LEARNING MODULE SURIGAO STATE COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY

Overview

Science, Technology and Society (STS)

course promote cross-disciplinary integration,
civic engagement, and critical thinking. It helps
to illuminate issues of professional responsibility
and ethics. Such course also build bridges
between disciplines that do not ordinarily meet
each other, such as sociology and science, law
and science, anthropology and technology,
environmental science and political theory, or
technology and philosophy. Further, STS
explores in rich and compelling ways what
difference it makes to human societies that we,
collectively, are producers and users of science
and technology. The course has three major
source: https://tuftsresearch.wordpress.com
topics: Module 1-General concepts and historical
events in science, technology and society; Module 2- Science, Technology, and Society and
Human Condition and Module 3-Specific Issues in Science, Technology, and Society.

Module 3: General Concepts and Historical Events in Science, Technology, and Society

Lesson 1: The Information Age

Lesson 2: Biodiversity and The Healthy Society
Lesson 3: Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and Politics
Lesson 4: The Nano World
Lesson 5: The Aspects of Gene Therapy
Lesson 6: Climate Change

Objectives

At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

• define information age;
• discuss the history of information age;
• understand the factors that need to be considered in checking website sources
• determine the interrelatedness of society, environment, and health;
• create a diagram that would show the relatedness of species in forming up a diverse
and healthy society without compromising one another;
• identify everyday tasks and evaluate whether they contribute to the wellness and
health of biodiversity and society or not;
• identify issues on genetically modified organisms (GMOs);
• discuss different implications and impact of GMOs;
• create a research paper on the impact of GMOs in the Philippine context;
• define nanotechnology;
• characterize nanoscale;
• describe the various uses of nanotechnology;
• discuss concerns on the use of nanotechnology;
• explain the status of the use of nanotechnology in the Philippines;
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Module 3- Specific Issues in Science, Technology, and Society Maria Tavita Q. Lumintac
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• describe gene therapy and its various forms

• assess the issue’s potential benefits and detriments to global health;
• identify the causes of climate change;
• understand the effects of climate change;
• illustrate how the community helps in mitigating the hazards caused by climate
change.

Lesson 1: The Information Age

Time Frame: 4 hours

Introduction

Highly modernized, automated, data-driven, and technologically advanced-these best

describe our society nowadays, as evidenced by how information could be transferred or
shared quickly. The different areas of society have been influenced tremendously such as
communication, economics, industry, health, and the environment. Despite our gains due to
the growing development of information technology, the rapid upgrade of information also
has disadvantages. This lesson will discuss the history and impact of technological
advancement to society.

Life is accompanied by endless transmission of information that takes place within

and outside the body. According to Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary,
information is “knowledge communicated or obtained concerning a specific fact or
circumstance.” Hence, information is a very important tool for survival.
The Information Age is defined as “period starting in the last quarter of the 20th century when
information became effortlessly accessible through publication and trough the management
of information by computers and computer network” (Vocabulary.com, n.d). The means of
conveying symbolic information (e.g., writing, math, other codes) among humans has
evolved with increasing speed. The Information Age is also called Digital Age and the New
Media Age because it was associated with the development of computers.

According to James R. Messenger who proposed the Theory of Information Age in

1982, “the Information Age is a true new age based upon the interconnection of computers
via telecommunications, with these information systems operating on both a real-time and as-
needed basis. Furthermore, the primarily factors driving this new age forward are
convenience and user-friendliness which, in turn, will create user dependence.”

Pretest (in a separate sheet and to be administered face-to-face)

Learning Activities

History
The table below traces the history and emergence of the Information Age (United
States American History, n.d).

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Table 1. Timeline of the Information Age

Year Event
3000 BC Sumerian writing system used pictographs to present words
2900 BC Beginnings of Egyptian hieroglyphic writing
1300 BC Tortoise shell and oracle bone writing were used
500 BC Papyrus roll was used
220 BC Chinese small seal writing was developed
100 AD Book (parchment codex)
105 AD Woodblock printing and paper was invented by the Chinese
1455 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press using movable metal type
1755 Samuel Johnson’s dictionary standardized English spelling
1802 • The Library of Congress was established
• Invention of the carbon arc lamp
1824 Research on persistence of vision published
1930s • First viable design for a digital computer
• Augusta Lady Byron writes the world’s forst compute program
1837 Invention of the telegraph in Great Britain and the United States
1861 Motion pictures were projected into screen
1876 Dewey Decimal system was introduced
1877 Eadweard Muybridge demonstrated high-speed photography
1899 First magnetic recording were released
1902 Motion picture special effect were used
1906 Lee Deforest invented the electronic amplifying tube (triode)
1923 Television camera tube was invented by Zvorkyn
1926 First practical sound movie
1939 Regularly scheduled television broadcasting begin in th US
1940s Beginning of information science as a discipline
1945 Vannevar Bush foresaw the invention of hypertext
1946 ENIAC computer was developed
1948 Birth of field-of-information theory proposed by Claude E. Shannon
1957 Planar transistor was developed by Jean Hoerni
1958 First integrated circuit
1960s Library of Congress developed LC MARC (machine-readable code)
1969 UNIX operating system was developed, which could handle multitasking
1971 Intel introduced the first microprocessor chip
1972 Optical laserdisc was developed by Philips and MCA
1974 MCA and Philips agreed on a standard videodisc encoding format
1975 Altair Microcomputer Kit was released: first personal computer for the public
1977 RadioShack introduced the first complete personal computer
1984 Apple Macintosh computer was introduced
Mid 1980s Artificial intelligence was separated from information science
1987 Hypercard was developed by Bill Atkinson recipe box metaphor
1991 Four hundred fifty complete works of literature on one CD-ROM was released
January 1997 RSA (encryption and network security software) Internet security code cracked
for a 48-bit number
source: http://u-s-history.com

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Figure 7. Evolution of Man and Information (@ https://www.pinterest.ph/pin/521221356848042937/

As man evolved, information and its dissemination has also evolved in many ways.
Eventually, we no longer kept them to ourselves; instead, we share them and manage them I
different means. Information got ahead of us. It started to grow at a rate we were unprepared
to handle. Because of the abundance of information, it was difficult to collect and manage
them starting in the 1960s and 1970s. During the 1980s, real angst set in. Richard Wurman
called it “Information Anxiety.” In the 1990s, information became the currency in business
world. Information was the preferred medium of exchange and the information manages
served as information officers. In the present generation, there is no doubt that information
has turned out to be a commodity, an overdeveloped product, mass-produced, and
unspecialized. Soon, we become overloaded with it.

Different authors have diverse, contrasting ideas on evolution of the Information Age.
In spite of this, we can still say that information is a very important tool that helps improve
our way of life. One thing is for sure, the Information Age will continue to move forward and
far greater than our minds could imagine.

In his article “Truths of the Information Age” (n.d), Robert Harris detailed some facts
on the Information Age.

1. Information must compete. There is a need for information to stand out and be recognized
in the increasing clutter.
2. Newer is equated to truer. We forgot the truth that any fact or value can endure.
3. Selection is a viewpoint. Choose multiple sources for your information if you want to
receive a more balanced view of reality.
4. The media sells what the culture buys. In other words, information is driven by cultural
priorities.
5. The early words get the perm. The first media channel to expose an issue often defines
the context, terms, and attitudes surrounding it.
6. You are what you eat and so is your brain. Do not draw conclusions unless all ideas and
information are presented to you.
7. Anything in great demand will be counterfeited. The demand for incredible knowledge,
scandals, and secrets is ever-present; hence, many events are fabricated by tabloids,
publicists, or other agents of information fraud.
8. Ideas are seen as controversial. It is almost certainly impossible to make any assertion
that will not find some supporters and some detractors.

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9. Undead information walks ever on. Rumors, lies, disinformation, and gossip never truly
die down. They persist and continue to circulate.
10. Media presence creates the story. People behave much differently from the way they
would if being filmed when the media are present, especially film news or television
media.
11. The medium selects the message. Television is mainly pictorial, partially aural, and
slightly textual, so visual stories are emphasized: fires, chases, and disasters.
12. The whole truth is a pursuit. The information that reaches us is usually selected, verbally
charged, filtered, slanted, and sometimes, fabricated. What is neglected is often even
more important than what is included.

Computer
Computers are among the most important contributions of advances in the
Information Age to society. A computer is an electronic device that stores and process data
(information). It runs on a program that contains the exact, step-by-step directions to solve a
problem (UShistory.org, 20187).

Types of Computer
Computers are associated with numerous terms and descriptions. Most people suggest
the dimensions, intended use, or the computer’s power. While the term “computer” can apply
to virtually any device that has microprocessor in it, most people think of a computer as a
device that receives input from the user through a mouse (hand-guided directions tool) or
keyboard, process it in some fashion, and presents the result on a screen.

1) Personal Computer (PC)

It is a single-user instrument. PCs were first known as microcomputers since they were a
complete computer but built on a smaller scale than the enormous systems operated by
most businesses.

2) Desktop Computer
It is described as a PC that is not designed for portability. The assumption with a desktop
is that it will be a set up in a permanent spot. A workstation is simply a desktop computer
that has a more powerful processor, additional memory, and enhanced capabilities for
performing special group of tasks, such as 3D graphics or game development. Most
desktop offer, more storage, power, and versatility than their portable versions
(UShistory.org, 2017).

3) Laptops
These are portable computers that integrate the essentials of a desktop computer in a
battery-powered package, which are somewhat larger than a typical hardcover book. They
are commonly called notebooks.

4) Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)

These are tightly integrated computers that usually have no keyboards but rely on a touch
screen for user input. PDAs are typically smaller than a paperback, lightweight, and a
battery-powered (UShistory.org, 2017).

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5) Server
It refers to a computer that has been improved to provide network services to other
computers. Servers usually boast powerful processor, tons of memory, and large hard
drives UShistory.org, 2017).

6) Mainframes
These are huge computer systems that can fill an entire room. They are used especially by
large firms to describe the large, expensive machines that process millions of transactions
every day. The term “mainframe” has been replaced by enterprise server. Although some
supercomputers are single computer systems, most comprise multiple, high-performance,
parallel computers working as a single system UShistory.org, 2017).

7) Wearable Computers
They involve materials that are usually integrated into cell phones, watches, and other
objects or places. They perform common computer applications such as databases, emaol,
multimedia, and schedules UShistory.org, 2017).

