Module V

MACHINE TOOLS AND METROLOGY- MET 307

KTU
Easy and Quick learning for exams

Dr. Anand Sekhar R

 Principle of Interference
• The effects of combination of two light rays as rays X and Y
which are of the same wavelength.

• If they happen in phase, the amplitude is increased in the

resultant amplitude. Hence, it is the addition of the amplitudes of
combined rays.

• Thus, when two rays of equal intensity are in phase, they

augument each other and produce increased brightness.

• If rays X and Y differ by a phase of 180°, then the combined

resultant R will be very small.

• If the amplitudes aX and aY are equal, the resultant amplitude

will become zero.
 Interferometer
• It is an instrument which generates and compares the difference between two light waves which are
reflected off two different surfaces.

• It utilizes the effect of interference.

Applications of Interferometers

• Measurements of lengths and small changes in lengths.

• Optical testing.

• Studies of surface structure.

• Measurement of pressure and temperature difference in gas flows and plasmas.

• Measurements of particle velocities and vibration amplitudes.

• Wavelength measurements.
 Interferometry
• Interferometry is a method for the accurate measurement of linear dimensions using a
pure monochromatic light source.

• It makes use of the principle of superposition to combine waves in a way that will cause
their combination to have some meaningful property that is diagnostic to the original state
of the waves.
 Optical Flat

• An optical flat is nothing but a disc of glass or quarts whose faces are
highly polished and flat within a few microns.

• Flat dark bands can be seen when the optical flat is kept on the surface.
These are cylindrical in shape whose diameter range from 25 mm to 300
mm with the thickness of 1/6th of the diameter.

• For measuring flatness, a monochromatic light source is required along

with an optical plate.

✓ When an optical flat's polished surface is placed in contact with a surface to be tested, dark and light bands will be formed
when viewed with monochromatic light.
✓ These bands are known as interference fringes and their shape gives a visual representation of the flatness of the surface
being tested.
✓ The surface flatness is indicated by the amount of curve and spacing between the interference fringes. Straight, parallel, and
evenly spaced interference fringes indicate that the work surface flatness is equal to or higher than that of the reference
surface.
 HOW AN OPTICAL FLAT
• An optical flat utilizes the property of interference to exhibit the flatness on a
WORKS
desired surface.

• When an optical flat, also known as a test plate, and a work surface are placed in
contact, an air wedge is formed.

• Areas between the flat and the work surface that are not in contact form this air
wedge. The change in thickness of the air wedge will dictate the shape and
orientation of the interference bands.

• The amount of curvature that is shown by the interference bands can be used to
determine the flatness of the surface. If the air wedge is too large, then many
closely spaced lines can appear, making it difficult to analyze the pattern formed.
Simply applying pressure to the top of the optical flat alleviates the problem.

❖ The determination of the flatness of any particular region of a surface is done by making two parallel imaginary lines; one
between the ends of any one fringe, and the other at the top of that same fringe. The number of fringes located between the
lines can be used to determine the flatness. Monochromatic light is used to create sharp contrast for viewing and in order to
specify the flatness as a function of a single wavelength.
• When an optical flat is laid over a flat reflecting surface, it orients at a HOW AN OPTICAL FLAT
small angle θ, due to the presence of an air cushion between the two WORKS
surfaces. This is illustrated above figure.

• Consider a ray of light from a monochromatic light source falling on

the upper surface of the optical flat at an angle.

• This light ray is partially reflected at point ‘a’.

• The remaining part of the light ray passes through the transparent
glass material across the air gap and is reflected at point ‘b’ on the flat
work surface.

• The two reflected components of the light ray are collected and
recombined by the eye, having travelled two different paths whose
length differs by an amount ‘abc’.

• If ‘abc’ = λ/2, where λ is the wavelength of the monochromatic light

source, then the condition for complete interference has been
satisfied.

• The difference in path length is one-half the wavelength, a perfect

condition for total interference. The eye is now able to see a distinct
patch of darkness termed a fringe.
• Next, consider another light ray from the same source falling on HOW AN OPTICAL FLAT
the optical flat at a small distance from the first one.
WORKS
• This ray gets reflected at points ‘d’ and ‘e’. If the length ‘def’
equals 3λ/2, then total interference occurs again and a similar
fringe is seen by the observer.

• However, at an intermediate point between the two fringes, the

path difference between two reflected portions of the light ray will
be an even number of half wavelengths.

• Thus, the two components of light will be in phase, and a light

band will be seen at this point.

• To summarize, when light from a monochromatic light source is

made to fall on an optical flat, which is oriented at a very small
angle with respect to a flat reflecting surface, a band of alternate
light and dark patches is seen by the eye
A Block is nearly flat along its length.

