PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

Teacher Leadership
Objectives:

In this workshop you will gain an understanding of:

Building networks of support

Advocacy

Leading professional development

Reflecting on practice

Cultural competence

Action research

Teacher Leadership
Leadership skills are an essential part of teaching practice. Teachers must manage classrooms, develop long range
plans for their curriculum and manage a budget and set of resources to accomplish that goal. Teachers can also
fulfill leadership roles in their schools. Teachers who engage in leadership activities are engaging in professional
development for themselves that also impacts the professional growth and experiences of others in the school
community. Teachers have opportunities to be grade level and department chairs, instructional coaches,
instructional trainers, PLC leaders, participate in building leadership teams, hiring boards, serve on the school
council, and lead committees.

Teachers who serve as leaders have the opportunity to discuss and address teacher concerns with other building
leaders which has a big impact on the culture and climate of the school. Teachers can be leaders in many di erent
areas and through many di erent activities. They share a common purpose in that they all act to improve the school
community. Even schools with excellent climate and achievement scores rely on teacher leaders to maintain high
standards and find opportunities for improvement.
 Some core competencies for teacher leaders include:

Engages in reflective practice

Serves as a model for others

Self-awareness

Engages in the activities and issues of the school community

Communication

Leverages technology

Reflective Practice
A well-developed teacher will have a good knowledge of several di erent e ective strategies to use in the classroom.
Having a toolbox full of strategies is great, but teachers also need to be able to select the right tool for the job. While
many strategies can be e ective in a situation, it is often the master teacher who is most successful in choosing the
right strategy for a particular lesson for their students. Novice teachers can build skills in selecting the right tool for
the job by engaging in reflective practice.

Reflective practice is the process through which a teacher considers and challenges their own practices with an
intent to improve. When engaging in reflection, teachers should pay particular attention to issues of equity and bias,
intention and action. Intentional reflection on teaching practice adds context to a teacher’s existing knowledge and
helps develop a higher level of understanding.

In order to be e ective in reflecting on practice, a teacher must be willing to view themselves as a professional that is
willing to take risks, that is willing to be flexible, and that is willing and capable of growth. Reflective practice
requires teachers to question themselves and to be willing to find room for improvement.

Sample questions for reflective practice:

Did this lesson accomplish what I intended?

Why a particular student responds that way?

Was there an opportunity to make this lesson more culturally relevant?

Why did I respond that way?

What assumptions did I make about my students when planning this lesson and how did these beliefs
influence my instruction?

Did I make this lesson more di cult on myself than it should have been?

Building Networks
Connecting with the larger school community can be critical for teachers to be highly e ective. In order for students
to be successful they must have the support from the family and oftentimes they require support from the
community as well. Engaging the community as collaborators in improving the educational outcomes of your
students provides additional supports for the students and teachers and provides a real-life context for much of the
classroom work. When students are able to see that they are important to the community, their success will more
easily follow.

Building a network of support may seem overwhelming, but people in your community want to be involved and they
want to help.

Get the word out. Public awareness can be crucial in generating support in your community. Community
publications, local newspapers, and the school’s social media are great ways to let the community know about
the e orts in your classroom. Schools usually have several social media outlets and will be able to reach a far
wider group than your classroom social media account.

Identify a core group. You probably have already identified a couple of parents or colleagues who have
been friendly and o ered to help somehow. Identify three or four core people and engage them in
conversation about the goals for your students.

Form a purpose. Be specific with your core group about their objectives. It is helpful to develop objectives
together. When people have a clear understanding of their mission and vision they are more easily able to
identify the things that they have to o er and can bring to the table. If they have participated in developing the
mission, vision, or goals, they will have a strong investment in success. Specific goals such as “all the students
will participate in our field trip” or “all students will have mentors for the science fair” are reasonable and
challenging objectives that will motivate people to meet specific targets. If the goal of your group is too
general, such as “create a better educational experience” participants won’t have su cient direction and will
either do nothing or pursue things separately.

Engage the group in the continuous improvement cycle. Apply the cycle to your group’s purpose and keep
members involved. If your group’s purpose is that all students will have mentors to the science fair, share
monitoring, host sneak previews, and celebrate accomplishments along the way.
Advocacy
Advocacy is an integral part of the teaching and learning process. Teachers must act as advocates for their students,
bringing inequities to light and working to level the playing field for all students. Advocacy begins with teachers
being intentional about what they say. Avoid being critical of students and families when speaking to community
members, and on social media. Be intentional about communicating the inequities and the needs. Be intentional in
communicating the importance of education for all students.

Besides advocating for students, teachers should advocate for teachers. Speaking intentionally about the success
and impact of the teachers in classroom brings a positive light on the teaching profession. Teachers have the
opportunity to communicate positive experiences with members of the community when they are at the grocery
store, social engagements, and in any other casual conversations. Advocacy does not require a formal space, a blog,
or a conference. Advocacy starts with sharing positive teaching experiences during everyday conversations.