The World Wide Web (Internet)

Several historians trace the origin of the Internet to Cluade E. Shannon, an American
Mathematician who was considered as the “Father of Information Theory.” He worked at
Bell Laboratories and at the age of 32, he published a paper proposing that information can
be quantitatively encoded as a sequence of ones and zeroes.

The Internet is a worldwide system of interconnected networks that facilitate data

transmission among innumerable computers. It was developed during the 1970s by the
Department of Defense. In case of an attack, military advisers suggested the advantage of
being able to operate on one computer from another terminal. In the early days, the Internet
was used mainly by scientists to communicate with other scientists. The Internet remained
under government control until 1984 (Rouse, 2014).

One early problem faced by Internet users was speed. Phone lines could only transmit
information at a limit rate. The development of fiber-optic cables allowed billions of bits of
information to be received every minute. Companies like Intel developed faster
microprocessors so personal computers could process the incoming signals at a more rapid
rate (UShistory.org, 2017).

Sergy Brin and Lary Page, directors of a Stanford research project, built a search
engine that listed results to reflect page popularity when they determined that the most
popular results would frequently be the most usable. After talking with family, friends, and
other investors into contributions $1 million, the researchers launched their company in 1998.
Google is now the world’s most popular search engine, accepting more than 200 million
queries daily.

Back then, new forms of communication were also introduced. Electronic mail, or
email, was a suitable way to send a message to fellow workers, business partners, or friends.
Messages could be sent and received at the convenience of the individual. A letter that took
several days to arrive could be read in minutes. Internet service providers like America
Online and CompuServe where electronic chat rooms. These were open areas of cyberspace

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where interested parties could join in a conversation with perfect strangers. “Surfing the net”
became a pastime in and of itself (UShistory.org, 2017).

Consequently, companies whose business are built on digitized information have

become valuable and powerful in a relatively short period of time; the current Information
Age has spawned its own breed of wealthy influential brokers, from Microsoft’s Bill Gates to
Apple’s Steve Jobs to Facebook’s Mark Zuckerberg.

Critics charged that the Internet created a technological divide that increased the gap
between the members of the higher class and lower class of society. Those who could not
afford a computer or a monthly access fee were denied these possibilities. Many decried the
impersonal nature of electronic communication compared to a telephone call or a handwritten
letter.

On one hand, the unregulated and loose nature of the Internet allowed pornography to
be broadcast to millions of homes. Protecting children from these influences or even from
meeting violent predators would prove to be difficult. Nowadays, crimes in various forms are
rampant because of the use of social media. Cyber bullying is an issue that poses alarm
worldwide. Consequently, we need to be aware of the possible harm and damage due to
abuse of these advance in the Information Age.

Application of Computer in Science and Research

One of the significant applications of computers for science and research is evident in
the field of bioinformatics. Bioinformatics is the application of information technology to
store, organize, and analyze vast amount of biological data which is available in the form of
sequence and structures of proteins—the building blocks of organisms and nucleic acids—the
information carrier (Madan, n.d).

Early interest in bioinformatics was established because of a need to create databases

of biological sequences. The human brain cannot store all the genetic sequences of organisms
and this huge amount of data can only be stored, analyzed, and be used efficiently with the
use of computers.

While the initial databases sequences were maintained at individual laboratories, the
development of a consolidated formal database, known as SWISS-PROT protein sequence
database, was initiated in 1986. It now has about 70,000 protein sequences from more than
5,000 model organisms, a small fraction of all known all organisms. The enormous variety of
divergent data resources is now available for study and research by both academic institutions
and industries. These are made available as public domain information in the larger interest
of research community through the Internet (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.) and CD-ROMs (on
request from www.rcsb.org). these databases are constantly updated with additional entries
(Madan, n.d).

Computers and software tools are widely used for generating these databases and to
identify the function of proteins, model the structure of proteins, determine the coding
(useful) regions of nucleic acid sequences, find suitable drug compounds from a large pool,
and optimize the drug development process by predicting possible targets. Some of the
software tools which are handy in the analysis include: BLAST (used for comparing

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sequences); Annotator (an interactive genome analysis tool); and GeneFinder (tool to identify
coding regions and splice sites) (Madan, n.d).

The sequence information generated by the human genome research, initiated in 1988,
has now been stored as a primarily information source for future applications in medicine.
The available data is so huge that if compiled in books, the data would run into 200 volumes
of 1,000 pages each and reading alone (ignoring understanding factory) would require 26
years working around the clock. For a population of about five billion human beings with two
individuals differing in three million bases, the genome sequence difference database would
have about 15,000,000 billion entries. The present challenge to handle such huge volume of
data is to improve database design, develop software for database access, and manipulation
and device data-entry procedures to compensate for the varied computer procedures and
systems used in different laboratories. The much-celebrated complete human genome
sequence which was formally announced on the 26th of June 2000 involved more than 500 x
1018 (500 million trillion) calculations during the process of assembling the sequence alone.
This can be considered as the biggest exercise in the history of computational biology
(Madan, n.d).

Moreover, from the pharmaceutical industry’s point of view, bioinformatics is the key
to rational drug discovery. It reduces the number of trials in the screening of drug compounds
and in identifying potential drug targets for a particular disease using high-power computing
workstations and software like Insight. This profound application of bioinformatics in
genome sequence has led to a new area in pharmacology—Pharmacogenomics, where
potential targets for drug development are hypothesized from the genome sequences.
Molecular modeling, which requires a lot of calculations, has become faster due to the
advances in computer processors and its architecture (Madan, n.d).

In plant biotechnology, bioinformatics is found to be useful in the areas of identifying

disease resistance genes and designing plants with high nutrition value (Madan, n.d).

How to Check the Reliability of Web Sources

The internet contains a vast collection of highly valuable information but it may also
contain unreliable, biased information that mislead people. The following guidelines can help
us check the reliability of web sources that we gather. It is noteworthy to consider and apply
the following guidelines to avoid misinformation. (Lee College Library, n.d).

1. Who is the author of the article/site?

• How to find out?
Look for an “About” or “More about the Author” link at the top, bottom, or
sidebar of the webpage. Some pages will have a corporate author rather than a
single person as an author. If no information about the author/s of the page is
provided, be suspicious.
✓ Does the author provide his or her credentials?
✓ What type of expertise does he or she have on the subject he/she is
writing about? Does he/she indicate what his/her education?
✓ What type of experience does he or she have? Should you trust his or
her knowledge of the subject?
Try searching on the Internet about the author.

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✓ What kinds of websites are associated with the author’s name? is he or

she affiliated with any educational institution?
✓ Do commercial site come up? Do the websites associated with the
author give you any clues to particular biases the author migjt have?

2. Who published the site?

• How to find out?
✓ Look at the domain name of the website that will tell you who is
hosting the site. For instance, the Lee College Library website is
“lee.edu.” This tells you that the library website is hosted by Lee
Coollege.
✓ Search the domain name at http://www.whois.sc/. The site provides
information about the owners of registered domain names. What is the
organization’s main purpose? Check the organization’s main website,
if it has one. Is it educational? Commercial? Is it a reputable
organization?
✓ Do not ignore the suffix on the domain name (the three-letter part that
comes after the “.”). the suffix is usually (but not always) description
of what type of entity hosts the website. Keep in mind that that it is
possible for sites to obtain suffixes that are misleading. Here are some
examples:
.edu = educational
.com = commercial
.mil = military
.gov = government
.org = organization

3. What is the main purpose of the site? Why did the author write it and why did the
publisher post it?
• To sell a product?
• As a personal hobby?
• As public service?
• To further scholarship on a topic?
• To provide general information on a topic?
• To persuade you of a particular point of view?

4. Who is the intended audience?

• Scholars or the general public?
• Which age group is it written for?
• Is it aimed at people from a particular geographic area?
• Is it aimed at members of a particular profession or with specific training?

5. What is the quality of information provided on the website?

• Timelines: When was the website first published? Is it regularly updated?
Check for dates at the bottom of each page on the site.
• Does the author site sources? Just as in print sources, web sources that cite
their sources are considered more reliable.
• What type of other sites does the website link to? Are they reputable sites?

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• What type of sites link to the websites you are evaluating? Is the website being
cited by others?

Examples of Useful and Reliable Web Sources

1. AFA e-Newsletter (Alzheimer’s Foundation of America newsletter)

2. American Memory – the Library of Congress historical digital collection.

3. Bartleby.com Great Books Online – a collection of free e-books including fictions,

nonfictions, references, and verses.

4. Chronicling America – search and view pages from American newspapers from
1880-1922.

5. Cyber Bullying – a free collection of e-books from library plus additional reports
and documents to help better understand, prevent and take action against this growing
concern.

6. Drug information website:

• National Library of Medicine’s Medline plus
• Drugs.com
• PDRhealth

7. Global Gateway. World Culture & Resources (from the Library of Congress)

8. Google Books

9. Googlescholar.com

10. History sites with primary documents:

• AMDOCS: Documents for the study of American history
• Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy (Yale Law
School)
• Internet Modern History Sourcebook: Colonial Latin America
• Teacher Oz’s Kingdom of History

11. Illinois Digital Archives – the Illinois State Library working with libraries,
museums, and historical societies in Illinois provides this collection of materials
related to Illinois history.

12. Internet Archive – a digital library of Interne sites and other cultural artifacts in
digital form.

13. Internet Archive for CARLI digitize resources

14. Internet Public Libarary

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15. ipl2 – a merger of librarians’ Internet Index and Internet Public Library. Special
interest may include the “Literacy Criticisms” page which can be found after clicking
on the “Special Collections” link.

16. Librarians’ Internet Index

17. Making of America – a digital library of primary sources in American social

history.

18. Maps – from the University of Texas at Austin collection. Includes historical and
thematic maps.

19. Nation Master – a massive central data source and a handy way to graphically
compare nations. It is a vast compilation of data from such sources as the CIA World
Factbook, UN, ad OECD.

20. Nursing sites:

• AHRQ (www.ahrq.gov)
• National Guidelines Clearinghouse (www.guideline.gov)
• PubMed (www.nlm.nih.gov)

21. Project Gutenberg – the first and largest single collection of free electronic
books with currently over 20,000 e-books available.

