Department of Civil Engineering

IIT Guwahati
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Fundamental Concepts
 Vastly applied in the domain of Field Measurement of Dynamic
Properties of Soils

 When elastic body waves are incident on the boundary or

interface of two layers, the wave suffers Reflection and
Refraction

 Two types of body waves

 P-waves
 Particle movement coincides with the direction of wave propagation
 Plane of movement of particles is x-z plane i.e. in the plane of wave
propagation
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Fundamental Concepts
 Two types of body waves
 S-waves has two components
 SV waves
 Movement of particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation
 Plane of movement of particles is x-z plane i.e. in the plane of wave propagation
 SH waves
 Movement of particles is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation
 Plane of movement of particles is x-y plane i.e. in a plane of perpendicular to the
plane of wave propagation

P-wave SV-wave SH-wave

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Coupling of P- and SV- Waves

 Both the P-waves and SV-waves have the same plane of
particle movement i.e. x-z plane

 If the potential functions of P-, SV- and SH-waves are

described as φ, ψ and χ respectively, then the particle
displacement along x-, y- and z-direction at point is given by
 
u            1
x z
 
w             2
z x
2  2 
v    2       3
x 2 y 2
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Coupling of P- and SV- Waves

 Equations 1 and 2 shows that the displacement of the particles
in x- and z-direction are both governed by φ and ψ
 Hence, a coupling of P-SV waves take place and the movement of
particle is the result of their combination. Thus, P-SV is a coupled wave

 Displacement in y-direction is solely dependent on χ i.e. on

SH-wave
 Hence, this wave travels independently

 NB: u and w has the same functions as the R-waves

 The difference being R-waves are surface waves, while P-SV couple is a body
wave which may propagate to the surface
 The attenuation of coupled P-SV wave moving to the surface lies in between
that of the R-waves and pure body waves
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Coupling of P- and SV- Waves
 Does coupled P-SV wave also produce a retrograde elliptical
motion to a particle located at the surface  NO!!! Why????
 Although a couple is formed between P- and SV-waves, the basic
characteristics of theirs i.e. their propagation velocities are different.
 A coupling is formed only with respect to the plane of particle movement
 The movement of particle does not occur in unison
 P-waves have higher velocity, and hence when a coupled P-SV wave passes over a
particle, the same undergoes an initial movement in the direction of wave
propagation (due to the P-wave), and then when it ceases, then the particle suffers a
movement in the direction perpendicular to the wave propagation (due to the S-
wave)
 Hence, a sequential bi-directional movement takes place
 An overlap between the movements can take place for a small time duration, during
which the movement show some similarity to the Retrograde Ellipse
 Retrograde elliptical motion is created by a R-wave, due to the
simultaneous movement in x- and z-direction
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Reflection and Refraction of Waves

 Effect of coupling of P-SV waves shows a behavior during
reflection and refraction of waves when a P-wave or SV-wave
is incident of media interface, which is different from a SH-
wave being incident

 When a P-wave or a SV-wave is incident on a media interface, it

produces both P- and SV-waves as reflected and refracted waves

 When a SH-wave is incident on a media interface, only reflected and

refracted SH waves are produced
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Reflection and Refraction of Waves

 Case 1: A P-wave is incident on an interface
P P1
 Reflected P-wave β2
SV1
1   2 α2
Layer 1 α1
vp1 , vs1

Layer 2
vp2 , vs2
 Following Snell’s law α3
sin 1 sin  2 sin 1 sin 3 sin 3
   
vp
1
vp
1
vs
1
vp
2
vs 2 β3

P2
SV2
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Reflection and Refraction of Waves

 Case 2: A SV-wave is incident on an interface
SV1
SV
 Reflected SV-wave α2
P1
1   2 β2
Layer 1 β1
vp1 , vs1

Layer 2
vp2 , vs2
 Following Snell’s law
β3
sin 1 sin  2 sin  2 sin 3 sin 3
   
vs
1
vs
1
vp
1
vp
2
vs 2 α3
SV2

P2
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Reflection and Refraction of Waves

 Case 2: A SH-wave is incident on an interface
SH1
SH
 Reflected SH-wave

1   2 β2
Layer 1 β1
vp1 , vs1

Layer 2
vp2 , vs2
 Following Snell’s law
β3
sin 1 sin  2 sin 3
 
vs vs vs 2
1 1
SH2
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Application of the Concept