TEACHER TIP
Every post on social media adds to your “brand”. Increase positive and uplifting posts
about your work life and avoid negative posts. Not only are negative posts a bad reflection
on the profession, but they can negatively impact your professional reputation and impact
your attractiveness to potential employers.

Leading Professional Development

Teachers are extremely busy professionals who have little time left over in their day after teaching, planning, grading,
and completing paperwork. Any professional development that is required of a teacher must be engaging and
 worthwhile. As you begin to assume the role of a teacher leader, you are likely to be asked to provide a professional
development to a group of teachers. Teaching teachers can be a great opportunity to share your expertise and help
your colleagues grow, but care should be taken to design a professional development that will engage adult learners.

There are some di erent challenges when working with adults. One challenge is that you lose the “authority figure”
status that you have when you teach kids. Adults are more critical and less forgiving. They are likely to challenge new
information. When working with adults you are not working with a “blank slate” trying to impart knowledge, you are
working to change the practices of people with di erent levels of experience. When we are engaging in professional
development we are asking people to change what they are already doing, we aren’t really asking them to learn
something new. In order to get someone to change we have to provide good reason and incentive to do so.

Adult learners need relevance. As they challenge new information, they make comparisons to the knowledge and
experience they already hold. Adult learners need the opportunity to evaluate the new information if they are going
to adopt it into practice. Schedule time in your professional development for your adult students to evaluate
information through a writing exercise, or through conversation with a group.

Some accommodations must be made when working with adult learners. Adults have rich lives and responsibilities
and it is unreasonable to expect them to keep their cell phones up and ask for permission to go to the restroom. The
level of independence of the adult learner requires a di erent type of classroom management. When you begin a
professional development with adults it is important to set clear expectations. Are you planning scheduled
bathroom breaks? What’s the cellphone policy? Is the training long enough that it would be worth developing group
norms? Adults are usually very cooperative when they know what the expectations are, and when expectations are
reasonable.

Cultural Competence
While some school communities look homogeneous, they usually encompass a diverse student population. E ective
teachers display cultural competence. Cultural Competence refers to the teacher’s ability to understand and
 appropriately respond to students’ and families’ unique cultural variables. Cultural competence refers to factors
such as race, ethnicity, gender identity, language, country of origin, religion, and disability. While this list includes a
lot of indicators, it is not exhaustive. There is no one book or resource that allows a teacher to become culturally
competent. Teachers develop this skill but acquiring knowledge over time, asking questions, and engaging in
reflective practice. The most important thing to do to develop cultural competence is to practice intentional
reflection on your practice and its implication for di erent cultures.

Research
The teaching field is in a state of perpetual study. Researchers and practitioners alike are eager to collect data and
share information on existing and new strategies for di erent populations of students. It is critical to the betterment
of educational practice for teachers to engage in di erent types of research and communication in order to advance
the field and to improve their own practice.

Action Research
For full time teachers, the most common type of research is action research. This is research in which the person
conducting the research is the one taking the action. You are taking data on your own actions. Action research can
be done by an individual teacher or by a collaborating team of teachers. This intent of action research is to improve
practice.

Action research can be divided into seven di erent steps:

1. Clarifying theories

2. Selecting a focus

3. Identifying research questions

4. Collecting data

5. Analyzing data

6. Reporting results

7. Taking informed action

You will notice that the process of action research is very similar to the continuous improvement cycle that guides
the PLC and the School Improvement process. The desire for ongoing improvement in one’s practice and the
success of students is pervasive in education.

Once teachers have engaged in research, it is helpful to share results with others. Sharing information with your PLC
and school community is a great start. There are many professional conferences dedicated to teacher presentations
on the data collected in their classrooms. Sharing results in these ways develop essential leadership skills and can
positively impact teacher performance and evaluation ratings.
Review Questions:
How do you approach teaching adults di erently than young people?

How are action research and the school improvement process similar?

How can you be an everyday advocate?

How do you build a network of support?

How does reflective practice develop a teacher?

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of Teacher Leadership

Barbara, B. and Schrum, L. Every Teacher a Leader. Corwin Press, 2017. Available from Amazon.com

Crowther, F. Developing Teacher Leaders: How Teacher Leadership Enhances Student Success. Corwin Press, 2009.
Available from Amazon.com

Gabriel, J. How to Thrive as a Teacher Leader. ASCD, 2015. Available from Amazon.com

Johnson, J. and Leibowitz, S. The Coach Approach to School Leadership: Leading Teachers to Higher Levels of
E ectiveness. ASCD, 2017. Available from Amazon.com

Krovetz, M. Collaboratvie Teacher Leadership: How Teachers can Foster Equitable Schools. Available from
Amazon.com

Lieberman, A. and Miller, L. Teacher Leadership. Jossey Bass, 2005. Available from Amazon.com

Murphy, J. Connecting Teacher Leadership and School Improvement. Corwin Press, 2005. Available from
Amazon.com

Reeves, D. Reframing Teacher Leadership. ASCD, 2011. Available from Amazon.com

 W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

The Characteristics of Successful Teachers Part I

Objective
In this workshop you will learn how to identify characteristics that are common to successful teachers. You can then
adapt this list to create your own list of the characteristics that you think distinguish exceptional educators. You can use
your list throughout your career to help yourself grow into the teacher that you would like to be. This lesson will describe
the first eight characteristics of a successful teacher. Please note that these characteristics are in no particular order.