22. Shmoop – literature, US history, poetry information written primarily by PhD and
masters students from top universities like Stanford, Berkeley, Harvard, and Yale.

23. State Master – a unique statistical database which allows you to research and
compare a multitude of different data on US states using various primary sources such
as the US Census Bureau, the FBI, and the National Center for Educational Statistics.
It uses visualization technology like pie charts, maps, graphs, and scatter plots to
provide data.

24. Virtual Reference – selected wed resources compiled by the Library of Congress.

One can also visit the university library and seek help from librarians as they are
knowledgeable and the library has a rich collection of online library resources that are very
useful for academic and research purposes.

Activity 1.1

1. Video presentation. Form groups consisting of three to five members each and prepare a video presentation
that focuses on the evolution of transmission of information inn various time periods and areas of the world. Refer
to Table 1 presented in the discussion. You can use props or materials to improve the presentation. Limit the
video presentation in three to five minutes.

2. Creative work. Think of a device with special features that can develop to help improve lives of people in our
society. It could be something that you can develop to help in communication, transportation, health, and the
like. Illustrate your device in a short bond paper.

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Summary

Nowadays, information could be shared or transferred quickly. People are becoming

more interested in sharing information about themselves. Various aspects of our society are
also being influenced by the Information Age especially communication, economics,
industry, health, and the environment. The rapid upgrade of information poses both positive
and negative impacts to our society. Therefore, we need to carefully check our motives before
disseminating information and we also need to verify information before believing them and
using and sharing them. We should share information that could help improve our live and
others.

Self-Evaluation

1. Who are the contributors of the technological advances off the Information Age?

2. Aside from communication, what other aspects of society is/are being influenced in the
Information Age?

3. What other technological advancements can possibly be developed in the future?

Post Test: (In a separate sheet to be administered online)

Lesson 2: Biodiversity and Healthy Society

Time Frame: 4 hours

Introduction

Decrease in biodiversity is eminent worldwide. Vertebrates fell to 60% from the

1970s due human causes. It is projected that by 2020, wildlife decline will be 67% of the
present number. The World Wide Fund for Nature and Zoology Society of London reported
an annual decrease in wildlife by 2%. A major cause is human population which has doubled
in number since 1960 to 7.4 billion. Humans have industrialized the natural habitat of wildlife
as well as marine life. Leaving these creatures with no place to live would eventually cause
their deaths. Marco Lambertini, the General Director of WWF International, described that
the disappearance of wildlife is at an unprecedented rate. Earth might enter the sixth mass
extinction event according to experts. Mass extinction is described as the disappearance of
species at a rate of 1,000 faster than usual. Moreover, the disappearance of species in a
certain environment causes an imbalance in the ecosystem, producing more chaotic changes
that harm the entire ecosystem (Inquirer.net, 2016)

This is but pressing statement for people to know more about the importance of our
diverse environment, and human activities can either contribute to its of distraction. There is
a growing importance of studying how society, environment, and health is interrelated to
each other, that if human beings fail to recognize the needs of one of those components, the
other remaining components can be affected and compromised. Thus, it is timely to know
about the pressing effects of species being extinct and that of our ecosystem being
imbalanced.

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Pre-Test: (in a separate sheet to be administered face-to-face)

Learning Activities

Biodiversity and Ecosystem

Biodiversity is defined as the vast variety of life forms in the entire Earth. It
encompasses all kinds of life forms, from the single-celled organisms to the largest multi-
celled organisms. Its definition is in the structural and functional perspective and not as
individual species.

Another definition of biodiversity is “the variability among living organisms from all
sources, including terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are part; thid includes diversity within species, between species, and
of ecosystems. Biodiversity is the source of the essential goods and ecological services that
constitute the source of life for all and it has direct consumptive value in food, agriculture,
medicine, and in industry” (Villaggio Globale, 2009).

Understanding biodiversity within the concept of ecosystem needs a thorough study

on the relationship of the biotic, the living organisms and the abiotic, nonliving organisms.
Interdisciplinary approach is needed to study the ecosystem. Biodiversity plays a major role
in this natural dynamics. For example, a large number of golden snails in a certain area of
rice field can help predict a low production of rice harvest, since eggs of the golden snails are
considered pest for rice plant. On a positive view, the large number of different species in a
certain area can be a predictor of sustainable life in that area. Sustainability of the ecosystem
ensures a better survival rate against any natural disaster. Therefore, we, as human inhabitants
of the ecosystem, must preserve and conserve the biodiversity of all creatures.

In simpler terms, it is true that people will depend on biodiversity on the wholeness of
being and in our everyday lives. More so, our health will ultimately depend upon the products
and services that we acquire from the ecosystem. Somehow, there are ways and processes in
the ecosystem that are not apparent nor appreciated by us, human beings. Think about the
need to drink clean and fresh water, the need to eat healthy vegetables and food, or the need
of man to transport which makes him rely on fuel. All these are human needs that are
answered and provided by our ecosystem. Thus, if we fail to keep the process of taking care
of the ecosystem, it is us who actually putting our lives at risk. Significant decline in
biodiversity has direct human impact when ecosystem in its insufficiency can no longer
provide the physical as well as social need of human beings. Indirectly, changes in the
ecosystem affect livelihood, income, and on occasion, may even cause political cinflict
(WHO, n.d.).

Changes in Biodiversity
Alteration in any system could bring varied effects. A change in biodiversity could
have erratic effects not only in wildlife or marine life but also in human beings. For example,
humans inhabiting the forest would disturb the natural order of life. Trees and plants would
be affected in the land- clearing operations where the houses would be built. The animals,
insects, and all types of life forms in the cleared area would either be displaced or most likely
be killed. The loss of these life forms could affect the entire ecosystem governing that
environment. The food chain might be damaged. From this, we can clearly infer that when

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our ecosystem is not well taken care of, biodiversity encounters changes that mat impact
human health on such different levels.

Threats to Biodiversity
There are major threats to biodiversity that were identified by the United Nations’
Environment Programme (WHO, n.d). These are the following:

1. Habitat loss and destruction. Major contributing factor is the inhabitation of human
beings and the use of land economic gains.

2. Alteration in ecosystem composition. Alteration and sudden changes, either within

species groups or within the environment, could begin to change the entire ecosystems.
Alterations in ecosystems are a critical factor contributing to species and habitat loss.

3. Over-exploitation. Over-hunting, overfishing, or over-collecting of species can

quickly lead to its decline. Changing consumption patterns of humans is often cited as the
key reason for this unsustainable exploitation of natural resources.

4. Pollution and contamination. Biological systems respond slowly to changes in their

surrounding environment. Pollution and contamination cause irreversible damage to
species and varieties.

5. Global climate change. Both climate variability and climate change cause biodiversity
loss. Species and populations may be lost permanently if they are not provided with
enough time to adapt to changing climatic problems.

Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

Even with the improvement of technology and science at present, we still have a lot
learn about biodiversity, more so about the consequences of biodiversity loss. However, the
basic concept about biodiversity loss was from Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.

Intact ecosystems function best since the organisms composing them are specialized
to function in that ecosystem to capture, transfer, utilize, and ultimately, lose both energy and
nutrients. The particular species making up an ecosystem determine its productivity, affect
nutrient cycles and soil contents, and influence environmental conditions such as water
cycles, weather patterns, climate, and other nonbiotic aspects. The loss of biodiversity has
many consequences that we understand, and many that we do not. It is apparent that
humankind is willing to sustain a great deal of biodiversity loss if there are concomitant
benefits to society; we hope they are net benefits. In many cases, the benefits seem to accrue
to a few individuals only, with net social loss. However, it is extremely difficult to estimate
the future costs of losses in biodiversity or of environmental damage (Rainforest
Conservation Fund, 2017).

As stated by Tilman, “The Earth will retain its most striking feature, its biodiversity,
only if humans have the prescience to do so. This will occur, it seems, only if we realize the
extent to which weuse biodiversity (Rainforest Conservation Fund, 2017).

Nutritional Impact of Biodiversity

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According to the World Health Organization, biodiversity is a vital element of human

being’s nutrition because of its influence to food production. Biodiversity is a major factor
that contributes to sustainable food production for human beings. A society or a population
must have access to a sufficient variety of nutritious food as it is determine of their health as
human beings.

Nutrition and biodiversity are linked at many levels: the ecosystem, with food
production as an ecosystem service; the species in the ecosystem; and the genetic diversity
within species. Nutritional composition between foods and among varieties/cultivars/breeds
of the same food can differ dramatically, affecting micronutrient availability in the diet.
Healthy local diets, with adequate average levels of nutrients intake, necessitates maintenance
of high biodiversity levels. Intensified and enhanced food production through irrigation, use
of fertilizer, plant protection (pesticides), or the introduction of crop varieties and cropping
patterns affect biodiversity and thus impact global nutritional status and often enhance
communities, vulnerabilities as a function of environmental receptivity to ill health (WHO,
2017).

Health, Biology, and Biodiversity

Almost all living organisms are dependent to their environment to live and reproduce.
Basic needs of living organisms such as air, water, food, and habitat are provided by its
environment. The evolution of human beings was due to the improved access to these basic
needs. Advances in agriculture, sanitation, water treatment, and hygiene have had a far
greater impact on human health than medical technology.

Although the environment sustains human life, it can also cause diseases. Lack of
basic necessities is a significant cause of human mortality. Environmental hazards increase
the risk of cancer, heart disease, asthma, and many other illnesses. These hazards can be
physical, such as pollution, toxic chemicals, and food contaminants, or they can be social,
such as dangerous work, poor housing condition, urban sprawl, and poverty. Unsafe drinking
water and poor sanitation and hygiene are responsible for a variety of infectious diseases,
such as schistosomiasis, diarrhea, cholera, meningitis, and gastritis. In 2015, approximately
350,000 children under the age of five (mostly in the developing world) died from diarrheal
diseases related to unsafe drinking water, and approximately 1.8 billion people used drinking
water contaminated with feces. More than two billion people lacked access to basic
sanitation.

The interrelation between human health and biological diversity is considerable and
complex. With the current biodiversity loss at unprecedented rates, the delicate balance
between human health and biological diversity is at risk.

Environment-Related Illnesses
Some human illnesses that are found to be related with its environment include
Parkinson’s disease, heart disease, cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, asthma,
diabetes, obesity, occupational injuries, dysentery, arthritis, malaria, and depression.