 Vividly used in Seismic Survey
 Seismic Refraction Survey
 Seismic Reflection Survey

 Seismic Refraction Survey

 Used to determine the wave propagation velocities through soil layers
 Used to determine the thickness of soil layers
 Takes into consideration only the effect of P-waves
 P-waves are the fastest and the quickest to reach the target zone from the
source of disturbance
 This survey is based on the concept of First Arrival Time
 Based on the time of the 1st record made by a receiver geophone
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Two Layer System

 Based on the concept of First Arrival Time of waves
x' x1
A B G
4
2
Layer 1 z1 6
vp1
αc αc
1

C 5 D
Layer 2 z2
vp2 3
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Two Layer System
 Consider horizontally layered soils with vp1<vp2
 A is an impulse source from which hemispherical wavefronts
for P-waves are spreading out in all directions
 Wave 1
 Perpendicular on the interface  Both reflection and transmission
 Passes away on to the next layer with different velocity (vp1  vp2)
 Wave 2 and Wave 3
 Reflected and Refracted waves (vp1  vp1) and (vp1  vp2): Energy distributed
 Wave 4
 Direct body wave travelling through surface (vp1)
 Wave 5
 Critically refracted wave (vp1  vp2  vp1) (α = αc)
 Wave 6
 Total internally reflected wave (vp1  vp1) (α > αc) (Full energy retained)
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Two Layer System

 Let B be located at a small distance x' from A
 In this case, Wave 4 will be the first to reach since it follows the shortest
distance from A to B

 Time taken by the wave to travel from AB

x' x'
t'  v p1 
v p1 t'
 The above equation is the First Arrival Time equation of a direct P-wave

 The above technique helps to determine the P-wave velocity of

the top layer of the soil by placing a geophone receiver very
near to the source
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Two Layer System

 Consider a point G located far away from A at a distance x
 Assume, the direct body wave travels up to G, assuming there is no
material or geometric damping

 The other wave which can travel to G is a reflected wave

 However, here only refraction survey is considered

 The third wave which can reach G is a refracted wave which have
suffered Total Internal Reflection
 In this case, the angle of incidence will be the critical angle of incidence, and
the wave propagates along the interface of the two medium

1   c1,  2  3  90
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Two Layer System

 From Snell’s Law
sin 1 sin  3 sin 90 1 1
 v p1 
    1  sin     c1
v p1 v p2 v p2 v p2  v p2 
 
 Hence, the incident wavefront from source to the interface travel with
the velocity vp1, and then it travels through the interface at velocity vp2
(vp2>vp1)
 Speed of the total reflected wave is greater than the incident wave

 The total reflected wave creates an energy disturbance at the interface,

and hence, a second refraction occurs to produce waves moving in the
upper medium, the angle of refraction being equal to αc, and the velocity
being vp1
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Two Layer System

 Time taken by the P-wave to travel by the path ACDG
t  t AC  tCD  t DG
z1 cos  c1  x1  2 z1 tan  c1  z1 cos  c1 
  
v p1 v p2 v p1
x1 2 z1 sin  c1  2 z1 cos  c1 
  
v p 2 v p 2 cos  c1  v p1

where, x1  AG
v p1
and, v p 2 
sin  c1 
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Two Layer System

 First Arrival Time equation of a refracted P-wave
2 2
x1 2 z1 v p2  v p1 x1
t1     ti1
v p2 v p1.v p 2 v p2
 where, the Intercept time (ti1)

2 z1 v 2p 2  v 2p1 ti1.v p1.v p 2

ti1   z1 
v p1.v p 2 2 v 2p 2  v 2p1
 Intercept time can be used to find out the thickness of the upper soil layer (z1)
 The inverse of the slope of a plot of Distance of the Receiver vs Record of
First Arrival Time would help to determine the velocity of the P-wave of the
particular soil layers
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Typical Graphical Representation

Record for Arrival

of Direct P-wave
t
First Arrival Time 

Record for Arrival

1
of Refracted P-wave
vp2

1
ti1
vp1
x
xc1
Distance from the Source 
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Field Investigation Technique