1. Maintains Class Control

2. Provides Deliberate Instruction, Direction and Support

3. Exhibits Content Expertise

4. Masters Teaching Techniques

5. Continues to Learn

6. Organizes Resources, Classroom Procedures, and Lesson Plans

7. Maintains Current and Accurate Records

8. Maintains Clear and High Expectations for Students

The video case study of this workshop will highlight a few select characteristics and explore them through the perspective
of students, teachers, and principals as well as our workshop creators, Mike Kelley who is the former Director of Teacher
Preparation at American Board, and Dr. Glen Moulton, American Board’s former Resident Teaching Expert.

Introduction
When I was a beginning teacher, I studied teachers who had more experience and noted their strengths and weaknesses. I
found that there was a great deal of variability in people’s styles and approaches to teaching. I resolved to learn as much
as I could from these teachers in order to benefit from their experience. Successful teachers are a library of information
and teaching techniques. They o er real answers to the di cult questions new teachers will encounter. As a newcomer to
the profession, I learned to humble myself and appreciate the teaching tips I received.
In a sense, my ambitious approach to learning was more of a survival tactic than a personal drive for more knowledge. I
knew that I had to advance beyond the novice teacher category rapidly before the students took over the classroom. I
also realized that these teachers had been in my situation as a first year teacher and were very willing to impart their
knowledge to help me get through the di cult first days. Rather than reinventing the wheel, beginning teachers are wise
to seek out successful teachers in their field to serve as mentors. These relationships create a professional network and
serve both participants in positive ways.

One of the most valuable lessons I learned is that there is more to the profession of teaching than simply being an
excellent classroom teacher. Although individual styles and approaches vary, there are common characteristics that are
shared by all successful teachers.

In addition to the obvious traits of intelligence and a love for children, successful teachers are patient, kind and creative.
They present a positive attitude every day that exudes confidence and adds to the professionalism of their classrooms.
Their students benefit from a caring and challenging learning environment that places students at the center of lesson
planning. Their understanding of the craft is current, time-tested, and comprehensive. They are also aware that teaching
is a profession and not merely a job. There are unwritten requirements beyond the scope of the job description and a
broad range of qualities and abilities are needed.

It is useful for beginning teachers to create their own list of desirable teacher characteristics and to use this list to
continually modify and refine their professional conduct. You should start by reflecting on all of the teachers you have
had in your own academic career and identify those who exemplified excellence in teaching. If you were to line them up
and note similar characteristics, which qualities would they be most likely to have in common? Would attributes such as
intelligence, social awareness, and a love of learning be on your list? Most people would agree that these characteristics
are found in all good teachers. However, there are other less obvious areas of commonality as well.

This workshop will take a perceptive look at the teaching profession and define an initial list of the characteristics of
successful teachers. Examine the following characteristics to see if they belong on your list.

1. Maintains Class Control

Students rely on teachers to establish and maintain a safe and PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
orderly learning environment that is welcoming, inclusive, and A teacher must establish an orderly classroom
allows each student to achieve his or her maximum potential. before meaningful instruction can proceed.
The need for student discipline requires the teacher to develop
a set of rules that establish boundaries for behavior and to enforce them in a fair and consistent manner with appropriate
consequences for misbehavior. Parents also rely on teachers to instill good citizenship skills in their children.
Furthermore, administrators expect teachers to demonstrate adequate classroom control as the first step in providing
meaningful instruction for all students. Given the degree of importance attached to this objective, how do successful
teachers implement and enforce their code of conduct?
Successful teachers prepare for classroom disruptions before they begin to occur. It is important to prepare for student
misbehavior ahead of time rather than trying to create a hasty response in front of a class full of students. It is helpful to
imagine likely scenarios of student disruption before the school year begins and to create a list of classroom rules to
manage them as they take place.

It is helpful for new teachers to seek the advice of veteran teachers, guidance counselors, and administrators as they
create a set of rules. They will provide di erent insights and perspectives that may not be obvious to a beginning teacher.
In addition, administrators can list those items that are considered required rules so that the teacher can remain
consistent with the overarching framework of the school’s rules.

Along with creating a list of rules, teachers should include PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
consequences for breaking each rule. Both the rule and the Although student disruptions during the first
consequence should be presented together during the first week of school are infrequent, they do occur.
week of school. Students may help the classroom teacher to Successful teachers anticipate problems and
construct the rules and consequences as part of the have their classroom rules in e ect during the

introductory events that occur during the first week of school. first few days of school.