By contrast, activities that promotes health and extend human life could have adverse
environmental effects. For example, food production causes environmental damage from
pesticides and fertilizers, soil salinization, waste produced by livestock, carbon emissions
from food manufacturing and transportation, deforestation, and overfishing. Health care

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facilities also have adverse environmental impacts. Hospitals use large quantities of
electricity and fossil fuels and produce medical wastes. To prevent some diseases, it may be
necessary to alter the environment. For example, malaria was eradicated in the United States
and other developed nations in the 1940s and 50s as a result of draining wetlands and
spraying DDT to kill mosquitoes. A reduction in mortality from starvation or disease can lead
to overpopulation, which stresses the environment in many different ways—increasing use of
fossil fuels, clearing of land, generating pollution and waste, and so on (Rensik & Portier,
2017).

Interestingly, according to experts, climate change could also have a serious impact
on human health and could deteriorate farming systems and reduce nutrients in some food. In
this case, biodiversity increases resilience, thus helping adjust to new environmental
conditions. Safeguarding of coral reefs, for instance, is essential to reduce the risk of floods,
as this extraordinary ecosystem can reduce wave energy by 97%, thus protecting over 100
million people all over the world.

Relationship between human health and the environmental raise many ethical, social,
and legal dilemmas by forcing to choose among competing values. Many of the issues at the
intersection of health and the environment have to do with managing benefits and risks. For
example, pesticides play an important role in increasing crop yields, but they can also pose
hazards to human health and the environment. Alternatives to pesticides uses could trade-offs
in health. The extreme action of stopping all pesticides uses could significantly reduce
agricultural productivity, leading to food shortages and increased food prices which would, in
turn, increase starvation in some parts of the world. Public health authorities have opted
regulate the use of pesticides to enhance food production while minimizing damage to the
environment and human health. Energy production and use help sustain human life, but it van
also pose hazards to human health and environment, such as air and water pollution, oil spiils,
and destruction of habitats (Rensik & Portier, 2017).

No issue demands greater care in balancing benefit and risks than global warming. A
significant percentage of global climate change is due to the human production of greenhouse
gases. Climate change is likely to cause tremendous harm to the environment and human
health, but taking steps to drastically reduce greenhouse gases could have adverse
consequences for global, national, and local economies. For example, greatly increasing taxes
on fossil fuels would encourage greater fuel efficiency and lower carbon dioxide emissions,
but it would also increase the price of transportation, which would lead to widespread
inflation and reduced consumer spending power. Managing benefits and risks also raises
social justice concerns. In general, people with lower socio-economic status have greater
exposure to certain harmful environmental conditions in their homes or at work, such as lead,
mercury, pesticides, toxic chemicals, or a site for a factory, a power plant, or waste dump, or
regulation safety in the workplace to minimize impact to the society. The decision-making
process should be fair, open, and democratic, so that people who will be affected by
environmental risks have a voice in these deliberations and can make their concerns known
(Rensik & Portier, 2017).

In addition to this, various public health strategies pit the rights of individuals against
the good of society, such as mandatory treatment, vaccination, or diagnostic testing; isolation
and quarantine; and disease surveillance. The owner of a coal-burning power plant must deal
with many laws concerning the operation of the plant, workplace safety, and carbon

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emissions. A developer who plans to build 150 new homes with land he has purchased may
also have to deal with laws concerning storm drainage, water and sewage lines, gas lines,
sidewalks, and so on. Restrictions on property rights are justified to protect human health and
the environment. However, opponents of these restrictions argue that they are often excessive
or not adequately supported by scientific evidence (Rensik & Portier, 2017).

Human rights issues also come up with research on environmental health that involves
human subjects. For such research to be ethical, human aspects must give consent, and great
care must be taken to ensure that they understand that they can opt out of the research project.
Since the late 1990s, some pesticides companies have tested their products on human subjects
to gather data to submit to the government for regulatory purposes. Some commentators
charge that these experiments are unethical because they place people at unacceptably high
risk without a clear benefit to society. Others have argued that the experiments, if properly
designed and implemented, could produce important benefits to society by providing useful
knowledge about the effects of pesticides that lead to stronger regulations (Rensik & Portier,
2017).

With these in mind, a mitigating plan and a workable plan of action should be studied
in order to not compromise biodiversity, while at the same time, promote good health among
the society.

Activity 2.1

1. Advocacy writing. In groups of five, brainstorm and come up with an advocacy that you think is timely,
knowing that in our emerging needs to endure this world, biodiversity collapses and suffers just to provide our
necessities for survival.

2. Concept mapping. List down several concepts that the society or human beings benefit from biodiversity.
On the other circle, enumerate the different challenges and disadvantages that biodiversity suffers as we work
our ways to acquire the benefits. On the space where the two circles meet, list down possible ways and
strategies on how we could acquire these benefits and needs without compromising the growth process of
biodiversity.

Summary

Most of the time, it may seem impossible to really value species singly or in detailed
manner. But we have to consider the entire Earth as a single unit. A loss of single-celled
species or a family of wild grass can have adverse effects in the entire biosphere. Biodiversity
seen in macro level seems to be still vast and rich, yet if we look at it in micro-level, per
species, we have lost too much. Eventually, in the near future, this biodiversity loss will have
a great negative effect especially to us humans. “The value of biodiversity is the value of
everything” (Rainforest Conservation Fund, n.d.).

We must recognize the value of the organisms with which we share the planet. As
Cotanza et al. (1997) put it, “We must begin to give the natural capital stock that produces
these services adequate weight in the decision-making process, otherwise, current and
continued future human welfare may drastically suffer. . . many ecosystem services are
literally irreplaceable.” We do not and probably cannot, ever evaluate such services

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adequately, but we can value the ecosystem of the world appropriately (Rainforest
Conservation Fund, n.d.).

Self-Evaluation

1. How would you reconcile the emerging needs of human beings regarding their health
and the need to protect the growth of biodiversity?
2. Do you think that Earth can exist without human beings taking care of it? Or
biodiversity also needs human being for it to be in a continuous growing process?
3. What are small ways that you think would promote safekeeping our biodiversity?
What do you think are the common human activities that can harm biodiversity? What
would be the consequences if these human activities might be stopped and prohibited?

Post-Test: (in a separate sheet to be administered on line)

Lesson 3: Genetically Modified Organisms: Science, Health, and Politics

Introduction

In 2001, Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in Singapore turned

farmer, attended the Integrated Pest Management—Farmers Field School and was introduced
to Bt Corn, a genetically modified corn that is resistant to the destructive Asian Corn borer.
Ms. Ellasus volunteered for demo-testing in her field. Bt Corn yielded 7.2 tons per acre as
compared to a regular yield of 4.2 tons per hectare. No insecticide spraying was needed. This
is one of the success stories of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)(Ongkiko, 2016).

Genetic engineering has been with the human society since selective breeding was
introduced to humankind and when animals were domesticated. Yet, the process of genetic
alterations is all but natural.

It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack Williamson,
author of the science fiction novel Dragon’s Island (Stableford 2004). This was years before
actual research findings on the DNA’s role in hereditary and its structure, the double-helix of
Watson and Crick, were published. Trough continuous search for development, genetic
engineering no longer stayed in science fiction novel. It became a reality in science
laboratories. The general process of genetic engineering is the deliberate manipulation of the
organism’s genes, where it may involve transfer of genes from other organism.

An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To date, there are ongoing
researches on GMOs such as using genetically modified male mosquitoes as pest control over
female mosquito carriers of Zika virus.

However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for problems and
opening doors for innovations, genetic engineering faces much opposition. Opponents raised
ethical, social, and environmental issues related to genetic engineering and its GMOs.
This lesson will present the existence of genetic engineering, specifically GMOs in
the different areas of life, the impact to humankind, and the controversies that surround them.

Genetically Modified Organism

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Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an organism created
through genetic engineering. The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defines GMO as
an “organism, either plant, animal, or microorganism, in which the genetic material (DNA)
has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating or natural recombination.”

Below is a diagram of how bacterial gene is introduced through genetic engineering to plant
cells and tissues to develop and breed a genetically modified plant.

The development of GMOs was perceived to help in the advancement of technology for the
benefit of humans in different industries like agriculture and medicine.

GMOs in Food and Agriculture Industries

The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH< 2013) identified the
following roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:

1. Pest resistance—genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.

An example is Bt Corn. The DNA (genome) of the Bt Corn has been modified
with the gene of Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium that produces proteins which
is a toxic to corn bores (worms)

2. Virus resistance—genetically modified plants to resists certain viruses.

An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The papaya ringspot virus (PRSV)
is known to be detrimental to papaya plants. The protein of PRSV was introduced to
the papaya plant through plant tissue which turned out to be resistant to the virus
itself. The effect was like the vaccine humans have against measles or influenza virus.

3. Herbicide tolerance—genetically modified plants to tolerate herbivied.

An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for weeds, was
introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself. Farmers then can
spray the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybean.

4. Fortification—genetically modified plants fortified certain minerals.

An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was
introduced through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains fortified with
vitamin A.

5. Cosmetic preservation—genetically modified plants resist natural discoloration.

An example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to
suppress the browning of apple due to superficial damage.

6. Increase growth rate-- genetically modified organism that has higher yield in growth
than normal species.
An example is AquaAdvantantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an ell-like
fish was introduced to Pacific Chinooksalmon., making the salmon grow faster than
thenormal.

GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and some microorganisms
involve the following:

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1. Flower production – GMOs in flower production are seen in modified color and
extended vase life of flowers.
Examples are Blue Roses. The so-called “blue” roses, which are,inn reality, lilac
or purple, contained cyaniding 3,5-diglucoside, together with large amount of
flavonols. The introduction of the flavonoid 31, 51-hydroxylase gene into
pelargonidin- or cyaniding-producing rose cultivars diverts the anthocyanin
biosynthetic pathway toward the production of delphinidin glucosides and the flower
color blue (Elomaa & Holton, 1994).

2. Paper production—modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of paper

production.
Examples are poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that is removed
from wood to make paper through kraft process, through inserting genes that code for
ferulic acid in young poplar trees, the lignin structure is modified, making lignin easier
to breakdown (Veniza, 2014)

3. Pharmaceutical productions—modified plants to produce pharmaceutical products.

Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the periwinkle
plant to enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually added to drugs for
cancer treatments like Hodgkin’s lymphoma (Runguphan, 2010).