 The Seismic Refraction Survey is carried out as described
 At A, use a source of disturbance, probably an impact or impulse (Refer
to the first figure in the presentation)
 Place several geophone receivers a various distances from source
 Induce a disturbance at A, and record the time of first arrival of P-wave
at each of the receivers
 Plot the points of First Arrival Time vs. Distance of the geophones from
the source
 Accommodate a best-fit bilinear curve through the points
 The inverse of the slopes of bilinear curves provide the velocities of P-
wave in each layer
 Extrapolate backwards the second part of the bilinear curve to the time-
axis providing the Intercept time, which is used to find the thickness of
the upper layer
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Seismic Refraction Survey from Field-Data

Record for Arrival

of Direct P-wave
t
First Arrival Time 

xc1
Record for Arrival
1
of Refracted P-wave
vp2

1
ti1
vp1
x

Distance from the Source 

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Critical Distance
 Critical Distance (xc1) governs the distance beyond which the
refracted P-wave reaches the target receiver than the direct P-
wave
 Equating the two expressions for the first arrival time of the direct and
refracted P-waves
At x '  x1  xc1, t '  t1
2 2
xc1 xc1 2 z1 v p2  v p1
  
v p1 v p 2 v p1.v p 2
v p 2  v p1
 xc1  2 z1
v p 2  v p1

 Critical distance is the distance till which the direct P-wave will reach faster
to the receiver geophone than the refracted P-wave
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Critical Distance
 If the critical distance (xc1) can be evaluated from the plot of
recorded First arrival time vs. Distance of geophone receiver
from source, the same can also be used to determine the
thickness of upper layer of the two-layer system

x v p 2  v p1
z1  c1
2 v p 2  v p1
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Three Layer System

x2
x' x1
A B E J

Layer 1 αc1
vp1 α1 αc1 α1
z1

F C D I
αc2 αc2
Layer 2 z2
vp2 αc2 αc2

G H
z3
Layer 3 v p1  v p 2  v p3
vp3
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Three Layer System

 For a receiver B close to the source A, the direct P-wave will be
the first to reach B in the path AB
 Travel time for the first arrival of wave at B

x'
t'
v p1

 At a greater distance of the receiver E from the source A (x1),

the first arrival time will correspond to the path ACDE
 Travel time in path ACDE

2 2
x1 2 z1 v p2  v p1 x1
t1     ti1
v p2 v p1.v p 2 v p2
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Three Layer System

 Intercept Time
2 z1 v 2p 2  v 2p1
ti1 
v p1.v p 2

 Critical angle of incidence

1
 v p1 
 c1  sin  
 v p2 
 

 Depth of soil Layer 1

ti1.v p1.v p 2
z1 
2 v 2p 2  v 2p1
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Three Layer System

 At a still greater distance of the receiver J from the source A
(x2), the first arrival time will correspond to the path AFGHIJ
 Critical angle of incidence on the interface of Layer 2 and Layer 3

1
 v p2 
 c 2  sin  
 v p3 
 
 Angle of incidence on the interface of Layer 1 and Layer 2

sin 1 sin  c 2

v p1 v p2

1 v p1
 
1 v p1 v p 2
 
1 v p1

 1  sin  .sin  c 2   sin  .   sin  
 v p2   v p 2 v p3   v p3 
     
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Three Layer System

 The First arrival time of the refracted P-wave from the source
A to the receiver J in the path AFGHIJ
t2  t AF  t FG  tGH  t HI  t IJ
 2t AF  2t FG  tGH
2 z1 cos  c1  2 z2 cos  c 2  x2  2 z1 tan 1   2 z2 tan  c 2 
  
v p1 v p2 v p3
2 2 2 2
x 2 z1 v p2  v p1 2 z 2 v p3  v p2 x
 2    2  ti 2
v p3 v p1.v p 2 v p 2 .v p3 v p3

 Intercept time

2 z1 v 2p 2  v 2p1 2 z2 v 2p3  v 2p 2 2 z2 v 2p3  v 2p 2

ti 2    ti1 
v p1.v p 2 v p 2 .v p3 v p 2 .v p3
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Typical Graphical Representation

t
1
First Arrival Time 

vp3

1
vp2

ti2 1
ti1 vp1
x
xc1
xc2

Distance from the Source 

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Three Layer System

 If geophone receivers are placed at various distances from the
source of disturbance, then based on the record of first arrival
time of the P-wave in the receivers can be used to obtain a
multi-linear plot as shown in the previous slide

 From the plot, the inverse of the slopes of each part of the multi-linear
plot provides the velocity of the P-waves at each of the soil layers of the
multi-layered system