B Fringes curve towards the line of contact,

showing that the surface is convex and high in the centre
C The surface is concave and low in the centre.

D The surface is flat at one end but becomes increasingly

convex
E The surface is progressively lower towards the bottom left-
hand corner
F There are two points of contact,
which are higher compared to other areas of the block
• Now, let the number of fringes on the reference block be N over a HOW AN OPTICAL FLAT
width of l mm.
WORKS
• If the distance between the two slip gauges is L and λ is the
wavelength of the monochromatic light source, then the difference
in height h is given by the following relation:

h = λLN / 2l

• This simple procedure can be employed to measure very small

height differences in the range of 0.01–0.1mm.

• However, the accuracy of this method depends on the accuracy

of the surface plate and condition of the surfaces of the specimen
on which the optical flat is
 NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

• In this instrument, the flatness of any surface is judged by

comparing with an optical flat surface (usually the base
plate of the instrument).

• The system consists of

• A light source

• A condensing lens system

• Suitable table to position the work part (gauge)

• Projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors

• An optical flat.
 NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER
• The light from a mercury vapour lamp is condensed and passed
through a green filter, resulting in a green monochromatic light source.

• This radiation will now pass through a pinhole giving an intense point
source of monochromatic light.

• The pinhole is positioned in the focal plane of a collimating lens,

hence a parallel beam of light is projected on the face of the gauge to
be tested, which is wrung on the base plate via an optical flat. This
results in the formation of interference fringes.

• The fringes can be viewed directly as the light beam carrying the
image of the fringes is reflected back and directed by 90 ° using a
thick glass plate reflector placed at 45° to the optical axis.

• The various results can be studied for comparison.

 NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

✓ If the gauge is flat and parallel, then the fringe pattern from both the
gauge face and the base plate will consist of straight, parallel and
equally spaced fringes.
✓ If the gauge is flat but not parallel to the base plate, then straight
and parallel fringes of different pitch are observed.

Fringe Patterns for Different Conditions

 NPL FLATNESS INTERFEROMETER

• Let us consider a gauge that shows n1 fringes along its length in the first
position and n2 in the second position.

• As seen in figure, the distance between the gauge and the optical flat in
the first position has increased by a distance d1 , over the length of the
gauge, and in the second position by a distance d2 .

• It is clear that the distance between the gauge and the optical flat
changes by λ/2, between adjacent fringes. Therefore, d1 = n1 × λ/2 and
d2 = n2 × λ/2. The change in angular relationship is (d2 − d1 ), that is,
(d2 − d1 ) = (n1 − n2 ) × λ/2.

✓ The error in parallelism is actually (d2 − d1 )/2 because of the doubling effect due to the rotation of the base plate.
Thus, (d2 − d1 )/2 = (n1 − n2 )/2 × (λ/2).
 Tool Makers Microscope
• It features a vertical supporting column, which is robust and carries
the weight of all other parts of the microscope.

• It provides a long vertical working distance.

• The workpiece is loaded on an XY stage, which has a provision for

translatory motion in two principal directions in the horizontal plane.

• Micrometres are provided for both X and Y axes to facilitate linear

measurement to a high degree of accuracy.

• The entire optical system is housed in the measuring head.

• The measuring head can be moved up and down along the

supporting column and the image can be focused using the focusing
knob.
 Tool Makers Microscope
• The measuring head can be locked into position by operating the
clamping screw.

• An angle dial built into the eyepiece portion of the optical tube allows
easy angle measurement.

• A surface illuminator provides the required illumination of the object so

that a sharp and clear image can be obtained.

• The element that makes a microscope a measuring instrument is a

reticle.

• When the image is viewed through the eyepiece, the reticle provides a
reference or datum to facilitate measurement.

• Specialized reticles have been developed for precise settings.

• A typical reticle has two ‘crosswires’, which can be aligned with a

reference line on the image of the workpiece.

• In fact, the term ‘cross-wire is a misnomer, because modern

microscopes have cross-wires etched on glass.
 Tool Makers Microscope
• The above schematic diagram illustrates the procedure for linear
measurement.

• A measuring point on the workpiece is aligned with one of the cross-

wires and the reading R1 on the microscope is noted down.

• Now, the XY table is moved by turning the micrometre head, and

another measuring point is aligned with the same cross-wire. The
reading, R2 is noted down.

• The difference between the two readings represents the dimension

between the two measuring points
 Applications of Tool Makers Microscope
• Length measurement in cartesian and polar co-ordinates.

• Angle measurements of tools, threading tools punches and gauges, templates etc.