Student-constructed rules guarantee a degree of student acceptance and minimize misinterpretation. Teachers should
begin the process of clearly establishing the class rules as early in the school year as possible.

The best way to prevent problems associated with student misbehavior is to eliminate or minimize the opportunity for
them to happen. A well-constructed, student-centered lesson plan is the best tactic that a teacher can employ to avert
student discipline situations. If students are actively engaged in the learning process for the full amount of class time,
they are less likely to be o task. Successful teachers keep their students busy during the two crucial moments in which
most disruptions take place, namely the beginning and the end of the lesson. Lessons that do not have an e ective
beginning fail to get students immediately focused on the learning process. Likewise, lessons that conclude before the
end of the time period create unstructured minutes that present opportunities for students to misbehave.

TEACHER TIP
If students enjoy what they are doing, they are more inclined to participate and remain
focused on the lesson.

Maintaining order in a classroom is easy if rules and consequences have been clearly identified. Once students are aware
of the rules, the teacher simply needs to reference them in order to control most student o enses. The di cult task for
some teachers lies in learning to enforce the rules consistently and without bias. This is usually not because a teacher
wishes to overly punish a troubled child. Rather, the dilemma occurs when a normally respectful student does something
o ensive and out of the ordinary. Should the child be punished according to the rules? Should all rules be enforced
equally for all students, or is there a way to use the rules to help improve each student’s conduct in class?
Discipline can be seen as either a product or a process. Teachers who view discipline as a product see a rule as a
constant and enforce each rule, every time, for all students without regard to the typical conduct or history of the
o ending student. These teachers focus on the rule and not the student. For those who follow this philosophy, all
students who break the same rule can be expected to face identical consequences, regardless of whether it was the
individual student’s first or twenty-first violation.

In contrast, teachers who view discipline as a process envision the students on a continuum of learning that includes
correct deportment. They focus on the student and not the rule. They do not expect students to always present perfect
behavior but look for growth over time. Teachers with this philosophy may look more deeply into the reason(s) for the
o ense and the number of times the student has broken a rule. As a result, students who commit the same o ense may
receive di erent consequences. For instance, a student who has an unblemished record and does something out of
character is likely to get a softer judgment than a student who has a history of breaking rules, even if they are both
charged with breaking the same rule.

Successful teachers use a combination of both philosophies that help students to engage in better behavior over time.
For a more complete discussion of student discipline, refer to the workshop on Classroom Management.

Law and order must prevail in every classroom every day. Teachers are responsible for establishing the boundaries and
enforcing them in a fair and consistent manner. Failure to do so can lead to increasing amounts of disruption from
students. It is also inconsistent with the teacher’s task of creating good citizens. Successful teachers create lessons that
minimize student disturbances and enforce class rules and consequences in a manner that improves the value of the
learning experience.

THE BIG PICTURE

I once worked with two principals with dramatically di ering philosophies on student discipline.On one
occasion, one of the principals stopped two female athletes after school on their way to take the team bus to a
game. He confiscated their iPods because it was against the rules to have them on during school. There was
some question as to whether the girls were actually listening to them or just planning to listen to them while on
the bus. Neither child had ever been in trouble before. I inquired why the penalty was so severe and the
principal responded by saying that a rule is a rule and that taking care of the small ones ensures that there are
not too many big ones.A di erent principal had two students in his o ce for creating a disturbance in the
hallway. He gave one student a warning and assigned three days of detention to the other student. When I asked
about the di ering consequences, he stated that one child had never been in trouble before, while the other
child was frequently sent to the administrator’s o ce. He indicated that by personalizing the punishment,
students who needed a stronger consequence received it while others received a gentler approach with the
hope that a small amount might go a long way.
2. Provides Deliberate Instruction, Direction and Support
Successful teachers capitalize on the fact that they are the single best resource to promote student learning. They plan
lessons and masterfully coordinate the events within the classroom. The successful implementation of a lesson plan is
determined by how well the teacher directs the students through the details of the plan and provides support for
students in need. A well executed lesson is the fulfillment of the plan. An incomplete or unproductive lesson will not
meet the original intent of the curriculum and the content will likely need to be revisited.

TEACHER TIP
Monitoring students’ progress and directing them as needed, while providing support and
encouragement, is a fundamental duty of a teacher.

A well-structured lesson is one in which students know what they are supposed to do (agenda), what they are supposed
to learn (objective), and receive the full support of the teacher in the process. Teachers may select from a variety of
instructional strategies to achieve this goal. One example is a direct approach where students proceed in incremental
steps under the guidance of the teacher to a solution of a mathematical problem. Another example is a student-directed
lesson where students receive the procedure for the activity and proceed to complete it at their own pace in an individual
or group format. In both scenarios, the teacher is providing direction and support, but from di erent angles.

