Earth Science Reviewer

I. Earth's Subsystems - Consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen

anions.
System - Common oxide minerals are magnetite (Fe3O4)
and hematite (Fe2O3).
Minimum Requirements Different Characteristics ● Sulfides
of life of a Habitable Planet - Consist of a metal cation bonded to sulfides (S2−)
- Source Materials (cells) - Liquid water - They are common ore minerals along with oxides
- Energy source - Heat source
since metals form a high proportion of the
- Liquid water - Atmosphere
mineral.
● Sulfates
- Consist of a metal cation bonded to the [SO₄]²⁻.
- Consists of interrelated parts or components.
- They are common ore minerals along with oxides
Earth’s Subsystems
since metals for a high proportion of the
● Geosphere/Lithosphere minerals.
- Refers to the solid Earth. ● Halides
- Composed of naturally-occuring minerals, - Are composed of a halogen ion, such as chlorine
organic materials or natural glass called or fluorine.
rocks, and loose particles of rocks called ● Carbonates
regolith. - Are characterised by the presence of carbonic
- Includes geologic landforms such as ion (CO32).
mountains and hills. ● Native metals
● Hydrosphere - Consist of a single metal such as copper (Cu)
- Totality of Earth’s Water and gold (Au).
- Includes permanently frozen parts called the Properties of Minerals
cryosphere. Chemical Properties
- Earth is the only planet that has water in all 3 ● Crystal Structure of Minerals
phases. - Is dependent on the chemical composition of
● Atmosphere the mineral.
- Is the mixture of gases (nitrogen, oxygen, - Minerals that have similar chemical
argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor) compositions often share the same crystal
- Composed of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.9% structure
argon, 0.10% different gases Physical Properties
● Biosphere ● Cleavage and Fracture
- Includes all life forms and even organic matter - The manner in which a mineral breaks.
- Most life on Earth exists within a zone less - The tendency of a mineral to break along
than 20 km wide. planes of weakness is known as cleavage.
- Interactions between the different - Cleavage (Smooth edges) Fracture (jagged or
subsystems is most dynamic rough surface)
● Crystal Form and Habit
II. Minerals and Rocks - It forms a definite structure which
crystallises into a specific crystal form.
Minerals - It can be described: granular, tabular,
● Naturally-occuring dendritic, acicular, massive, reniform, drusy,
- Minerals exist naturally or encrusting.
● Inorganic ● Luster
- Formed through inorganic processes. - Describes the appearance of light as it is
- Excluding materials derived from living reflected off its surface.
organisms like coal. ● Colour
● Solid - Most obvious mineral property
- All liquids and gases are not considered - Not as reliable feature to identify minerals
minerals. - Can be altered by chemical impurities
● Definite Chemical Composition ● Streak
- The chemical composition should express the - Is the colour of a mineral in its powdered
exact chemical formula with the elements and form.
compounds in specific ratios. ● Hardness
● Ordered Internal Structure - Is a measurement of the strength of the
- The atoms in minerals are organised chemical bonds in its structure.
- It has a regular, repetitive geometric pattern. - Measured by scratching it with another
- Substances that fulfil all the requirements but mineral
do not have an ordered internal structure are - Mohs Scale of Hardness
called metalloids.
Diamond 10 Quartz 7 Fluorite 4 Talc 1
Composition of Minerals
● Silicates Corundum 9 Orthoclase 6 Calcite 3
- Composed primarily silicon-oxygen
tetrahedrons Topaz 8 Apatite 5 Gypsum 2
- Are the major rock forming minerals
● Density
● Oxides
- Specific gravity
Earth Science Reviewer
- It is the weight of a mineral relative to the - Waste rock (overburden) is removed
weight of an equal volume of water - 2nd cheapest method, but has the largest
● Diaphaneity environmental impact.
- transparency ● Mountaintop removal
Rocks - Removing the top of mountains or hills to
expose the minerals beneath.
Subsurface mining
- Very expensive and the most dangerous of the
methods, but has the least impact on the Earth’s
surface.
- Underground mining is done when the rocks,
minerals, our gemstones are too far underground

● You can minimise the effects of mineral

extraction through substitution, recycling,
conservation, protection, and rehabilitation of
the ecosystem.