• Thread measurements i.e., profile, major and minor diameter, height of lead, thread angle, profile position with respect to the
thread axis and the shape of thread. (rounding, flatness, straightness of flanks)

• Comparison between centers and drawn patterns and drawing of projected profiles.
 Autocollimator
• An autocollimator is widely used to measure small angular
deviation of a reflecting surface placed in front of the objective lens
of the autocollimator.

• It is an optical component for measuring angles without having

contact with the component surface

• Autocollimator is also used to align components and measure

deflection in optical or mechanical systems.

• It is used mainly for the measurement of small angular differences

because it provides a very sensitive and accurate results.
Autocollimator
 Principle Autocollimator
• O is a point source of light placed at the focus of a collimating lens.
The rays of light from O falling on the lens will now travel as a
parallel beam of light.

• When this beam strikes on a plane reflector kept (90°) normally to

the optical axis, it will be reflected back along its own-same path
exactly and focused at the same point O.
Principle Autocollimator
Principle Autocollimator
 Straightness measurement using autocollimator
• Checking the straightness of machine guideways is
one of the most frequent uses of an autocollimator.

• The autocollimator is kept aligned with the guideway

for which straightness is to be determined.

• It is mounted on a levelling base.

• The levelling base facilitates alignment of the optical

axis in line with the surface being measured. It
incorporates spring-loaded clamps and a circular
bubble level to help in perfect alignment.

• A mirror carriage is another important accessory for an

autocollimator. It has a polished and clear reflecting
surface, which is perfectly square with the base.
Straightness measurement using autocollimator
 Straightness measurement using autocollimator
• The base of the standard length sits on the
machine guideway or a similar surface for
which straightness is being ascertained.

• Markings can be made on the machine

surface to step off equal lengths by shifting the
mirror carriage successively; whenever the
base of the carriage is not straight with respect
to the axis of the autocollimator, the mirror will
have a small tilt with respect to the optical axis
of the autocollimator. This results in the
measurement of the tilt angle by the
autocollimator.
Straightness measurement using autocollimator
 Comparator
• The comparator is a device, which is generally
used to measure the dimensional differences, that
means it doesn’t show the exact dimension but
only shows the deviation of the dimension from the
standard dimension.

• The comparators are kind of linear measurement

device. The comparators can be broadly classified
as follows:

• Mechanical Comparators

• Pneumatic Comparators

• Electrical Comparators

• Optical Comparators
 Mechanical Comparator
• The mechanical comparator are generally used for inspection of components in workshop and tool room industry etc. Even
small deviations can also be magnified in the mechanical comparator.

• The mechanical comparator is further classified into two types.

✓ (i) Dial gauge (or) Dial indicator

✓ (ii) Reed type mechanical comparator

 Dial gauge (or) Dial indicator
• The dial gauge is device, which is widely used to compare the dimension
with standard dimension. It consists of a case, circular graduated dial,
steam, spindle, pointer, gear train and contact point.

• When the contact point touches against the standard specimen (or)
master, the dial scale is set to zero by rotating the case.

• Now the standard specimen is replaced by the workpiece. Now the dial
gauge will show the reading with the help of moving pointer in the
graduated dial.

• In case there is no variation in the workpiece dimension as compared to

standard specimen, the pointer will show zero reading.

• Generally, the contact point is an interchangeable one. It may be standard

point (or) tapered point or button point (or) regular flat point etc.
 Mechanism of dial indicator
• The plunger consists of rack teeth and.

• The set of gears contact with rack. The pointer is connected to the last gear.

• When the plunger touches the workpiece surface, the plunger will move
upward.

• So linear motion of plunger is converted into rotary motion of gears.

• This is turn makes the pointer move on graduated dial and shows the
reading.

• Due to the spring action, the plunger will come to original position after
removal of work.
 Reed type mechanical comparator
• It consists of plunger, contact point, movable member, fixed member,
pointer and graduated scale etc. Initially the comparator is set to
zero scale with the help of standard specimen like slip gauges.

• Then the workpiece is kept at the bottom of plunger. So the contact

point will touch the surface of workpiece-if any variation occurs, then
the plunger will move upward.

• Generally the plunger is attached to movable member. Due to the

movement of plunger, the movable member also will move.

• The reeds are connected between movable member and fixed

member. Due to movement of reeds, the pointer will move on
graduated scale and shows the reading.
Reed type mechanical comparator
 Pneumatic comparator
• The pressurized air is used as a working medium in the pneumatic comparator. In pneumatic comparator, there is no
metal to metal contact of gauge and workpiece. Hence the accuracy of measurement is increased.

• The amplification range is also increased without reduction in range as compared to mechanical or electrical
comparator.