When a lesson is not well structured, on the other hand, the result is pandemonium. In this case, without teacher
leadership and support, students are allowed the freedom to create their own learning experience. While this idea
sounds promising in principle, most students do not have the maturity or the technique to teach themselves in a non-
directive setting. Unstructured classes rapidly become non-productive, discipline problems occur more frequently, and
student accomplishment falls to low levels. However, there is an instance where an unstructured class may provide
instructional insights. If a teacher is trying to observe student tendencies such as emergent leadership, subgroup
formation, or positive habits, an unstructured class may be useful as a temporary strategy. It is important to proceed with
caution, however, as unstructured classes have a tendency to rapidly spiral out of control.

TEACHER TIP
An unstructured lesson may generate excessive noise and movement that creates a
distraction for students in a neighboring class. Also, the students may exit the class at the
end of the period so distracted in their thinking and deportment that the next teacher
cannot accomplish the goals of the lesson.

For mature functioning classes, the teacher may choose to allow the students to assist in developing and implementing
the lesson. When given the curricular objectives, students are often able to develop their own plan for accomplishing
them. In doing so, they are more likely to work with concentration and need less moment-to-moment support from the
teacher. In such a case, it may appear that the teacher is withholding direction. However, the teacher is still providing
direction by confining the student-generated plan to only those curricular items that are included in the activity. The
teacher may also direct the session by clearly explaining limitations, procedures, and concepts before the students begin
to work. As a result, the teacher provides the overall direction for class procedure and remains free to support those
students or groups who cannot progress further without direct assistance.

Successful teachers provide their classrooms with deliberate, well-planned instruction, leadership, direction and support
in ways that are most beneficial to their students. A lack of structure, however, can lead to a variety of problems.

3. Exhibits Content Expertise

Parents send their children to school in order to learn from content experts. It is expected, on the one hand, that teachers
will have a well-rounded education with appropriate levels of understanding in all areas. This enables them to serve as
models of well-educated people. Likewise, it is important and expected that teachers are especially knowledgeable and
proficient in the subject areas in which they teach.

The wealth of knowledge that teachers accumulate over the years helps them to transfer understanding to their students.
Teachers become content experts through two primary means, either through learning from others, such as in school, or
by learning on the job as an element of professional training. Those who achieve their formal training by going into
teaching directly after their college preparation possess a substantial amount of book learning and a strong background
in facts and research within the subject area. However, they often lack the practical knowledge that is characteristic of
teachers who have also applied their knowledge on the job.

TEACHER TIP
Neither college preparation nor on-the-job training adequately prepare a teacher for the
minute details inherent in most curricula and in student questions. Those who retain a
lifelong learning attitude continually increase their knowledge as they teach. All teachers
who enter the profession should make it their goal to be and remain content experts in
their subject area.

Teachers who select the profession as a second career bring di erent insights and knowledge sets to it. Like college-
trained teachers, they too possess a wealth of knowledge. Second-career teachers are able to draw upon their practical
experiences as professionals to apply principles and concepts in their lesson plans. They are also able to enhance
learning through telling stories and weaving elements of their real world experiences into their instruction. However,
second-career teachers may not have the broad view of the subject area that a college-trained teacher possesses.

Both types of teachers are well prepared to enter the classroom and no one method of preparation is preferred over
another. Ideally, the varying types of teacher preparation form the foundation for cooperative teacher groups. The varying
strengths of a mixed group produce di erent insights and experiences that teachers can translate into enrichment for
their classrooms. Of course, a teacher who has both college training and work experience has the best of both worlds.

Teachers who are not content experts struggle to provide an equivalent quality of instruction to those who possess the
appropriate expertise. Content experts know how to make a di cult concept easier for students to understand. They are
able to provide simplified explanations that build to a larger, unified concept and easily break down di cult concepts
into smaller, more understandable units. They resolve student problems at an early stage before they become a source of
frustration.

A successful teacher is skilled at presenting lessons that enable students to understand and remember lesson objectives.
Students must understand the instruction before they can retain it correctly in their long-term memories and be able to
use and apply it at a later time. The physics teacher who is able to reduce the lift o of the latest space vehicle to a basic
comprehension of Newton’s Laws of Motion simplifies the process so that more students can understand and remember
the event. Similarly, the reading teacher who systematically demonstrates pre- and post-reading strategies enables more
students to read for comprehension at an earlier age. Further, the skilled foreign language teacher who monitors student
progress and corrects improper student pronunciations before they become engrained removes obstacles for future
understanding and remembering.

TEACHER TIP
Content experts are sensitive to the needs of teachers who are teaching outside their field
of expertise. Consider working with these teachers on a regular basis on lesson planning
and helping them gain insight into the instructional subtleties of the subject.

Content experts interweave related concepts within the instruction and possess a wealth of information about historical
and other events that embellish a subject beyond the constraints of the discipline. Relating a real-life episode or
recounting a special technique engages students in such a way that they are better able to remember the concepts. The
teacher who links the fungus that caused the Irish Potato Famine with the massive numbers of Irish immigrants that
came to certain sectors of the United States, and the resulting e ects on economics, politics, and culture, provides
numerous linkages for their students. The more cross-links students can form, the better they are able to connect prior
learning from a variety of disciplines, and the more solidified and complete the concept becomes for them.