4. Bioremediation—use of modified plants that can assist in thr bioremediation of

polluted sites.
An example is shrub tobacco. Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically
modified with phytochelatin TaPCSII,is used for bioremediation. It shows high level
accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and produces high biomass.

5. Enzymes and drug production—use of modified microorganisms that can produce

enzymes for food processing and medicines.
One example of this is CGTase. Cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransfere (CGTase),
an enzyme used for flavor enhancer, is produced in higher quantity by bacterium
Bacillus which was genetically modified wth the gene of a thermophilic anaerobe,
Thermoanaerobacter, carrying CGTase (Pedersen & Jorgensen, 1995).

Another example is artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a compound used for anti-

malarial drug extracted from sweet wordwood plant. Through genetic engineering, it
can be synthetically produced by yeast and bacteria with sweet wrodwood plant gene
(Zimmer, 2006).

6. GMOs in the medical field—genetic engineering is playing a significant role from

diagnosis to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the production of drugs,
gene therapy, and laboratory researches.
One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by Type
1 diabetes patients who are insulin-dependent. In the past, insulin is extracted from the
pancreases of pigs and cows that have caused allergic reactions to some diabetics
using it. In 1978, researchers from the City of Hope National Medical Center and
Genentech Biotechnology Company were able to produce human insulin. The gene for
insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able to breakthrough in the mass

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production of human insulin. In 11996, modified human insulin was approved, called
the Humalog.

Benefits of GMOs
Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:
• Higher efficiency in farming – with the use of pesticide-resistant/herbicide-tolerant
GMO crops, there will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and lower cost for labor
and cultivation.
• Increase in harvest – GMO crops resistant to pets and diseases means increase in
potential growth and harvest.
• Control in fertility – controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds) ensures
high yields.
• Increase in food processing – altered characteristics of GMO crops help ease food
processing.
• Improvements of desirable characteristics – GMO offer longer shelf life, enhanced
color and taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes, and other modified
characteristics of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
• Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancements – GMO crops like maize fortified with
lysine and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron. There are now edible
vaccines for viral and diarrheal diseases.
• Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides.

There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the world. The top five
countries that operate GMO farmlands are the United States, Brazil, Argentina, India, and
Canada. Some of the GMO agricultural crops that have been approved for public
consumption and are already in the market include: alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya bean, sugar
beets, and squash. Most of these GMO crops were made to be resistant to pests. Some
examples of common food with GMOs are Kellogg’s Corn Flakes, Quaker Chewy Granola
Bars, Ultra Slim Fast, quaker Yellow Corn Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food.

In the animal industries, there are ongoing researches like studies on Pacific salmon
that grows twice faster than the native salmon and chicken resistant to H5N1 bird flu viruses.
However, these GMO animals are all in research laboratory and not yet approved for public
consumption.

Potential Risks of GMO

Despite the promising claims of GMOs, the opponents of GMOs claim otherwise. For
example, there are studies that show a link in the adaption of pesticides-resistant GMO crops
to the significant growth of super weeds that became pesticide-resistant, too. This caused
additional problem to more than 12 million acres of farms in the United States.

Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:

1. Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are inadequate
studies on the effects of GMOs to humans and the environment.
2. Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long term effect is
still unknown.
3. Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
• More allergic reactions – GMO food may trigger more allergic reactions, more
so create new ones, as side effect of the gene alteration.
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• Gene mutation – GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation, more
than the desired product of the gene alteration.
• Antibiotic resistance – GMO food contains antibiotic-resistance genes; this
may cause disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-resistant too,
increasing the possibility of widespread of the disease.
• Nutritional value – GMO food may have change in their nutritional value.

Potential Environmental Risks Caused By GMOs

Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused by
GMOs. The identified risks are the following:
1. Risk in gene flow – there is a potential risk of the modified gene to be
transferred from the GMO crop to its wild relative or organism in the soil and
human intestine (when ingested). For example, a decaying GMO plant could
possibly transfer the modified genes to the bacteria and fungi in the soil.
Bacteria and fungi are capable of using a genetic material from their
surroundings. There are no studies yet on the effects on the absorbed modified
gene to the other organisms.
2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed
problems – GMO crops resistant to certain pesticides may trigger new form of
pest resistance while GMO herbicide-tolerant crops may lead to the over use
of the herbicides which may trigger new form of weed resistant.
3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens – the
modified genes can be transferred and integrated in the viral or bacterial genes
which may lead to viral or bacterial gene modification or mutation. This living
modified virus and bacteria may then cause new disease that may affect other
organisms including human beings.

Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino & Zucco,
2008):
1. Direct environmental risks are:
• Introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause
disruption of the natural communities through competition or
interference;
• The possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the
environment if it escapes its intended use and may post threats or
become pests;
• May cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere
with the natural biochemical cycles; and
• The persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause
negative impacts to the consumer of GMO products.

2. Indirect environmental risks are:

• Alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of
GMOs to the environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and
weeds that become resistant to GMO crops;
• May have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in
agricultural practices; and
• May have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and
release in the natural environment.
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Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs

A major concern in the used and consumption of GMOs is its effect on human beings,
primarily on human health. Some potential human health risks are identified (Akhter, 2001 0,
such as:
• Consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since its not naturally or organically
produced;
• Consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganisms in the
human digestive system;
• Production of toxins may be detrimental to human health; and
• Productions of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.

Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food consumption. They
encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be vigilant in checking if the food they
buy has GMO ingredients. In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of
Bt eggplant, another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016).

Other potential risks that raise major concern are:

• Human Genome Project (HJP) – Mapping of human genes to provide framework for
research and studies in the field of medicine. It was feared that the ability to produce
human genetic information would create biases and give much power to people
holding the information and to the disadvantage of those who do not have the genetic
information.

• Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms – genetically modified bacteria

and viruses may mutate to become more resistant or virulent that may cause more
dreadful diseases for human beings.

• Cloning – the asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell through genetic
engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal, Dolly, a sheep from Scotland,
was born through cloning. With it celebrated success come the fear of human cloning.
It emerged the ethical issue of man “playing God”.

Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to search for ways to
preserve lives. Genetic engineering is perceived to be one of the keys to this venture. Gene
therapy and gene alteration are promising ways to improve human health condition.

On the other hand, great fears loom in the process of this quest. There are many things
to be considered before a certain medical process using genetic engineering be accepted.

These concerns were affirmed by the reports, of the World Health Organization.
WHO reported three major issues on GMOs that are inn international public debates. These
are the potential risks of allergic reactions, gene transfer/flow, and outcrossing (WHO, 2014).

The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate is its unnatural production or
what is termed to be a violation of nature. The creation of new organisms, like GMOs, posts
moral issues on defiance to natural laws. Another concern is the potential risks to the
environment and human health, to which so much is unknown yet.
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Biosafety on GMOs
There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population regarding the
issues and concerns about GMOs. International organizations developed principles and
treaties that somehow ensure biosafety on GMOs. Some of these initiatives are as follows:

• The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). The Food and Agricultural

Organization (FAO) together with the World Health Organization (WHO) created The
Codex ALimentarius Commission (Codex). Codex is an intergovernmental body that
develops the Codex Alimentarius, know us the International Food Code. Codex is
responsible for the development of standards, codes of practices, guidelines, and
recommendations on food safety. With the pressing issues and concerns on GMOs, in
2003, Codex has developed principles for the human health analysis of genetically
modified (GM) food products. The principles include pre-marker assessments of GM
food products and its evaluation of direct and indirect effects. However, the Codex
principles has no binding effect in national legislation but through the sanitary and
phytosanitary measures of the World Trade Organiazation, national legislators are
encouraged to complement their national standards with the Codex Principles (WHO,
2014).

• Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Established in 2003, Cartagena Protocol is an

international environmental treaty that regulates the transboundary movements of
Living Modified Organisms (LMOs). The Cartagena Protocol requires exporters to
seek consent from the importers before its first shipment of LMOs (WHO, 2014).

• International Trade Agreement on Labeling of GM food and food products. The

agreement requires exporters of GM food and food products to label their products
and give rights to importing parties to reject or accept the GM products. The premise
of this policy is that consumers have the right to know and the freedom to choose Gm
or non- GM products (Whitman, 2000).

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM products that are
available in the international market have passed the safety assessment by the national
authorities. The safety assessment basically look at the environmental and health risk factors
and food safety usually follows the Codex Food Code.

GMOs in Philippine Context

Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar to other
countries with GMOs. There are, of course, proponents and opponents of these issues.

The GMO concern started in the 1990s with creation of the National Committee on
Biosafety of the Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order No. 430 of 1990. The NCBP
developed the guidelines on the planned release of genetically manipulated organisms
(GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic species in 1998. In 2002, the Department of
Agriculture released Administrative Order No. 8, the guidelines for the important and release
into the environment of GM plants and plant products. on that same year, the entry of GMO
importation started (Baumuller, 2003). The Philippines was marked to be the first country in
Asia to approved commercial cultivation of GMOs when GM corn planting was approved in
2002 (Serapio, & Dela Cruz, 2016).

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From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved by the
Department of Agriculture for the release to the environment, 62c GMOs of which are
approved for food feed and processing and the remaining 8 were approved for propaganda
(Aruelo, 2016).

In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for acquisition of agri-
biotech applications as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries which grow 50,000
hectares or more of GMO crops annually (James, 2004). In that same year, Senator Juan
Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory labeling of food and food products with GMOs. The
Senate did not pass the bill.

In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In the
same year, Executive Order No. 514 was issued to address the biosafety requirements of the
Cartagena Protocol and the establishment of the National Biosafety Framework (NBF).

In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic agriculture
than GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this act, there are several provinces like Negros
Occidental and Negros Oriental which agreed to support organic agriculture. There was the
establishment of the Negros Organic Island through a memorandum of agreement (MOA)
between the two provinces inn 2005.

In 2012, Representative Teddy Casiño, together with other congressman, filed a bill
pushing for the mandatory labeling of GM food and food products. To date, there is no
Philippine biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed under NBF.

A study on biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that existing regulation

is weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a republic act. (Richmond, 2006).