 The intercept times help to determine the depth of each layers

z1 
ti1.v p1.v p 2  ti 2  ti1  .v p2 .v p3
z2 
2 v 2p 2  v 2p1 2 v 2p3  v 2p 2
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Critical Distances for a Three-Layered System

 Equating the expressions of any two consecutive linear
portions of the plot provides the expression for the critical
distance, which if known from the field-data, can be
successively used to determine the depth of the layers of soil
for a multilayered system

 First Stage: Critical distance demarcating soil layers 1 and 2

v p 2  v p1 x v p 2  v p1
xc1  2 z1  z1  c1
v p 2  v p1 2 v p 2  v p1
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Critical Distances for a Three-Layered System

 Second Stage: Critical distance demarcating soil layers 2 and 3

2 2 2 2 2 2
xc 2 2 z1 v p 2  v p1 xc 2 2 z1 v p 2  v p1 2 z2 v p 3  v p 2
   
v p2 v p1.v p 2 v p3 v p1.v p 2 v p 2 .v p 3

v p3  v p2 x v p3  v p2
 xc 2  2 z2  z2  c 2
v p3  v p2 2 v p3  v p2
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Multi-Layered System
 The longer the distance of the last geophone receiver from the
source, more is the information about the number of layers of
soil through which the refracted P-wave have propagated to
reach the last geophone receiver

 An array of geophone receivers are used to record the first arrival times
of the P-waves. The plot between the First arrival time vs Geophone
distance is used to obtain a multi-linear plot

 From the plot, the depths of various layers of the soil stratum, the P-
wave velocity in each of the layers, and the critical distances
demarcating the boundaries of each layer of soil can be identified!
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Typical Graphical Representation

t

1
1 vp(n+1)
First Arrival Time 

vpn

1
vp3
ti(n+1)
1
tin vp2
ti2 1
ti1 vp1 x
xcn

Distance from the Source 

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Multi-Layered System
 Velocity of P-wave at any segment ‘n’
1
v pn 
Slope of the nth segment

 Depth of the nth layer

t  t v v
 in i  n 1  pn p ( n 1)
zn 
2 v2  v 2pn
p  n 1

 Critical distance xcn, beyond which the refracted P-wave of the current
segment would not be the one to reach first the next segment
v p  n 1  v pn
xcn  2 zn
v p  n 1  v pn
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Inclined Layer System

 Let the source be at A and the receiver be at E
x1
x d' x u'
A Bd Bu E

Layer 1 A1 A2 A3
vp1 z' A4
αc

F αc z''
Layer 2 C
vp2 D
G
β
v p1  v p 2
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Inclined Layer System

 For a receiver Bd close to the source A, the direct P-wave will
be the first to reach Bd in the path ABd
 Travel time for the first arrival of wave at Bd
'
x
td'  d
v p1

 At a greater distance to the receiver E from the source A (x1),

the first arrival time will correspond to the path ACDE
 Travel time in path ACDE

td1  t AC  tCD  t DE
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Inclined Layer System

z ' cos  c DA3  A3 E z ' cos  c  x sin  cos  c
t AC  , t DE  
v p1 v p1 v p1
CD AA4  AA1  A2 A3  A3 A4
tCD  
v p2 v p2
x1 cos   z ' tan  c  z ' tan  c  x1 sin  tan  c

v p2

 The travel time of the refracted P-wave

z ' cos  c x1 cos   z ' tan  c  z ' tan  c  x1 sin  tan  c
td 1  
v p1 v p2
z ' cos  c  x sin  cos  c

v p1
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Inclined Layer System

 Time taken by the refracted P-wave to travel downstream from
A to E
v p 2  v p1 sin  c

2 z 'cos  c x1
 td 1   sin  c   
v p1 v p1

 NB: It is to be remembered that for inclined layering, the depth of the

layer would be determine only below the source of disturbance.
 If the position of the source is changed, a new depth would emerge out from
the calculation which is the depth of the inclined layer from the current
position of the source
 The depth of the inclined layer is described as the perpendicular distance between
the source and the underneath inclined layer
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Inclined Layer System

 Let the source be at E and the receiver be at A
x1
x d' x u'
A Bd Bu E

Layer 1 A1 A2 A3
vp1 z' A4
αc

F z''
Layer 2 C αc
vp2 D
G
β
v p1  v p 2
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Inclined Layer System

 For a receiver Bu close to the source E, the direct P-wave will
be the first to reach Bu in the path ABu
 Travel time for the first arrival of wave at Bu
'
x
tu'  u
v p1