• The pneumatic comparators are classified as follows:

• Flow (or) velocity type pneumatic comparator.

• Back pressure type pneumatic comparator.

Flow (or) velocity type pneumatic comparator
• It consists of compressor, FRL unit, valve, tapered glass tube, float and
gauging head.

• The pressurized air in the range of 1.5-2 bar is supplied through a tapered
glass tube that contains a float.

• Then the air passes through hose and exits to the atmosphere through the
gauging head.

• Now the gauging head is inserted to the workpiece.

• Due to the clearance between gauging head and workpiece, the flow of air
is restricted, thereby the position of the float is changing in tapered glass
tube.

• The compressed air is filtered by the help of filter and then lubricated and
finally regulated for the required range.

✓ A shut-off valve is used to shut-off air supply, when not in use. The air bleed and
adjustment screw is used to set zero level in the gauge. The flow-clearance curve
shows that, flow rate increases with the increase in the clearance between workpiece
and gauging head.
 Back pressure type pneumatic comparator
• The orifice O2 is fully closed, and supplies the
pressurized air to the system until the pressures P1
and P2 are equal to zero.

• When orifice O2 is opened, the pressures P1 and P2

varies with reference to the distance between orifice
O2) and to the elevation of surface in the workpiece.
If there is any deviation in pressures P1 and P2, then
the deviation in pressure can be measured.

• The solex air gauge is good example for back

pressure type pneumatic comparator.
 Back pressure type pneumatic comparator
• Electrical comparators generally depend on a Wheatstone bridge
circuit for measurement. In this comparator, we can get high
magnification range A DC (Direct Current) is supplied to the system.

• The arrangement of electrical comparator is shown in Fig. 3.6.

• It consists of armature, coil, amplifier, meter, plunger and flexible

strip etc.

• The armature is placed between two coils. One end of armature,

the plunger is supported and other end is connected to flexible strip.
The amplifier is a device, which is used to amplify the output signal.
With the help of Wheatstone bridge circuit, the meter is set to zero.
When the plunger touches the workpiece surface, due to variation,
the plunger will move up or down. Due to plunger movement, the
armature also move either up or down. Due to this movement, the
change in current or potential will be induced and the meter will
show the value of displacement.
 Electronic comparator
• Electrical comparators generally depend on a wheatstone bridge circuit
for measurement.

• In this comparator, we can get high magnification range A DC (Direct

Current) is supplied to the system.

• It consists of armature, coil, amplifier, meter, plunger and flexible strip etc.

• The armature is placed between two coils. One end of armature, the
plunger is supported and other end is connected to flexible strip.

• The amplifier is a device, which is used to amplify the output signal. With
the help of wheatstone bridge circuit, the meter is set to zero.

• When the plunger touches the workpice surface, due to variation, the
plunger will move up or down.

• Due to plunger movement, the armature also move either up or down.

Due to this movement, the change in current or potential will be induced
and the meter will show the value of displacement.
 Electronic comparator
• The movement at the probe tip actuates the inductance
transducer, which is supplied with an AC source from
the oscillator. The transducer converts this movement
into an electrical signal, which is then amplified and fed
via an oscillator to the demodulator. The current, in DC
form, then passes to the meter and the probe tip
movement is displayed as a linear measurement over a
circular scale. Various measuring and control units can
be incorporated, which provide for a wide range of
single or multiple measurements to be made
simultaneously. Using various adaptors to suit the work,
the comparator can be put to many applications such
as external and internal gauging, flatness testing,
thickness gauging, and tube wall thickness
 Electronic comparator
• The set-up consists of a transducer stand and a display unit.
The transducer stand consists of a mounting arrangement for
the plunger, which moves inside a ball bushing free of friction.
The plunger housing is fixed to a horizontal platform, which can
be moved up or down, thanks to a nut-and-screw arrangement.
The platform can be raised to the required height by loosening
the nut and clamped in position by tightening the nut. Once the
main nut is tightened, there may be a small shift in the position
of the plunger, which can be made up by operating the fine
adjustment knob.

The plunger is held against a light spring load to ensure that it makes a firm contact with the workpiece while the reading is being taken. The
display unit comprises all the electronics. It consists of a needle moving over a circular scale, several knobs for range selection, zero setting
and other adjustments, and light indicators to display the inspection results. To start with, the standard, which may be a master component
or a slip gauge, is loaded below the plunger and a light contact is made. The appropriate range is selected. The range may vary from micron
to millimetre levels. The user has to select the range depending on the level of tolerance required. Now, the zero setting knob is operated to
set the scale to read zero
 Surface Roughness
• Generally components are subjected to several machining operations for producing required geometrical surfaces.