● Natural resources management is

another way of minimising the impacts of
mineral extraction. It refers to the
management of natural resources, such as
land, water, soil, pants, and animals, with a
particular focus on how management affects
Igneous Rocks the quality of both present and future
- Are formed as magma (molten rocks) cools generations.
and solidifies
- The word “igneous” is derived from Latin to get out with surface mining.
igneus, which means “fiery” or “on fire” IV. Energy Resources
Sedimentary Rocks
- Formed by the accumulation and cementing of Renewable Resources
loose sediments. - Can be replenished or regenerated on a human
- The term is derived from the Latin sedentarius, time scale.
which means “Sitting,” as these sediments will - Renewable sources of energy include geothermal,
eventually be deposited and settle until they are flowing water, wind, solar, and biomass.
transformed into sedimentary rocks. ● Nuclear Energy
Metamorphic Rocks - The use of nuclear reactions that release
- Formed when rocks of any class are subjected nuclear energy to generate heat used in steam
to heat and pressure at depth. turbines to generate electricity.
- These processes are collectively called - Fission is the splitting of heavy atoms into
metamorphism, meaning “change in form.” lighter atoms.
- Fusion is a combination of two light atoms to
III. Mineral Resources form heavier atoms.The Bataan Nuclear Power
Plant is the first nuclear power plant in SEA.
Ore ●Geothermal Energy
- Are naturally-occurring materials that can be - An energy from the Earth’s internal heat.
profitably mined. - Geothermal gradient is the rate of change in
- It can be mineral, rock, metallic or nonmetallic temperature with depth.
High grade ores - The Philippines is the world’s second largest
- Contains high mineral content and less impurities producer of geothermal energy for power
Low grade ores generation.
- Contains low mineral content and more of ●Hydroelectric Energy
impurities - The power generated by the energy from falling
Mining water or fast running water is called
- Refers to a set of processes in which useful hydropower.
resources are withdrawn from a stock of any non- ● Wind Energy
renewable resource. - Wind energy is power generated from the wind.
- Alter the physical geography of the planet Wind turbines capture the wind's motion and
dramatically. convert it into electricity.
Types of Mining ● Solar Energy
Surface mining - Solar energy is power from the sun.
● Strip Mining ● Biomass
- The cheapest and safest method, but can - Biomass is energy from organic materials like
have a significant impact environmentally plants, wood, and waste. When burned or
on the surface. processed
- This mining is done in long, narrow strips.
● Open pit Mining Nonrenewable Resources
- Used when ore bodies lie near the surface - Cannot be replenished or regenerated on a
- Large hole exposes the ore body human time scale.
Earth Science Reviewer
- Examples of nonrenewable energy sources are - Arctic Ocean
nuclear and fossil fuels. - Southern Ocean
Fossil Fuels Freshwater Reservoirs
- Are presently the world’s primary energy source ●Glacier
- Mechanical energy was needed in agriculture - Is a permanent body of ice which consists
and transportation. Hence the gradual largely of recrystallized snow.
development of the steam engine “Newcomen ●Ice Sheets
Engine.” - Is a mass of glacial land ice extending more
- Enabled heat energy to transform into than 50,000 km²
mechanical energy. ●Permafrost
- 1880, coal powered a steam engine attached to - A soil, rock, or sediment that is frozen for
the wor;d’s first electric generator. more than 2 consecutive years is called
● Coal permafrost
- A black combustible rock that is made from Surface Water Reservoir
the remains of the plants that once grew in - This resource is harnessed for irrigation,
swamps and forests. recreation, transport, fishing, drinking, and
Process: hydropower.
1. Accumulation of plant materials in swamps ●Stream
2. Burial of the plant materials under sediment - Is a moving body of surface water that flows
layers. downslope towards sea level.
3. Compaction and heat causing the plant ● River
material under sediment layers. - Is a stream with a considerable volume and a
4. Further heat and pressure transforming peat well-defined channel.
into lignite. ●Lakes
5. Additional heat and pressure converting - Are lande inland bodies of fresh or saline
lignite into bituminous coal and eventually water.
into anthracite. ●Wetland
● Petroleum. - Marsh is a shallow wetland around lakes,
- Is derived from large quantities of streams, and oceans where grasses and
microscopic aquatic organisms such as algae reeds are the dominant vegetation.
and planktons. - Swamp is a wetland with lush trees and
- Crude oil, black in color vegetation found in low-lying areas beside
● Natural Gases slow-moving rivers,
- Is a hydrocarbon mostly made up of methane. - Estuary is a partly enclosed coastal body of
- This gas is lighter than air and is highly water where freshwater from streams meets
flammable. the saltwater from the sea.
- Clear, commonly found in association with oil ● Flood
reservoirs, with the gas either mixed with the - Is a natural event where an area that is usually
oil or buoyantly floating on top. dry is submerged underwater.
Process: ● Ground Water
1. Tiny marine organisms die and accumulate - Found in the rock and soil layers beneath the
on the ocean floor. surface.