 At a greater distance to the receiver A from the source E (x1),

the first arrival time will correspond to the path EDCA
 Travel time in path EDCA

tu1  t ED  t DC  tCA
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Inclined Layer System

Using  z '  z " x1 sin   in the expression for td1

2 z 'cos  c x
 td 1   1 sin  c   
v p1 v p1
2 z "cos  c 2 x1 sin  cos  c x1
   sin  c   
v p1 v p1 v p1
2 z "cos  c x1
  sin  c     tu1
v p1 v p1

 Hence, time taken by the refracted P-wave to travel upstream from E to

A
2 z "cos  c x1
tu1   sin  c   
v p1 v p1
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Inclined Layer System

 If the expressions for the time of travel of the refracted P-waves in the
downstream and upstream direction are used in conjunction and plotted
against the distance of receiver from source, the following curve is
obtained
tu vs xu tdvs xd
downstream direction 

upstream direction 
First Arrival Time in
First Arrival Time in

td1 tu1
mu
1
md
1
tiu1
1 1
tid1
vp1 vp1
xu xcd xcu xd

 Distance from the Source 

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Determination of Soil Properties

 The travel time of the refracted P-wave in the downstream
direction is given by
2 z 'cos  c x
td 1   1 sin  c     md x1  tid1
v p1 v p1

 Where, the slope and the intercept time are defined as

sin  c   
Slope md 
v p1
2 z 'cos  c
Intercept time tid1 
v p1
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Determination of Soil Properties

 The travel time of the refracted P-wave in the upstream
direction is given by
2 z "cos  c x
tu1   1 sin  c     mu x1  tiu1
v p1 v p1

 Where, the slope and the intercept time are defined as

sin  c   
Slope mu 
v p1
2 z "cos  c
Intercept time tiu1 
v p1
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Determination of Soil Properties

 Qualitative interpretation of the inclination of the underneath
layer from the magnitudes of slopes and intercept times

 If tiu1  tid1 and mu  md

 The slope inclines downwards
 0

 If tiu1  tid1 and mu  md

 The slope inclines upwards  0
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys

Determination of Soil Properties

 Determination of critical angle of incidence (αc) and inclination
of the slope (β)
sin  c   
md 
v p1
 
  c  sin 1 md .v p1   ............. 1

sin  c   
mu 
v p1
 
  c  sin 1 mu .v p1   .............  2 

 Solving the above 2 equations

1
 
 c  sin 1 md .v p1  sin 1 mu .v p1 
2  
1
  
  sin 1 md .v p1  sin 1 mu .v p1 
2  
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys

Determination of Soil Properties

 Determination of velocity of P-wave in the soil layers
 Velocity of the P-wave in the overlying soil layer is determined from the
record of the first arrival time of the P-wave in a geophone receiver kept
very near to the source of disturbance

v p1  xu' tu'

 Using the above and the critical angle of incidence as determined from
the analysis of the plot as stated earlier, it is possible to determine the
velocity of the P-wave in the underlying soil layer

1  v p1 
v p 2  sin  
 sin  c
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys

Determination of Soil Properties

 Determination of layer thickness
 Once the angle of inclination (β) is known as discussed earlier, the
thickness of the overlying layer can be determined, either considering
the source at A or at E, based on the respective intercept times

2 z 'cos  c tid1.v p1
tid1   z'
v p1 2 cos  c
2 z "cos  c tiu1.v p1
tiu1   z" 
v p1 2 cos  c
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys

Determination of Soil Properties

 Determination of critical distances
 Equating the travel time expressions for the direct P-wave and the
refracted P-wave yields the magnitude of critical distances in the
downstream (xcd) and upstream directions (xcu)
 Equating expression in the downstream direction
2 z 'cos c xcd xcd 2 z 'cos c
 sin c      xcd 
v p1 v p1 v p1 1  sin c   
 Equating the expressions in the upstream direction

2 z "cos c xcu xcu 2 z "cos c

 sin  c      xcu 
v p1 v p1 v p1 1  sin c   
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys

Determination of Soil Properties

 The critical distances in the downstream (xcd) and upstream
directions (xcu) if determined from the plot of First arrival time
vs Geophone receiver distance, the thickness of the inclined
layer can be determined