Teachers assigned to instruct a class outside of their expertise take on the extra burden of providing amenities of this
nature to their students. It is di cult for a teacher who is not a content expert to accomplish these enhancements
without extra e ort and outside assistance. It is helpful in this case to become a member of a planning group for your
subject area.

THE BIG PICTURE

 I have found that it is di cult to know more about a particular subject than a teacher who has taught that
subject for a number of years. I knew a chemistry teacher who astonished his students with his knowledge of
the Periodic Table of Elements. I asked him how he was able to learn and remember all of this detailed
information. He answered by saying that he had taught these concepts several times a day for a number of
years. As a result of the repeated exposure to each lesson, he was able to add more to his immediate recall
memory each year. To the students he appeared to be a genius.

4. Masters Teaching Techniques

A strong working knowledge of pedagogy, or the art of teaching, is essential for all teachers. Teachers must be able to
present objectives in ways that construct understanding and enhance retention in order to promote their students’
learning. There are many intelligent people who fail to attain excellence in teaching because they do not know how to
express their knowledge in ways that students will understand. Successful teaching can be, and often is, measured by
how much students have learned as a result of their teacher’s instruction. It is not measured by how much their teacher
knows at the outset. Knowing how to teach is as important as knowing what to teach.

Pedagogy is the “how” of teaching. Successful teachers know that one size does not fit all and there is no one method of
teaching that will reach every child or work with each concept. That is why it is essential for all teachers to have a working
inventory of strategies and techniques that can be employed to craft a lesson. These techniques can also be used to
di erentiate instruction for the range of students in the classroom. Skilled teachers modify tactics as needed while
planning their lessons and make adjustments during lessons to maximize their e ectiveness.

TEACHER TIP
There is a degree of experimentation that takes place as new teachers learn when to
employ the many strategies that are available to them. Beginning teachers should not
become demoralized because a lesson did not work as well as planned. They should learn
from the event in order to achieve success the next time.

There are many di erent teaching techniques. Each technique has positive and negative aspects and certain techniques
lend themselves better to particular situations than others. For instance, the lecture technique is useful for providing
information to the whole class at one time. On the other hand, as part of lesson planning, the cooperative group model is
e ective in promoting student interaction and motivation. Successful teachers know under which conditions to use
certain teaching techniques to get the maximum benefit for their students.

The intent of the curriculum may also determine the style of the lesson. If the curricular objective states that all students
will be able to sew a button onto a fabric, then the teacher knows that the lesson must allow time for students to practice
this skill. The teacher then has to decide if it will be an individual or small group practice session (or both). In the same
manner, elementary students asked to observe and measure the growth of a plant will require a planting activity to
accomplish this goal.

One other consideration is the preferred learning modality of the students. It is likely that in every class there exists a
plurality of preferred modalities. Some students prefer to learn by reading, others by listening, and others by doing. The
teacher must identify the needs of their students and construct lessons that capitalize on their strengths while
encouraging growth in other areas.

For most beginning teachers, one of the more challenging PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
aspects of teaching is the need to adjust the level of instruction Be aware that the first quiz is often too di cult
to the learning level of their students. In most cases, new and demanding for students to complete
teachers present instruction at a level beyond the capacity of successfully.
the students, in terms of both the degree of di culty and the
amount of content presented. It may take several quizzes and thoughtful reflection on the part of the teacher before the
teacher can more appropriately align instruction with the developmental level of the students.

A more complete discussion on the “how to” of teaching is found in the Pedagogy and Instructional Design Workshop.

5. Continues to Learn
Successful teachers are lifelong learners. There are always new insights, facts, and strategies for them to learn and to
implement. Their natural curiosity and desire for knowledge separate them from those who have a limited desire for
personal growth. As a result, it is not likely that a successful teacher will teach the same class in the same manner twice in
a row.

How does a teacher become a lifelong learner? There are several ways to remain current with the thoughts and ideas of
the day. It is a good idea to start with other teachers who share the same vision. Within each school, there are pockets of
teachers who are willing to share ideas and resources. In some cases, they form learning communities, either through
their own e orts or through their administration. Learning communities serve to provide encouragement and
accountability for teachers wishing to continue their learning.

TEACHER TIP
If formal learning communities do not exist within your school, you may wish to create a
formal or informal learning community to unite teachers who hold a common purpose.
Most administrative teams welcome this type of teacher organization and will assist in the
e ort.
There are professional organizations that support teachers in extending their learning in addition to providing other
benefits. ASCD (The Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development) is an example of an organization that
provides samples of instructional items that support all subject areas. In most states, there are statewide associations
that link with the national organization, such as the Maryland Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development
(MASCD) that partners with ASCD. Other national teachers’ organizations include the American Federation of Teachers
(AFT) and the National Education Association (NEA).

