of the marsh at Blackwater National Wildlife Refuge has been
submerged.
• Bermuda -- Dying mangroves. Rising sea level is leading to saltwater inundation
of coastal mangrove forests.
• Hawaii -- Beach loss. Sea-level rise at Waimea Bay, along with coastal
development, has contributed to considerable beach loss over the past 90 years.
• Glacier National Park, Montana -- All glaciers in the park will be gone by
2070 if retreat continues at its current rate.
• Interior Alaska -- Permafrost thawing. Permafrost thawing is causing the
ground to subside 16-33 feet (4.9-10 m) in parts of interior Alaska. The
permafrost surface has warmed by about 3.5ºF (1.9ºC) since the 1960's.
• Barrow, Alaska -- Less snow in summer. Summer days without snow have
increased from fewer than 80 in the 1950's to more than 100 in the 1990's.
• Bering Sea -- Reduced sea ice. Sea-ice extent has shrunk by about 5 percent over
the past 40 years.
• Arctic Ocean -- Shrinking sea ice. The area covered by sea ice declined by about
6 percent from 1978 to 1995.
• Canadian Rockies - Disappearing glaciers. The Athabasca Glacier has retreated
one-third of a mile (0.5 km) in the last 60 years and has thinned dramatically since
the 1950s-60s. In British Columbia the Wedgemont Glacier has retreated
hundreds of meters since 1979, as the climate has warmed at a rate of 2ºF (1.1ºC)
per century, twice the global average.
• Alaska - Increasing rate of retreat. A study of 67 glaciers shows that between
the mid-1950s and mid-1990s the glaciers thinned by an average of about 1.6 feet
(0.5 m) per year. Repeat measurements on 28 of those glaciers show that from the
mid-1990s to 2000-2001 the rate of thinning had increased to nearly 6 feet (1.8 m)
per year. Alaska has experienced a rapid warming since the 1960s. Annual
average temperatures have warmed up to 1.8ºF (1ºC) per decade over the last
three decades, and winter warming has been as high as 3ºF (2ºC) per decade.

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Topic 124:Effect on Gulf Stream

With the increasing the global temperature, there is change in the Gulf Stream.
CO2 concentration is the highest, sea level rise is among the fastest rates, Arctic sea ice
area at lowest level and glaciers retreat are unprecedented in many hundred or more
years. Future emission causes additional warming e.g., future scenario predicts of up to 4
c rise in temperature in 2100 than now.

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