In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field testing of
GMO Bt eggplant and declared Administrative Order no. 8, series of 2002 of the Department
of Agriculture as null and void. This means that ant actions or procedures related to GMO
importations and propagation is temporarily put to stop until a new administrative order is
issued in accordance with the law.

In March 7, 2016, five government agencies namely, the Department of Science and
Technology, Department of Agriculture, Department of Environment of the interior and
Local Government, passed a Joint Department Circular No. 1, series of 2016 on rules and
regulations for the research and development, handling and use, transboundary movement,
release in the environment, and management of the genetically modified plant and plant
products derived from the use of modern biotechnology. This joint department circular paves
way to issuance of new permits for planting and importing GM crops in the country.

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Activity 3.1

1. Agree or Disagree. Discuss the topics below according to your opinions. Group yourselves
based on your opinions (If you agree or disagree). Within your group, prepare pointers for your
discussion. After which, face the other group and start a debate.

Topic:
a. Use of genetically modified milk from animals for human baby consumption.
b. Economic concerns over moral issues on GM food and food products.

2. Research Work. Write an individual research paper on the impacts of GMOs on one of the
following topics:
a. Golden Rice of the International Rice Research Institute.
b. Genetically modified organism produced by Philippine researches.
c. Issues on Philippine biosafety policies.

Summary

Genetic engineering is an emerging field of science. It quests are to preserve and

prolong life. In more four decades since the first genetically modified bacteria was produced,
thousands of genetically modified organisms have been created and propagate. Some are
approved by experts and government authorities for human use and consumption while others
are kept in institutional research laboratories subject for more experiments.

There are advantages and disadvantages in using genetic engineering in both fields of
medical and food and agriculture, there are controversies that are still debatable up to the
present. The major concern of the opponents is the long-term effect of GMOs to humans
while the proponents’ flagship is the success stories of the GMO recipients.

There is still a long way to go for GMOs to provide itself, as humans seek answers to
life’s predicaments or as humans play like God.

Self Evaluation

1. How would you reconcile the advantages and disadvantages that GMOs bring
to humans?
2. When do you think should the pursuit of GMOs research stop?

Post Test: (In a separate sheet to be administered on line)

Lesson 4: The Nano World

Time Frame: 4 hours

Introduction
Scientific researchers have developed new technological tools that greatly improve
different aspects of our lives. The use of nanoscale is one important interdisciplinary are

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generated by advancement in science and technology. Scientists and engineers were able to
build materials with innovative properties as they manipulate nanomaterials. Indeed, research
and application on nanomaterials will continue to bring widespread implications in various
areas of the society, especially health care, environment, energy, food, water, and agriculture.

Nannotechnology refers to the science, engineering, and technology conducted at the

nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers (NNI, 2017). Nanoscience and
nanotechnology employs the study and application of exceptionally small things in order
areas of science including materials science, engineering, physics, biology, and chemistry.
(NNI, 2017).

The concepts of nanotechnology and nanoscience started in December 29, 1959 when
Physicists Richard Feyman discussed a method in which scientists can direct control
individual atoms and molecules in his talk “There” Plenty of Room at the Bottom” during the
American Physical Society meeting at the California Institute of Technology. The term
“nanotechnology was coined by Professor Norio Taniguchi a decade after the dawn of the use
of ultra-precision machining (NNI, 2017).

Learning Activities

How Small is a Nanoscale?

A nanometer is a billionth of a meter, or 10-9 of
a meter. The illustration (Fig.1) shows how small
nanoscale is compared to other particles r materials.

Manipulation of nanomaterials needs an adept

understanding of their types and dimentions. The
various types of nanomaterials are classified according
to their individual shaped and sizes. They may be
particles, tubes, wires, films, flakes, or shells that have
one more nanometer-sized dimension. One should be
able to view and manipulate them so that we can take
advantage of their exceptional characteristics.

How to View Nanomaterials

Scientists use special types of microscopes to
view minute nanomaterials. During the early 1930s,
scientists used electron microscopes ad field
microscopes to look at the nanoscale. The scanning
tunneling microscope and atomic microscope are just
among the modern and remarkable advancements in
Fig.1 source: https://www.nano.gov/nanotech-
microscopy. 101/what/nano-size

1. Electron microscope
German engineers Ernst Ruska and Mark Knoll built the first electron microscope
during the 1930s. This type of microscope utilizes a particle beam of electrons to light up a
specimen and develop a well-magnified image. Electron microscopes produce higher and
better resolution than the older light microscopes because they can magnify objects up to a
million times while conventional light microscopes can magnify objects up to 1,500 times

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only. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and transmission electron microscope (TEM) are
the two general types of electron microscope.

2. Atomic force microscope (AFM)

It was first developed by Gerd Binig, Calvin Quate, and Christoph Gerber in 1986. It
makes of a mechanical probe that gathers information from the surface of a material.

3. Scanning tunneling microscope

This special type of microscope enables scientists to view and manipulate nanoscale
particles, atoms, and small molecules. In 1986, Gerd Binig and Heinrich Rohrer won the
Nobel Prize in Physics because of this invention.

Nanomanufacturing
It refers to scaled-up, reliable, devices, and systems. It also involves research,
improvement, and incorporation of processes for the construction of materials. Therefore,
nanomanufacturing leads to the development of new products and improved materials. There
are two fundamental approaches to nanomanufacturing, either bottom-up or top-down (NNI,
2017):

1. Bottom-up fabrication
It manufactures products by building them up from atomic- and molecular-
scale components. However, this method can be time consuming. Scientists and
engineers are still in search foe effective ways of putting up together molecular
components that self-assemble and from the bottom-up to organize structures.

2. Top-down fabrication
It trims down large pieces of materials into nanoscale. This process needs
larger amounts of materials and discards excess raw materials.

There are new approaches to the assembly of nanomaterials based from the
application of principles in top-down and bottom-up fabrication. These include:

• Dip pen lithography

It is a method in which the tip of an atomic force microscope is “dipped” into
a chemical fluid and then utilized to “write” on a surface, like an old-fashioned ink
pen onto paper.

• Self-assembly
It depicts an approach wherein a set of components join together to mold an
organized structure in the absence of an outside direction.

• Chemical vapor deposition

It is a procedure wherein chemicals act in response to form very pure, high-
performance films.

• Nanoimprint lithography
It is a method of generating nanoscale attribibutes by “stamping” or “printing”
them onto a surface.

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• Molecular beam epitaxy

It is one manner for depositing nanoscale extremely controlled thin films.

• Roll-to-roll processing
It is a high-volume practice for constructing nanoscale devices on a roll of
ultrathin plastic or metal.

• Atomic layer epitaxy

It is a means for laying down one-atom-thick layers on a surface.

With the use of these techniques, nanomaterials are made more durable, stronger,
lighter, wwater-repellent, ultraviolet- or infareed-resistant, scratch-resistant, electrically
conductive, antireflective, antifog, antimicrobial, self-cleaning, among others. These
abovementioned characteristics lead to manufacture of the present variety of nanotechnology-
enabled products such as tennis rackets and baseball bats to catalysts for purifying crude oil
and ultrasensitive recognition and classification of biological and chemical toxins.

It is not impossible that in the near future, computers that are better, more efficient,
with larger storage of memory, faster, and energy-saving will be developed. Soon, the entire
memory of a computer will be saved in a single tiny chip. Moreover, nanotechnology has the
potential to construct high-efficiency, low-cost batteries and solar cells.

Distinct Features of Nanoscale

Nanotechnology involves operating at a very small dimension and it allows scientists
to make use of the exceptional optical, chemical, physical, mechanical, and biological
qualities of materials of that small scale (NNI, 2017). The following are distinct features of
nanoscale:

1. Scale at which biology occurs

Various activities of the cells take place at the nanoscale. The deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) serves as the genetic material of the cell and is only about 2 nanometers in diameter.
Furthermore, the hemoglobin that transports oxygen to the tissues throughout the body is 5.5
nanometers in diameter.

A good number of modern researches focus on advancing procedures, therapies,

tools, and treatment that are more accurate and custom-made than the traditional methods and
cause no adverse effects on the body.

An example of this is the bio-barcode assay, which is a fairly inexpensive approach

for identification of specific disease markers in the blood despite their small number in a
particular specimen.

2. Scale at which quantum affects dominate properties of materials.

Particles with dimensions of 1-100 nanometers have properties that are significantly
discrete from particles of bigger dimensions. Quantum effects direct the behavior and
properties of particle in this size scale. The properties of materials are highly dependent on
their size. Among the essential properties of nanoscale that change as a function of size
include chemical reactive, fluorescence, magnetic, permeability, melting point, and electrical
conductivity.

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One example is the nanoscale gold, which is not only the yellow-colored element
we are used to seeing but it can also appear res or purple. Gold’s electrons display restricted
motion in the nanoscale. Practically, nanoscale gold particles selectively build up in tumors,
where they permit both precise imaging and targeted laser destruction of the tumor while
avoiding damage on healthy cells.

3. Nanoscale maerials have far larger surface areas than similar masses of larger-scale
materials.
As we increase the surface area per mass of a particular material, a greater amount
of the material comes in contact with another material and can affect its reactivity.

If 1 cubic centimeter is filled with micrometer-sized cubes—a trillion (1012) of

them, each with a surface area of 6 square meters, or about the area of the main bathroom in
an average house. When that single cubic centimeter of volume is filled with 1-nanometer-
sized cubes—1021 of them, each with an area of 6 square nanometers—their total surface
area comes to 6,000 square meters.