2 z 'cos  c xcd 1  sin  c    

xcd   z'
1  sin  c     2 cos  c

2 z "cos  c xcu 1  sin  c    

xcu   z" 
1  sin  c     2 cos  c
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys

Handling Real-time Data

 Theoretically, the P-wave velocity of the overlying soil layer
measured using the Direct P-wave arrival time by placing a
geophone receiver close to the source of disturbance in both
downstream and upstream direction should be equal

 However, due to the anomaly in the measurements or the natural

geometrical anomalies present in the overlying soil layer, when real-time
field data are plotted, in many occasions, the two velocities differ from
each other (although not significantly)
v p1d  v p1u
measured measured
 In such circumstances, the P-wave velocity in the overlying layer is
calculated as
v p1d  v p1u
v p1 
2
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys

Inclined Layer System

tu vs xu tdvs xd
downstream direction 

upstream direction 
First Arrival Time in
First Arrival Time in

td1 tu1
mu
1
md
1
tiu1
1 1
tid1
vp1d vp1u
xu xcd xcu xd

 Distance from the Source 

v p1d  v p1u
v p1 
2
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Seismic Reflection Survey
 Specifically used for and restricted to the determination of the
depth of the topmost layer
 Restricted usage: Soft upper layer on a very rigid underlying layer
 Hence, not so popular and widely used

 Based on the concept of reflection of P-waves incident on the

interface of the soil layers

 Difficulty arises in identifying the record corresponding to the

record of the arrival of the reflected wave
 However, it is definitely recorded after the first arrival
 In many cases, the recorded third arrival time is considered to be the
record of the receipt of the reflected wave
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Case I: Horizontal Layering

A C

Layer 1 z
vp1
αc αc

B
Layer 2
vp2
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Case I: Horizontal Layering
 Let the source of disturbance be at A, while the geophone
receiver is located at C
 The path of the reflected wave from A to C is ABC

 Time taken by the reflected P-wave to travel from the source to

target
AB  BC 2
2
 x 2  z2
t 
v p1 v p1
 The above equation represents the equation of a hyperbola

 Thickness of the soil layer

1
 v p1.t 
2
z  x2
2
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Case I: Horizontal Layering
 Time taken by a direct P-wave to travel from source to target
x x2
tdirect  
v p1 v p1
 Time taken by a reflected P-wave to travel from source to
target 2 2
2  x 2 z x2  4 z 2
treflected  
v p1 v p1

 Hence tdirect  treflected

 The above relation states that the reflected P-waves always reach late to a
target in comparison to the direct P-waves or even the refracted P-waves
 Hence, the arrival of a reflected P-wave is recorded as the Third Arrival Time, after
the record of Direct and Refracted P-waves
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Case I: Horizontal Layering
 Intercept time for reflected wave 2z
ti  reflected 
v p1
 Thickness of the soil layer
v p1.ti  reflected
z
2
 Intercept time for the refracted wave
2
2 z v 2p 2  v 2p1 v 2p 2  v 2p1  v p1 
ti  refracted   ti  reflected  ti  reflected 1   
v p1.v p 2 v p2  v p2 
 

2
 v p1 
v p1  v p 2  1    1  ti  refracted  ti  reflected
 v p2 
 
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Typical Graphical Representation
 Typical plot of arrival of direct, reflected and refracted wave
vs. distance of geophone receiver

Record for Arrival

Record for Arrival
of Reflected P-wave 1 of Direct P-wave
t vp1
Arrival Time 

Record for Arrival

1
of Refracted P-wave
vp2
ti1-reflected

ti1-refracted

1
vp1
x
xc1
Distance from the Source 
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Interpretation from Graphical Representation
 The P-wave velocity of the overlying soil layer can be
determined from the plot of t vs. x as depicted earlier
 The plot of t vs. x for the reflected wave is a hyperbolic equation
 Hence, the plot has a curvilinear arm for the records taken at the
geophones located near the source
 Thus, it is difficult to estimate the P-wave velocity from such
representation of the time vs. distance plot if the geophone receivers are
located very near to the source of disturbance
 However, if there are geophone receivers located at large distances from
the source of disturbance, the arm of the plot becomes nearly linear with
increasing distance, the inverse of the slope of which provides the P-
wave velocity of the overlying soil layer
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Interpretation from Graphical Representation
 A different representation for the reflection survey is t2 vs. x2

t
2  x 2 2
z 2
 t2 

4 x2 4  z 2   x2  4 z 2
v p1 v 2p1 v 2p1 v 2p1
 The relation t2 vs. x2 between represents the equation of a straight line
 where
1
Slope of the line 
v 2p1