• But it is not practically possible to produce a component in exact dimensions due to various factors like machine vibrations,
nature of workpiece, method of operations, tool conditions and skill of the labourers etc.

• The wear resistance, fatigue resistance, corrosion resistance, hardness, etc., are some of the most important
characteristics of the component which are influenced by surface texture.

• The surface irregularities are normally expressed in terms of surface roughness values.
 Surface Roughness
• The surface texture is defined as the regular (or) irregular
surface spacings which tend to form a pattern on the
surface.

• Types of Irregularities The irregularities are classified as,

(a) Primary texture (or) Roughness

(b) Secondary texture (or) Waviness

• Roughness:
Surface Roughness
The American Society of Tool and Manufacturing Engineers
(ASTME) defines roughness as the finer irregularities in the
surface texture, including those irregularities that result from an
inherent action of the production process. Roughness spacing is
the distance between successive peaks or ridges that constitute
the predominant pattern of roughness. Roughness height is the
arithmetic average deviation expressed in micrometres and
measured perpendicular to the centre line.

.
• Waviness:
Surface Roughness
It is the more widely spaced component of surface texture.
Roughness may be considered to be superimposed on a wavy
surface. Waviness is an error in form due to incorrect geometry of
the tool producing the surface. On the other hand, roughness
may be caused by problems such as tool chatter or traverse feed
marks in a supposedly geometrically perfect machine. The
spacing of waviness is the width between successive wave peaks
or valleys. Waviness height is the distance from a peak to a
valley.
 Surface Roughness
• Lay: It is the direction of the predominant surface pattern,
ordinarily determined by the production process used for
manufacturing the component. Symbols are used to
represent lays of surface pattern,

• Flaws: These are the irregularities that occur in isolation or

infrequently because of specific causes such as scratches,
cracks, and blemishes. Surface texture It is generally
understood as the repetitive or random deviations from the
nominal surface that form the pattern of the surface.
Surface texture encompasses roughness, waviness, lay,
and flaws.

• Errors of form: These are the widely spaced repetitive

irregularities occurring over the full length of the work
surface. Common types of errors of form include bow,
snaking, and lobbing
Surface Roughness
 Primary texture (or) Roughness
• The primary texture is caused, due to the short wavelength irregularities in the surface. The surface roughness is defined as
a quantitative measure of the process marks developed during the creation of the surface and other factors like the
structure of the component.

• The surface roughness is denoted by Ra. The unit of surface roughness is “µm” (micron meter (or) microns).
 Secondary texture (or) Waviness
• The secondary texture is also called as waviness. Waviness is the widely spaced component of the surface texture.

• This may be caused by various factors like spindle rotation, vibrations, tool run out, tool deflection and heat treatment etc.
• Roughness Height (or) Height of unevenness: It is the height of the irregularities with respect to a reference line. It is
measured in “mm” (or) “microns”.

• Waviness Height: Waviness height is the peak-to-valley distance of the surface profile. It is measured in “mm”.
• Lay indicates the direction of predominant surface pattern produced and it reflects the machining operation used to
produce it.
 Specification of surface texture
• As per ISO [International Organization for Standardization], the surface finish values are expressed in terms of “µm”
(micro meter (or) microns).
Specification of surface texture
 Factors affecting surface roughness
The following factors affect the surface finish during machining.

(a) The machining variables

• (i) Cutting speed

• (ii) Feed

• (iii) Depth of cut

(b) The tool geometry also influences the surface finish.

• (i) Nose radius

• (ii) Rake angle

• (iii) Side cutting-edge angle

• (iv) Cutting edge

(c) Properties of workpiece and tool materials

(d) Type of the machine tool

(e) Quality of the machine tool

 Factors affecting surface roughness
• The Ra measure is one of the most effective surface-roughness
measures. It gives general description of the height variation in the
surface.

• Figure shows a cross section through the surface. A mean line is drawn
to divide the surface in such a way that the sum of the areas above the
mean line is equal to the sum of the areas below the mean line. The
surface roughness, Ra is the sum of the absolute values of all the areas
above and below the mean line divided by the sampling length. ie, The
surface roughness value Ra is
 Methods for determining surface texture
In practice, for determining the surface texture, three major methods are used.

1. Peak to valley height method

2. The average Roughness

3. Form factor or bearing curve.

 1. Peak to valley height
✓ This method measures the maximum depth (height) of
the surface irregularities over a given sample length,
and largest value of the depth (height) is accepted as
a measure of roughness.

✓ The main disadvantage of this method is that it may

read the same hmax for two largely different texture.

✓ The value obtained would not give a representative

assessment of the surface.