Government Funding for Nanotechnology in Different Countries (Dayrit, 2005)

1. U.S National Nanotechnology Initiative
• The best-known and most-funded program is the National Nanotechnology
Initiative of the United States. The NNI was established in 2001 to coordinate U.S federal
nanotechnology R&D. the NNI budget in 2008 and 2009 were $1.5 billion, respectively.
2. European Commission
• In February 2008, the EC officially launched the European Nanoelectronics
Initiative Advisory Council (ENIAC)
3. Japan (Nanotechnology Research Institute, under the National Institute for Advanced
Industrial Science and Technology, AIST)
4. Taiwan (Taiwan National Science and Technology Program for Nanoscience and
Nanotechnology)
5. India (Nanotechnology Research and Foundation)
6. China (National Center for Nanoscience and Technology)
7. Israel (Israel National Nanotechnology Initiative)
8. Australian (Australian Office of Nanotechnology)
9. Canada (National Institute for Nanotechnology or NINT)
10. South Korea (Korea National Nanotechnology Initiative)
11. Thailand (National Nanotechnology Center or NANOTEC)
12. Malaysia (National [Malaysia] Nanotechnology Initiative or NNI)

Possible Applications of Nanotechnology in the Philippines (Dayrit, 2005)

1. ICT and semiconductors
2. Health and medicine
3. Energy
4. Food and agriculture
5. Environment

Nanotech Roadmap for the Philippines (fuding by PCAS-TRD-DOST)

1. ICT and semiconductors
2. Health and medicine
3. Energy

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4. Food and agriculture

5. Environment
6. Health and environmental risk
7. Nano-metrology
8. Education and public awareness

Benefits and Concerns of Using Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has various applications in different sectors of the society and
environment. Salamanca-Buentello et al. (2205) proposed an initiative called “Addressing
Global Challenges Using Nanotechnology” to accelerate the use of nanotechnology to
address critical sustainable development challenges. They suggested a model that could help
figure out the possible contributions of the community in overcoming global challenges that
pose risk on health and other aspects of people’s lives. However, there are concerns that need
to be addressed before using and promoting materials derived from nanotechnology (Dayrit,
2005).

1. Nanotechnology is not a single technology; it may become pervasive.

2. Nanotechnology seeks to develop new materials with specific properties.
3. Nanotechnology may introduce new efficiencies and paradigms which may make
some natural resources and current practices uncompetitive or obsolete.
4. It may be complicated to detect its presence unless one has the specialist tools of
nanotechnology

Table 2. Benefits and Concerns of the Application of Nanotechnology in Different Areas

Example of Areas
Affected by Possible Benefits Concerns
Nanotechnology
Environment • Improved detection and • High reactivity and toxicity
removal of contaminants • Pervasive distribution in the
• Development of benign environment
industrial and materials • No nano-specific EPA
regulation

Health • Improved medicine • Ability to cross cell membrane

in the body
• No FDA approval needed foe
cosmetics or supplements
Economy • Better products • Redistribution of wealth
• New jobs • Potential cost of cleanups and
healthcare
• Accessibility to all income
levels
Source: University of Washington, n.d

Social and Ethical Consideration in Conducting Research on Nanotechnology

1. Who will benefit from it? On the other hand, who won’t?
2. For whom and what are your objectives for developing your product?
3. How will it affect social, economic, and political relationships?
4. What problem is “product” trying to solve?
5. Who will have access to it?

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6. Are there dangers involved with its development (e.g., safety, health, pollution)? How
can you minimize them?
7. Who will own it? How can you assure access to it?

Activity 4.1

1. Creative Work. Illustrate or design a product or output that is made up of nanomaterials you want to
create. Explain the raw materials that make up your product, the steps involved for in developing your
product, and the specific use of the final product. What is the significance of your output for the
society?

2. Philosophical Discussion. Form groups made up of five members and discuss the impact of
nanotechnology in various aspects (health, environment, economy, ethics, etc.) of society. Write down
the shared ideas and principles in relation to the topic and discuss your output in our classnet

3. Porfolio. Conduct research on the recent innovations or advancements in nanotechnology in

different countries. Cut out pictures and provide descriptions. Show and discuss your output in the
classnet.

Summary

Nanotechnology is an advanced interdisciplinary field that encompasses science and

technology that manufactures materials of great help to the improvement of various areas of
society especially healthcare, environment, energy, food, water, and agriculture. It is a field
that needs to be explored, not only by known experts but also neophytes, in order to advance
our knowledge of science and technology, and more importantly, to help improve our quality
of life. But, before we engage in nanotechnology, we need to take into account the social,
ethical, and environmental concerns of using such nanomaterials.

Self-Evaluation

1. What are nanomaterials and how are they made?

2. What are the factors that need to be considered before manufacturing materials
through nanotechnology?
3. What are the contributions of nanotechnology for the improvement and sustainability
of our environment?

Post Test: (In a separate sheet to be administered online)

Lesson 5: The Aspects Of Gene Therapy

Time Frame: 4 hours

Introduction

Medical science has detected many human diseases related to defective genes. These
types of diseases are not curable by traditional methods like taking readily available

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medicines. Gene therapy is a potential method to either treat or cure genetic-related human
illnesses.

In 2015, a team of researchers at the Harvard Medical School and the Boston
Children’s Hospital stated that they were able to restore basic hearing in genetically deaf
mice using gene therapy. The Boston Children’s Hospital research team also reported that
have restored a higher level of hearing—down to 25 decibels which is actually equivalent to a
whisper. They used an improved gene therapy vector developed at the Massachusetts Eye and
Ear that was identified as “Anc80” which enables the transfer of genes to the inaccessible
outer hair cells when introduced into the cochlea (Fliesler, 2017).

Human gene therapy was actually first realized in 1971 when the first recombinant
DNA experiments were planned. It can be simply viewed as insertion foreign DNA into a
patient’s tissue that hope to successfully eradicate the targeted disease. It was actually
inspired by the success of recombination of DNA technology which occurred over the last 20
years. Without a doubt, gene therapy is the most promising yet possibly unfavorable medical
field being studied.

Pre-test: (In a separate sheet to be administered online)

Learning Activities

The Basic Process

There are several approaches to gene therapy. These are the following (Flieler, 2017):
• Replacement of mutated gene that causes disease with a healthy copy of the gene
• Inactivation of a mutated gene that is functioning improperly
• Introducing a new gene into the body to help fight a disease

In general, a gene cannot be directly inserted into human gene or cell. A gene is
inserted into another gene using a carrier or vector. At present, the most common type of
vectors are viruses that have been genetically changed to carry normal human DNA. Viruses
have evolved a way of encapsulating and transporting their genes to human cells in a
pathogenic manner (Science Daily, 2017)

Two Types of Gene Therapy

The idea of gene therapy is based on correcting a disease at its not; fixing the
abnormal genes that appear to lead to certain diseases.

There are essentially two forms of gene therapy. One of which is called somanic gene
therapy. Somanic gene therapy involves the manipulation of genes in cells that will be helpful
to the patient but not inherited to the next generation (Nimsergen, 1988).

The other form of gene therapy is called germ-line gene therapy which involves the
genetic modification of germ cells or the origin cells that will pass the change on the next
generation (Your Genome, 2017).

Stem Cell Gene Therapy

Stem cells are mother cells that have the potential to become any type of cell in the
body. One of the main characteristics of stem cells ia their ability to self-renew or multiply

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while maintaining the potential to develop into other types of cells. Stem cells can become
cells of the blood, heart, bones, skin, muscles, and brain, among others. There are different
sources of stem cells but all types of stem cells have the same capacity to develop into
multiple types of cells.

Stem cells are derived from different sources. Two of which are embryonic and
somanic stem cells.

The embryonic stem cells are derived from a four- or five-day-old human embryo that
is in the blastocyst phase of development. The embryos are usually extras that have been
created in IVF (in vitro fertilization) clinics where several eggs are fertilized in a test tube
then implanted into a woman (Crosta, 2013).

The somanic stem cells are cells that exist throughout the body after embryonic
development and are found inside of different types of tissue. These stem cells have been
found in tissues such as the brain, bone marrow, blood vessels, skeletal muscles, skin, and the
liver. They remain in a non-dividing state for years until activated by disease or tissue injury.
These stem cells can divide or self-renew indefinitely, enabling them to generate a range of
cell types from the originating organ or even generate the entire original organ. It is generally
thought that adult or somanic stem cells are limited in their ability to differentiate based on
their tissue of origin, but there is some evidence to suggest that they can differentiate to
become other cell types (Crosta, 2013).

The Bioethics of Gene Therapy

There are ethical issues involved in gene therapy. Some of the inquiries cited are
(Genetics Home Reference, 2017).

1. How can “good” and “bad” uses of gene therapy be distinguished?

2. Who decides which traits are normal and which constitute a disability or disorder?
3. Will the high cost of gene therapy make it available only to the wealthy?
4. Could be widespread use of gene therapy make society less accepting of people who
are different?
5. Should people be allowed to use gene therapy to enhance basic human traits such as
height, intelligence, or athletic ability?

Another controversy involves the germline therapy. As discussed, germline therapy is

genetic modification of germ cells that will pass the change on to the next generation. There
are a lot of questions on the effects of the gene alteration to the unborn child and the next
generation, since the alteration can be passed on. In the United States, the government does
not fund researches on human germline gene therapy.
Activity 5.1

1. Flow Chart. Make a flow chart of the basic process of gene therapy. Explain each part of the process.
You may use references for your guide.

2. Concept Mapping. Using a Venn diagram, differentiate the two forms of gene therapy.

3. Group Work. Compose a jingle or poem on the bioethical issues on gene therapy.

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Summary

Gene therapy is a method that may treat or cure genetic-related human illnesses.
There are two forms of gene therapy. One is somanic gene therapy which involves the
manipulation of genes in cells that will be helpful to the patient but not inherited to the next
generation. The other is germline gene therapy which involves the genetic modification of
gene cells or the origin cells that will pass the change to the next generation.
There are many ethical issues on gene therapy. Some of these issues are about
questions on whose authority or power to decide which human traits should be altered; other
concerns are on the discriminatory effects of those who may not or cannot avail gene therapy.

Self-Evaluation

1. Would you subject yourself for gene therapy without its 100% assurance of
effectiveness or future negative side effects?
2. Should gene therapy be limited to medical concerns only or could it be used for
aesthetic purpose?

Lesson 6: Climate Change

Time Frame: 4 hours

Introduction

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a United Nations body that
evaluates climate change science, released its report on global climate change. The report’s
important conclusions were the following: world’s climate change has changed significantly
over the past century; the significant change has human influence; using climate models and
if the trend continues, the global mean surface temperature will increase between 1°C and
3.5°C by 2100.

Why should a few degrees of warming be a cause for a concern? According to the
experts, global climate change could have a greater potential to change life in our planet than
anything else except a nuclear war. These changes will also lead to a number of potentially
serious consequences.

But first, what is a climate change? Climate change refers to the Factors that
contribute to climate change for continues period of time. Factors that contribute to climate
change can be natural internal process, external forces, and persistent anthropogenic changes
in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. It can also be due to natural occurrences
or contributed by acts of human beings.

This lesson will present the causes of climate change and its effects on the society.