In addition, there are subject-specific associations that represent each discipline, such as the National Council for the
Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM). The purpose of NCTM is to promote mathematics education and to provide teachers
with the latest thinking in the continued development of new trends in mathematics education. They also provide
teachers with new techniques and suggestions for teaching selected mathematical concepts. Statewide organizations,
such as the Hoosiers Association of Science Teachers (HASTI) connect with the national organizations.

There are numerous national, state, and local organizations that are dedicated to promoting education and teacher
development. New teachers are advised to survey the opportunities that exist in their area and consider joining one or
more of the many professional organizations that are designed to help them.

TEACHER TIP
Professional organizations are always in search of classroom teachers to serve in various
capacities. Active engagement in these organizations will provide learning opportunities
for participating teachers and increase their sphere of influence.

Once a teacher becomes a member of a professional organization, he or she receives their periodical or newsletter,
invitations to serve on professional committees, and announcements of conventions and conferences. The periodicals
and newsletters are designed to keep the teacher informed and up-to-date on current information. They often feature
items submitted by other teachers that are immediately useful and easily implemented in the classroom. These
organizations are an excellent way to remain current and to learn from resources that extend beyond those available at
the school level.

Professional committees draw their membership from working teachers representing a variety of backgrounds. The
committees are charged with a purpose that may involve resolving a problem or providing direction for future growth.
Professional committees serve a vital function for the profession and allow classroom teachers to network outside of their
school and become active in their profession.

Conferences and conventions are generally multi-day events PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT

that are designed to provide resources to every teacher. Every teacher who participates on a committee
Subject-specific conferences provide current knowledge and sponsored by a professional organization is
useful techniques for teachers of the subject area. Networking exposed to information and insights beyond the
opportunities are enhanced since every teacher has the same normal reach of the classroom. Their experience
teaching assignment. Conferences that are more generic in is multiplied when they use their new
nature tend to be larger and allow participating teachers to see information to serve as leaders in sta

the interconnectedness of various subject areas. In both cases, development activities.

vendors of educational products are present and showcase their newest merchandise. It is interesting to note that the
vendors are usually very current in their thinking. Their products express new ideas and ways of teaching and serve as a
means for teachers to update their knowledge. They will be more than willing to demonstrate the usefulness of their
product. Attending conferences and conventions is a great way to remain current and to become recharged and
rejuvenated. To the extent possible, new teachers should try to attend them on a regular basis.

THE BIG PICTURE

I have found great value in attending conventions and participating in professional committees. Some of my
best classroom strategies stemmed from a hallway conversation that occurred at one or more of these events.
My networking increased significantly and several relationships that I established are still flourishing.

Teachers who remain lifelong learners model the importance of continual learning for their students. They advance the
profession by introducing new ideas and strategies that may then be transferred to other teachers. The continued
improvement of the profession makes teaching a dynamic and stimulating experience. Teachers who continue to learn
inject energy into education, and usually themselves, through the process.

6. Organizes Resources, Classroom Procedures, and Lesson Plans

Successful teachers know where to obtain particular educational resources. The educational resource may be an item the
teacher wishes to incorporate into a lesson plan, such as a quote that solidifies a philosophical argument or a video that
illuminates the architecture of the Renaissance. It may also be a piece of equipment that either the teacher or the
students will have to use in order to complete the activity, such as a thermometer or a volleyball. The resource may also
be a person, such as a guest speaker for a health class or a judge for an art contest.

TEACHER TIP
Successful teachers are able to pull material from a variety of sources, such as college
notes and famous quotes, to illustrate curricular concepts and improve student retention
and understanding.

To that end, successful teachers are also organized and are methodical in their methods of filing and classifying
information. This enables them to produce a superior lesson because they are able to find instructional items when
needed, easily manipulate lesson plans to improve a learning experience, and maximize the e cient use of student time
with standardized classroom procedures. Disorganized teachers are condemned to spend needless amounts of time
looking for items that are needed for a lesson, are disadvantaged when adjusting lesson plans to provide a better match
for students, and waste instructional time in recreating classroom procedures every day.

Those who spend an inordinate amount of time searching for resources have less time available for other things,
including a life outside of teaching. Sometimes very disorganized teachers fail to find the resources they have in mind.
When this happens, their students are deprived of a learning experience, and the teacher loses the opportunity for a
great lesson. To prevent this from happening, it may be helpful to catalogue educational resources by curricular concept
so they can be quickly referenced. Remember that teachers who are organized are more productive than those who fail to
achieve a sense of order.

THE BIG PICTURE

I once knew a teacher who was a legend in his time. His o ce contained piles of books and papers that
extended as high as he could reach from every available space in the room including the floor, desk, and chairs.
A narrow pathway between the stacks led from the door into the middle of the room. Interestingly, this teacher’s
fame was based on the phenomenon that he could find everything that he was looking for within minutes. He
knew exactly in which pile to look and whether the item was at the bottom, middle or top of the stack.However,
it is not a good idea to maintain a cluttered o ce like this. It is a fire hazard and does not create a professional
image.