✓ To overcome this, PV (Peak to Valley) height is defined

as the distance between parallel lines running parallel
to the general lay of the trace positioned so that the
length within the peaks at the top is 5% of the trace
length, and that within the valleys at the bottom is 10%
of the trace length.
 2. The Average Roughness
✓ The average roughness (Ra) is the most commonly used parameter in surface finish measurement. For measuring
average roughness, the following statistical methods are used.

✓ (a) C.L.A. Method

✓ (b) R.M.S. Method

✓ (c) Ten point height Method

a. C.L.A. Method
b. R.M.S. Method
c. Ten point height Method.
 3. Form Factor

✓ The form is the general shape of the surface, ignoring

variations due to roughness and waviness.
 Measurement of surface finish
The inspection and assessment of surface roughness of machined components are carried out by means of various
measurement techniques. The surface finish can be measured by the following methods.

(a) Surface Inspection by comparison method

(b) Direct Instrument method

 Surface Inspection by comparison method

The surface texture is assessed by supervisor either by eye (or) fingernail. To get more accurate measurement,
various techniques are used. The surface inspection by comparison method is further divided into following types.

1. Touch Inspection

2. Visual Inspection

3. Scratch Inspection

4. Surface Photographs

5. Reflected light Intensity

6. Micro Interferometer

7. Microscopic Inspection

8. Wallace surface dynamometer

 Direct Instrument method

• It is also used to measure the surface finish of the components by means of stylus type devices.

• The measurements are obtained by using stylus and the stylus motion is perpendicular to the surface to be
measured.

• The direct instrument method is further classified into four types.

(i) Stylus probe Instrument

(ii) Profilometer

(iii) Tomlinson surface meter

(iv) Taylor - Hobson Talysurf

 SCREW THREAD MEASUREMENT
• A screw thread is a helical structure used to convert rotational movement to linear movement and also used to
convert rotational torque to linear force.

• A screw thread is a ridge wrapped around a cylinder or cone in the form of helix.

• A screw thread formed on a cylinder is known as straight (or) parallel screw thread, while the one formed on a cone
is known as tapered threads.

• It is used to transmit the power and motion. The screw thread also acts as a temporary fastener.
Nomenclature of screw threads
Nomenclature of screw threads
Nomenclature of screw threads
Nomenclature of screw threads
Nomenclature of screw threads
Types of screw threads
 Measurement of screw thread
• It is necessary to measure following parameters of the screw thread to ensure the accuracy of the screw thread. These
are,

1. Major diameter

2. Minor diameter

3. Effective diameter

4. Pitch
 Measurement of major diameter: Bench micrometer
• It is a device that is used to measure the major and minor diameters
of the screw thread.

• It consists of micrometer head, measuring anvils, fiducial indicator,

box and support. The bench micrometer reading is taken from the
micrometer head. The cylindrical plug (cylindrical specimen before
thread) and cylindrical thread (Cylindrical specimen after thread) are
placed in between the two anvils, the micrometer head is tightened
and the readings are noted separately. For getting more accuracy of
result, various places of thread are kept in between anvils and the
readings are noted down.
 Measurement of minor diameter: Bench micrometer
• Similarly, the minor diameter is also measured by bench micrometer.

• But, in this case, the wedge shaped pieces are touching the root diameter and
placed in between the two anvils and then readings are noted down.

• Where, R1 is taken on the cylindrical plug (standard gauge) of minor diameter

R2 is taken across the root of the thread

✓ In this method, standard (cylindrical plug) is placed in between two

anvils, the readings are noted. Then screw thread is placed in
between the same anvils with V piece touching the root of thread and
note down readings. From this, we can determine the minor diameter
of screw thread.
Measurement of effective diameter
 Measurement of pitch
• The pitch of screw thread can be measured by following methods.

(a) Tool makers microscope

(b) Pitch measuring machine

(c) Pitch gauge

 Tool Makers Microscope
• The large Tool Maker’s Microscope (TMM) essentially consists of
base, the main lighting unit, the upright column with carrying arm
and the sighting microscope.

• The rigid cast base is resting on three foot screws by means of

which the equipment can be leveled with reference surface.

• The base carries the co-ordinate measuring table, consists of two

measuring slides; each one for directions X and Y and rotary
circular table is provided with the glass plate.

• The slides are running on precision balls in hardened guide ways

for reliable travel. Two micrometer heads each measuring range
of 0 to 25 mm permit the measuring table to move in the
directions X and Y.