Pretest: (In separate sheet to be administered online)

Learning Activities

Causes of Climate Change

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The causes of climate change could be natural or by human activities.

Natural Causes

Volcanic Eruptions
Volcanic eruptions are one of the natural causes of climate change. When volcanoes
erupt, it emits different natural aerosols like carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxides, salt crystals,
volcanic ashes or dust, and even microorganisms like bacteria and viruses. The volcanic
eruption can cause a cooling effect to the lithosphere because its emitted aerosol can block a
certain percentage of solar radiation. This cooling effect can last for one to two years.

What happens in violent volcanic eruptions is the release for ash particles in the
atmosphere. The volcanic ashes which have sulfur dioxide combine with water vapor. It then
forms to sulfuric acid and sulfurous aerosols. The sulfurous aerosols then are transported by
easterly or westerly winds. Volcanic located near the equator are more likely to cause global
cooling because of the wind pattern. Volcanoes located near the to north or south poles are
less likely to cause cooling because of pole wind pattern, the sulfurous are confined in pole
area.
There are several recorded major volcanic eruptions that cause climate change. Mount
Tambora of Indonesia erupted in 1816. It was considered as the largest known eruption in
human history. The eruption caused snowfall in the northeastern United States and Canada. It
affected their agricultural lands, losing crops that caused food shortage and imcreased human
mortality. The eruptions of Mount Krakatau of Indonesia in 1883 and Mount Pinatubo of the
Philippines in 1991 contributed, too, to the cold years of planet Earth.

Orbital Changes
Earth’s orbit can also cause climate change. This was proposed by the Milankovitch
theory. The Milankovitch theory states that “the as the Earth travels through space around the
Sun, cyclical variations in three elements of Earth-Sun geometry combine to produce
variations in the amount of solar energy that reaches Earth (Academic Emporia, 2027).

The three elements that have cyclic variations are eccentricity, obliquity, and
procession.

Eccentricity is a term used to describe the shape of Earth’s orbit around the Sun. The
impact of the variation is a change in the amount of solar energy from perihelion (around
January 3) to aphelion (around July 4). The time frame for the cycle is approximately 98,000
years (Academic Emporia, 2017). Currently Earth’s eccentricity is 0.016 and there is about a
6.4% increase in insolation from July to January (Academic Emporia, 2017). Academic
Emporia (2017) states that, “The eccentricity influences seasonal differences: when Earth is
closest to the Sun, it gets more solar radiation. If the perihelion occurs during the winter, the
winter is less severe. If a hemisphere has its summer while closest to the Sun, summers are
relatively warm.”

Obliquity is the variation of the tilt of Earth’s axis away from the orbital plane. As
this tilt changes, the seasons become more exaggerated. The obliquity changes on a cycle
taking approximately 40,000 years. Academic Emporia (2017) states “the more tilt means
more severe seasons—warmer summers and colder winters; less tilt means less severe
seasons—cooler summers and milder winters.”

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Precession is the change in orientation of Earth’s rotational axis. The precession cycle
takes about 19,000 to 23,000 years. Precession is caused by two factors: a wobble of Earth’s
axis and a turning around of the elliptical orbit of Earth itself (Academic Emporia, 2017).
Obliquity affected the tilt of Earth’s axis, precession affects the direction of Earth’s axis. The
change in the axis location changes the dates of perihelion (closest distance from Sun) and
aphelion (farthest distance from Sun), and this increases the seasonal contrast in one
hemisphere while decreasing it in the other hemisphere (Academic Emporia, 2017).
Currently, Earth is closest to the Sun in the Northern Hemisphere winter, which makes the
winters there less severe (Academic Emporia, 2017). Another consequence of precession is a
shift in the celestial poles. Five thousand years ago, the North Star was Thuban in the
constellation Draco. Currently, the North Star is Polaris in the constellation Ursa Minor.

During the 1940s and 1950s, the theory fell into disrepute due to a radiocarbon dating,
indicating a lag in cooling versus insolation and to a scale problem with high frequency
glacial advances (Academic Emporia, 2017). The theory was revived several times
throughout the late 1960s to the present (Academic Emporia, 2017).

The Carbon Dioxide Theory

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is added when power and heat are produced by burning coal,
oil, and other fossil fuels. Carbon dioxide is transparent to sunshine but not invisible to
infrared (heat) radiation leaving the ground. Carbon dioxide absorbs part of the infrared
radiation in the air and returns it to the ground keeping the air near the surface warmer than it
would be if the carbon dioxide did not act like a blanket. Doubling the carbon dioxide raises
the temperature to 2°C to 3°C.

Human Activities
Human activities contribute to climate change. The largest known contribution comes
from the burning of fossil fuels, which releases carbon dioxide gas to the atmosphere.
Greenhouse gases and aerosols affect climate by altering incoming solar radiation and
outgoing infrared (thermal) radiation that are part of Earth’s energy balance. Changing the
atmosphere abundance or properties of these gases and particles can lead to a warming or
cooling of the climate system. Since the start off the industrial era (about 1750), the overall
effect of human activities on climate during this era greatly exceeds that due to known
changes in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic eruptions. Human activities
result in emissions of four principal greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4),
nitrous oxide (N2O) and the halocarbon (a group of gases containing fluorine, chlorine, and
bromine). These gases accumulate in the atmosphere, causing concentrations to increase with
time (www.c02now.org).

The greenhouse gases mentioned are natural gases. However, the high level of these
gases in the atmosphere contributes to the greenhouse effect. The increasing amount of these
gases is due to human activities. High level of carbon dioxide comes from fossil fuel use in
transportation; and the building, heating, cooling, and manufacture of cement and other
goods. Deforestation release carbon dioxide and reduces its uptake by plants. High methane
emission is related to agriculture, natural gas distribution, and landfills. High nitrous oxide is
also emitted by human activities such as fertilize use and fossil fuel and burning. Halocarbon
gas concentrations have increase primarily due to human activities. Principal halocarbons
include the chlorofluorocarbon \s (e.g., CFC-11 and CFC-12) which were used extensively as
refrigeration agents and in other industrial processes before their presence in the atmosphere

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was found to cause stratospheric ozone depletion. The abundance of chlorofluorocarbon

gases is decreasing as a result of international regulations designed to protect the ozone layer
(The Encyclopedia of Earth, 2016).

Ozone is another greenhouse gas that is continually produced and destroyed in the
atmosphere by chemical reactions. In the troposphere, human activities have increased ozone
through the release of gases such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxide,
which chemically react to produce ozone.

Halocarbons released by human activities destroy ozone in the stratosphere and have
caused the ozone hole over Antarctica. While water vapor is the most abundant and important
greenhouse gas in the atmosphere, human activities have only a small direct influence on the
amount of atmospheric water vapor. Indirectly, humans have the potential to affect water
vapor substantially by changing climate. For example, a warmer atmosphere contains more
water vapor. Human activities also influence water vapor through CH4 emissions, because
CH4 undergoes chemical destruction in the stratosphere, producing a small amount of water
vapor, and aerosols, the small particles present in the atmosphere with widely varying size,
concentration, and chemical composition. Some aerosols are emitted directly into the
atmosphere while others are formed from emitted compounds. Aerosols contain both
naturally occurring compounds and those emitted result of human activities. Fossil fuel and
biomass burning have increased aerosols containing sulphur compounds, organic compounds,
and black carbon (soot). Human activities such as surface mining and industrial processes
have increase dust in the atmosphere (IPCC, 2007). On September 16, 1986, an international
treaty was adapted. It is called the Montreal Protocol. The treaty aimed to regulate the
production and use of chemicals that contribute to Ozone layer depletion (Britannica, 2017).

Effects of Climate Change on Society

Climate change could cause severe affects to all life forms around our planet. It direct
affects the basic elements of people’s lives like water, food, health, use of land, and the
environment.

With the average global temperature which is predicted to rise by 2 to 3°C within the
next fifty years, glaciers will continue to melt faster. Melting glaciers will increase flood risks
during the wet season and strongly reduce dry-season water supplies to one-sixth of the
world’s population, predominantly in the Indian subcontinent, parts of China, and the Andes
in South America. Declining crop yields due to drought, especially in Africa, are likely to
leave hundreds of millions without the ability to produce or purchase sufficient food. At mid
to high latitudes, crop yields may increase for moderate temperature rises (2 to 3°C), but
decline with greater amounts of warming. Ocean edification, a direct result of rising carbon
dioxide levels, will have major effects on marine ecosystems, with possible adverse
consequences on fish stocks. (Stern, 2007).

Ecosystem will be particularly vulnerable to climate change, with one study

estimating that around 15-40% of species face extinction with 2°C of warming. The
connsequences of climate change will become disproportionately more damaging with
increased warming. Higher temperatures will increase the chance of triggering abrupt and
large-scale changes that lead to regional disruption, migration, and conflict. Warming may
induce sudden shifts in regional weather patterns like the monsoons or the El Niño. Such
changes would have severe consequence for water availability and flooding in tropical

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regions and threaten the livelihood of billions. Melting or collapse of ice sheets would raise
sea levels and eventually threaten at least 4 million km2 of land, which today is home to 5%
of the world’s population (Stern, 2007).

Activity 6.1

1. Group Work. Create an infomercial showing how the community can help mitigate the hazards caused
by climate change.

2. Individual Work. Create an advocacy campaign by making a poster via social media that tells about
how the community will help mitigate the hazards caused by climate change.

Summary

Climate change is a worldwide issue that we have to face. Climate change is referred
as statistically significant climate variation persisting for an extended period of time. The
continuous climate change could bring drastic effects to living and nonliving forms on Earth.

Climate change is brought by several factors like natural processes and persistent
human activities. Global warming is one of the major effects of climate change. Global
warming threatens all life forms on Earth. It has drastic effects on water availability, food
source, health issues, land use, and ecosystem.

Self-Evaluation

1. What significant contribution can individuals make I response to climate

change?
2. Is climate change preventable?
3. What should be the significant contribution of the society as well as the
government in mitigating the hazards caused by climate change?

References

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Convention on Biological Diversity. (2010). “United Nations COHAB Initiative: Biodiversity

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Harris, R.(n.d.). “Truths of the Information Age.” Accessed February 26, 2017.
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Illinois Valley Community College.(n.d.).”List of useful and reliable web sources.” Accessed
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