2 4z2 ti  reflected .v p1
Intercept ti  reflected  z
v 2p1 2
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Alternate Graphical Representation
 Typical plot of arrival of reflected wave vs. distance of
geophone receiver in an alternate manner

Record for Arrival

t2 of Reflected P-wave
Arrival Time 

1
vp12
t2i1-reflected

x2
Distance from the Source 
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Case II: Inclined Layering

xE

A2 A xB B E

Layer 1
vp1
β

Layer 2
C
vp2
D
β
β

A'
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Case II: Inclined Layering
 The reflected wave reaches from A to B through path ACB
ACB  AC  CB  A ' C  CB  A ' B
 Now

 A ' B    A2 B    A ' A2 
2 2 2

where, A ' A2  2 z 'cos 

A2 B  2 z 'sin   xB

 A' B   2 z 'cos  2   2 z 'sin   xB 2

 4 z '2  xB2  4 z ' xB sin 
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Determination of Soil Properties
 Time taken by reflected P-wave to reach from A to B

A' B 1
tB   4 z '2  xB2  4 z ' xB sin  ........................ 1
v p1 v p1

 Time taken by reflected P-wave to reach from A to E

A' E 1
tE   4 z '2  xE2  4 z ' xe sin  ........................  2 
v p1 v p1

 Squaring the equations and subtracting equation (1) from (2)

sin  

v 2p1 t E2  t B2   xE  xB
4 z '  xE  xB  4z '
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Determination of Soil Properties
 Assume t t
Average time: t  E B
2
Time difference: t  t E  t B

 Using the above relations, the angle of inclination of the

underlying soil layer is determined
v 2p1.t .t x  xB
sin    E
2 z '  xE  xB  4z '

 Determine the depth of the soil layer below the source of

disturbance
 Substitute the value β in Equations (1) or (2) to obtain the depth of
inclined layer beneath the source
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
General Interpretations
 One of the geophone receiver is placed right at the source of
disturbance

v 2p1.t .t
xE
xB  0  sin   
2 z ' xE 4z '

 One of the geophone receiver is placed right at the source of

disturbance, and the soil layer is horizontal

xE2
xB  0,   0  sin   0  t 
2v 2p1.t

 The above condition, if satisfied, indicates the interface of the

underlying layer to be horizontal
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
General Interpretations
 Qualitative interpretation about the inclination of the
underlying layer
 Condition 1 xE2
xB  0, and t   0
2v 2p1.t

 This condition, if satisfied, indicates that the interface of the underlying layer
is inclined at a positive angle, i.e. the interface is inclined towards
downstream in the direction of propagation of the reflected wave

 Condition 2 xE2
xB  0, and t   0
2v 2p1.t

 This condition, if satisfied, indicates that the interface of the underlying layer
is inclined at a negative angle, i.e. the interface is inclined towards upstream
opposite to the direction of the propagation of reflected wave
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Investigation Procedure Adopted in Actual Practice
 The geophone receivers are kept at equal spacing on both the
sides of the source of disturbance xE   xB  x
xB xE

B A E
Layer 1
vp1

Layer 2 C
vp2
D
β

A'
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Investigation Procedure Adopted in Actual Practice
 Angle of inclination of the underlying inclines layer

v 2p1. t .t x  xB
Substituting xE   xB  x in sin    E
2 z '  xE  xB  4z '
v 2p1. t .t
 sin  
4z ' x

 From geometry, the median of the triangle A′BE is AA′ = 2z′

2 2z ' A' B  A' E A' B A' E
2 AA '  A ' B  A ' E      tB  tE
v p1 v p1 v p1 v p1
2 z ' tB  tE v p1. t
  t  z' 
v p1 2 2
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2018 Seismic Reflection and Seismic Refraction Surveys
Investigation Procedure Adopted in Actual Practice
 Thickness of the overlying soil layer
v p1. t
z' 
2
 Substituting the thickness obtained to determine the angle of
inclination
v p1.t
sin  
2x

 NB: In both the cases of horizontal and inclined layering, the

velocity of the P-wave in the overlying soil layer is determined
from the record of the first arrival time of a direct P-wave to a
target receiver placed very close to the source of disturbance –
Any issues????
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Thank You for Patient Hearing