• The range of movements of the carriage can be widened up to

150 mm in the X direction and up to 50 mm in the Y direction with
the use of gauge blocks.
 Tool Makers Microscope
• The rotary table is provided with 360 degrees graduation with
a minute vernier. The rotary motion is initiated by activation of
knurled knob and locked with star handle screw. Slots in the
rotary table are used for fastening different accessories and
elements. The sighting microscope is fastened to a carrier
arm with column. The carrier arm can be adjusted in height by
means of a rack and locked with star handle screw. Thread
measurment according to the shadow image permits the
column to be tilted in X direction to either side about an axis
on centre plane level. The corresponding swivel can be
adjusted with a knurled knob with a graduation.
 Tool Makers Microscope
• The work piece to be measured is placed in the path of the rays
of the lighting equipment.

• It produces a shadow image, which is viewed with the

microscope eyepiece having a suitable mark for aiming at the
next points of the objects

e.g. Threads or standard line pattern for comparison with the

shadow image of the text object is projected to a ground glass
screen. The text object is shifted or turned for measuring in
addition to the comparison of shapes.
 Measurement of effective diameter
• An effective diameter of a screw thread is the diameter of the pitch cylinder, which is coaxial with the axis of the screw
and intersects the flanks of the threads in such a way so as to make the width of threads and widths of spaces between
them equal.

• Since it is a notional value, it cannot be measured directly and we have to find the means of measuring it in an indirect
way.

• Thread measurement by wire method is a simple and popular way of measuring an effective diameter.

• Small, hardened steel wires (best-size wire) are placed in the thread groove, and the distance over them is measured
as part of the measurement process.

• There are three methods of using wires:

• One-wire

• Two-wire

• Three-wire methods.
 One-wire method
• This method is used if a standard gauge of the same dimension as the
theoretical value of dimension over wire is available. First of all, the
micrometer anvils are set over the standard gauge and the dimension is
noted down. Thereafter, the screw to be inspected is held either in hand
or in a fixture, and the micrometer anvils are set over the wire.

• Micrometer readings are taken at two or three different locations and

the average value is calculated. This value is compared with the value
obtained with the standard gauge. The resulting difference is a reflection
of error in the effective diameter of the screw. An important point to be
kept in mind is that the diameter of the wire selected should be such
that it makes contact with the screw along the pitch cylinder. The
significance of this condition will become obvious in the two-wire
method explained in the next section.
 Two-wire method
• This method gives high degree of accuracy. The effective
diameter of a screw thread is measured by placing two wires
or rods of identical diameter in between the flanks of thread.
This method is also used to measure the minor diameter of
the screw thread. Here standard specimen is placed between
wires and micrometer anvil. The readings are noted. Then
screw thread is placed between wires and micrometer anvil.
The readings are tabulated.
 Three-wire method
• This is an accurate method.

• Three wires of equal diameter are positioned in the grooves of the screw at opposite sides, such that one wire is
on one side and the other two are on the opposite side.

• By this method, it is possible to attain proper alignment, that is, the micrometer anvil faces can be perfectly
parallel to the thread axis.
 Three-wire method
• The checking of the effective diameter when screw is
measured over three wires is given here.
 Measurement of gears
• q
 Interferometry
• Interferometry is nothing but the use of optical interference to carrying out precise measurements of very small linear
dimensions. Laser Interferometer is one of the interferometers which uses laser means and electronic controls to carry
out the inspection of machine parts for straightness, parallelism, and flatness, and measurement of very small
diameters, among others, and also to Calibrate slip gauges.
 Laser Interferometer
• The fixed unit called the laser head
consists of a laser, a pair of semi-
reflectors, and two photodiodes.

• The sliding unit has a corner cube

mounted on it.

• The corner cube is a glass disk whose

back surface has three polished faces
that are mutually at right angles to each
other.

• The corner cube will thus reflect light at

an angle of 180°, regardless of the angle
at which light is incident on it.

• The photodiodes will electronically

measure the fringe intensity and provide
an accurate means for measuring
displacement.
 Laser Interferometer
• Laser light first falls on the semi-reflector P, is partially
reflected by 90°, and falls on the other reflector S.

• A portion of the light passes through P and strikes the corner

cube.

• Light is turned through 180° by the corner cube and

recombines at the semi-reflector S.

• If the difference between these two paths of light (PQRS −

PS) is an odd number of half wavelengths, then interference
will occur at S and the diode output will be at a minimum.
• On the other hand, if the path difference is an even number
of half wavelengths, then the photodiodes will register
Laser Interferometer
maximum output.

• It must have now become obvious to you that each time the
moving slide is displaced by a quarter wavelength, the path
difference (i.e., PQRS − PS) becomes half a wavelength and
the output from the photodiode also changes from maximum
to minimum or vice versa.

• This sinusoidal output from the photodiode is amplified and

fed to a high-speed counter, which is calibrated to give the
displacement in terms of millimeters.