2. The organic material is buried under layers - The largest reservoir of liquid freshwater on
of sediments, where pressure and heat Earth.
begin to build - Water-bearing rock layers called aquifers are
3. The increasing pressure and heat cause the akin to a “sponge” which holds groundwater.
organic material to kerogen - Porosity is the total amount of empty pore
4. Kerogen is converted into liquid petroleum, space in the rock.
at higher temps, petroleum breaks down - Permeability is the ability of the rock or
into natural gas. sediments to allow water to pass through it.
5. Both migrate and trapped under non-porous
layers. Groundwater Profile:
- Zone of Aeration or Unsaturated zone is mainly filled
V. Water Resources with air.
- Zone of Saturation, layer beneath the Zone of Aeration.
Earth’s Water This layer is filled with water.
- The boundary between the zone of aeration and the
Salt Water Reservoir
zone of saturation is the water table
- Saltines of saltwater is called salinity - Directly above the water table is called capillary fridge.
- The major chemical elements present in
seawater are sodium and chlorine ions which
contributes to its saltiness
● Sea
●Oceans VI. Human Activities Affecting Soil Quality and
- South Pacific Ocean Quantity
- North Pacific Ocean
- South Atlantic Ocean Soil
- North Atlantic Ocean - Is not dirt, it is a resource
- Indian Ocean
Earth Science Reviewer
- It is a main component of land resources, 6.Reducing erosion and preventing soil compaction
agriculture, and ecological sustainability. - Erosion can be prevented by keeping the ground
- Is non-renewable, finite resource which is covered and vegetated, and by channelling
generally not recoverable within a human lifespan excess surface water runoff.
Provides the following services:
1.Arable land for agriculture VII. Waste Generation Management
- Arable lands are plowable lands which Solid Waste
could be used to grow crops. - Is generally made up of objects or particles that
2.Regulating water and filtering potential pollutants accumulate on the site where they are produced.
- In the water cycle, coil plays an important 1. Municipal waste
part in absorbing water and storing it as - Includes materials that people in a community
ground water. no longer want because they are broken,
3.Nutrient cycling spoiled or no longer useful.
- Carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other 2. Agricultural waste
essential nutrients are stored, transformed, - Is a common form of waste derived from
and cycled in the soil. farming and poultry.
4.Foundation and support 3. Industrial Solid
- Soil structure provides a base for plant - Comes from industrial sources other than
roots. mining.
- Soils along the bedrock also provide 4. Mining waste
foundation and support for human shelter Is generated in three ways:
and structures such as houses and roads. - Mining, Large amongst rocks, valuable ores
5.Mineral deposits and waste materials are left outside the
- Soils are mined for their mineral content. mining site.
How Human Activities Degrade Soil Quality - Milling, Grinding and sorting of materials
1.Soil Erosion produce solid waste called tailings, which
- Causes the loss of topsoil and nutrients in are dumped and stored in ponds.
the soil. - Water that is pumped from mines flows
2.Soil Compaction from pile of waste rock or tailings that
- Reduces the amount of air, water, and contain hazardous materials.
space availab;e to roots and soil organisms
3.Desertification Methods of Waste Disposal
- Is the irreversible change of the land to such 1. Landfill
a state where it can no longer be recovered - Cheapest and most cost efficient.
for its original use. - covers waste in impermeable clay layer
- It is characterised by droughts and arid 2. Incineration
conditions as a result of human activities - Involves burning in a controlled manner
and exploitation. 3. Mulch and Compost
4.Intensive Agriculture - Simpliest method to dispose waste.
- Intensifying agriculture has increased - Using the natural process of decomposition.
machinery use, deforestation, and land 4. Source Reduction
clearing, resulting in organic matter loss, - Refers to the method of designing,
soil compaction, and damage to soil manufacturing, purchasing, using, and
properties. reusing materials so that the amount of
- Over-applications of nutrients with fertiliser waste or its toxicity is reduced.
and pesticides led to the contamination of 5. Recycling
soil and water supplies - Collecting throwaway materials and turning
5.Urbanisation them into useful products.
- The increasing population has led to the Waste Management
conversion of land to urban centers. - The most effective way to reduce waste is to
Conservation of Soil Resource reduce waste at its source.
1.Increasing soil organic matter
- Addition of new organic matter is important
in improving and maintaining soil quality.
2.Keeping the soil covered and vegetated
- Ground cover and vegetation protects the
soil.
3.Avoiding excessive tillage
- Tillage is done to loosen surface soil and
break up soil structure.

4.Managing pests and nutrient efficiently

- Efficient pest and nutrient management The Resource Cycle
requires regular testing and monitoring of soil - Is the process involving the transformation
quality. of raw material into a usable or consumable
5.Promoting crop rotation product and its disposal.
- Changing vegetation across the landscape
overtime allows the soil to recover.
Earth Science Reviewer