• The purpose of using a second photodiode is to sense the

direction of movement of the slide.
✓ A D.C interferometer system mixes out of phase light beams of the same frequency whereas the A.C system mixes beams
of two slightly different frequencies, permitting the distance information to be carried on A.C. waveform.
✓ The A.C system uses a source containing two frequency components located close to each other creating a beat
phenomenon whose amplitude variation can be made much slower than the radiation frequency itself as shown in figure.
The envelope frequency is given by the difference of the two frequency components (f 1 - f 2) of the source radiation.
✓ So, an A.C laser interferometer measures mirror displacement by measuring the phase change due to the doppler effect. It
gives a much improved signal to noise ratio over amplitude modulation, as the noise sources that affect signal amplitude
have little effect on phase.
AC Laser Interferometer
AC Laser Interferometer
• The basic elements of a Michelson interferometer are laser Michelson Interferometer
source, a beam splitter (to divide and recombine the beams), a
fixed reflector and a movable reflector (cube-corner or retro-
reflectors are used).

• A light beam passes through a beam splitter, which splits the

light into two beams of equal intensity at right angles. One
beam is transmitted to the movable mirror and the other is
reflected to the fixed mirror.

• The rays are reflected back to the beam splitter from where
they are transmitted to a photodetector through an aperture. At
the photo detector, the two beams will interfere constructively
(to produce

• brightness) or destructively (to produce darkness). Whether

constructive or destructive interference occurs depends on the
number of wavelengths by which the paths of the two beams
differ.
 Michelson Interferometer

• The movable reflector is traversed along the length of an

unknown dimension. For some distances the path of the light
beam increases by 2δ. During this movement, the number of
successive occurrences of dark fringes at the photodetector is
equal to the number of wavelengths, N

2δ = Nλ

• N is obtained by counting the passing fringes, λ is known and

hence the distance δ is measured. The distance traversed by
the moving reflector between successive fringes is λ/2, which is
called the fringe interval.
 NPL Flatness Interferometer
• In this instrument, the flatness of any surface is judged by comparing with
an optical flat surface (usually the base plate of the instrument). The
system consists of

• A light source

• A condensing lens system

• Suitable table to position the work part (gauge)

• Projection optics comprising lenses and mirrors

• An optical flat.
 NPL Flatness Interferometer
• The light from a mercury vapour lamp is condensed and passed through a
green filter, resulting in a green monochromatic light source. This radiation
will now pass through a pinhole giving an intense point source of
monochromatic light. The pinhole is positioned in the focal plane of a
collimating lens, hence a parallel beam of light is projected on the face of the
gauge to be tested, which is wrung on the base plate via an optical flat. This
results in the formation of interference fringes. The fringes can be viewed
directly as the light beam carrying the image of the fringes is reflected back
and directed by 90° using a thick glass plate reflector placed at 45° to the
optical axis.
Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM)
• A coordinate measuring machine is a sophisticated measuring device used to determine the geometrical characteristics of
an object operating in a three dimensional space.

• CMMs are mechanical systems designed to move a measuring probe to determine coordinates of points on an object’s
surface.

• A typical CMM is composed of three-orthogonal axes, x, y, z operating in a three dimensional coordinate system. Each axis
has a scale system that indicates the position of that axis. After placing a workpiece on the machine table, a suspended
touch probe (operated either manually via an operator or automatically via a control system) is used to measure different
points on the workpiece.

• Each point on the workpiece is unique to the machine coordinate system.

• The machine now utilises the x, y, z coordinates of each of these discrete points to determine the size and position with
micrometer precision.

• Also the points generated can be unloaded to a computer interface where they can be analysed using modeling software
like CAD and regression algorithms for further development.
Coordinate Measuring Machine – Construction and
Operation
Coordinate Measuring Machine – Construction and
Operation
Coordinate Measuring Machine – Construction and
Operation
Coordinate Measuring Machine – Construction and
Operation
 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM): Working
• The part is placed on the worktable of the CMM at a suitable location, usually central to the machine axes to access all the
part surfaces to be inspected with the probe.

• It may be necessary to clamp the part to the worktable depending upon the size of the part and the type of probes used.

• If many similar parts are to be inspected, a reference location point is established with a reference precision cube (or)
sphere.

• The probe is moved to make contact with the surface of the part and instantaneously the coordinate positions of the probe
are accurately measured by displacement transducers associated with each of the three linear axis and recorded by the
CMM controller.

• Compensation is made for the radius of the probe tip and any limited over travel of the probe quill due to momentum is
neglected. After the probe is separated from the contact surface it returns to its neutral position.

• The dimensional and geometric elements are calculated, compared and evaluated.