The lesson plans of successful teachers are always flexible and open to change. After reflecting on teaching a particular
sequence of lessons, a teacher may readjust the contents of a lesson plan and/or the sequence of plans within a unit to
better suit the students’ needs. The teacher may also decide that a component of one lesson plan might work better
when combined with another lesson. It is not unusual for a teacher to decide to add or modify lesson plans to help create
a bridge between students’ prior knowledge and current objectives, keep the lessons current, or to use them with specific
subpopulations that may need additional help.

TEACHER TIP
Keeping lesson plans on a USB drive with a back-up saved in your email or on a cloud
storage service is a helpful technique. If this is not practical, a three-ringed binder with one
lesson on each page, in sync with the curriculum, also works well. With this level of
organization, the teacher is able to find items by topic.

For instance, a teacher may decide to add a directed dramatic reading before allowing the students to proceed with a
more casual reading of a similar passage or that performing an experiment before the supporting content rather than
after it makes it more memorable. With organized lesson plans it is much easier to make additions, deletions, and
modifications to whole lessons, parts of lessons, or lesson sequences.
Organized lesson plans provide another benefit to teachers and students. The internal consistency of a lesson plan
serves as a road map and prevents the teacher from rambling through lessons in no particular order. Lessons have an
articulated beginning, middle, and end that facilitate student mastery of the lesson objective(s). Following an organized
plan assures the teacher that the necessary elements of a lesson are presented in the correct order with appropriate
emphasis and repetition. In addition, when lesson plans contain internal consistency, students are able to follow the train
of thought established by the curriculum. This makes the progression of ideas more logical and easier to comprehend. It
also simplifies note-taking and promotes connections between prior learning, current instruction, and related topics to
allow students to construct meaning. Internal organization of lesson plans aids the teacher in maintaining a directed
focus during a lesson and assists students in their development of knowledge.

TEACHER TIP
If relevant for your grade level, collect student notes on a regular basis early in the school
year. This will show you if students are actively participating in class and provide insight
into how they are recording the daily instruction. Do the notes resemble the teacher’s
lesson plan and the curricular intent? If not, the teacher may have to make changes to the
presentation of curricular materials.

The amount of information, resources, and general knowledge that a teacher needs to assemble for instructional
purposes is staggering. Classifying and cataloguing resources is helpful in referencing useful instructional items. Teachers
who utilize e ective organizational strategies are able to maintain depth and richness within their instruction and to
eliminate the tremendous stress that accompanies a disorganized routine. Teachers without a plan are often condemned
to work harder, get behind in their work, and left with superficial lesson plans. They also tend to feel more stressed while
fulfilling their duties. Remember that students will arrive at the classroom ready to proceed regardless of whether the
teacher is prepared or not. Organization improves the e ciency and proficiency of teachers while disorganization wastes
valuable time and opportunities.

THE BIG PICTURE

I have seen teachers that come prepared to class and present the instruction in such a way that the lesson flows
smoothly and any notes I take make sense later during review. Then again, I have seen teachers who arrive to
class as if teaching were an after-thought or an imposition. They appear to instruct with whatever random
thoughts come into their heads during the class period.It is obvious when a teacher is well organized and
prepared to teach. Students learn more from teachers who are organized and work harder for less gain when
the teacher is not.

7. Maintains Current and Accurate Records

Teachers are expected to maintain current and accurate records for a number of reasons. Typically, they are responsible
for recording such items as student attendance, grades, and discipline referrals. In addition, teachers usually have to
maintain state and local forms recording free and reduced lunches, families living on federal property, and remediation
e orts for high stakes assessments. In almost every case, anything that a teacher is required to record can also be
subpoenaed as an exhibit in a court of law. For example, attendance records are a good source of evidence in a trial that
attempts to place a student at the scene of a crime.

Federal and state forms are a high priority because they a ect the amount of funding received by the school through the
school system or district. On the local level, attendance records and student grades are the items most often reviewed by
local authorities and parents. Parents have the right to see how their child is scored and how grades are calculated based
on data entries. Thus, it is very important to keep accurate records.

For items in the category of daily record keeping, such as attendance and grades, successful teachers establish an
organized procedure for collecting and maintaining accurate records. One method is to create a seating chart for each
class period and record absences as part of the clerical duties at the beginning of class while the students are completing
their introductory activity. A seating chart is a graphic or illustration of the room including the student seats. The teacher
either assigns or allows students to select their permanent seat and this location is recorded on the seating chart. From
that time forward, the teacher simply observes empty seats and notes in a permanent record each student that is absent.

A related record that is also important is the documentation of PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT

students who are excused to leave class for any purpose, such When conducting an investigation of an o ense
as going to their locker or to the lavatory. Unsupervised that happens during class, one of the first items
students in a hallway present opportunities for misbehavior to needed is the record of students that the
take place. Wise teachers limit the total number of students teachers allowed out of class during that time

who may leave the class for a given period and the number of period. It confounds the investigation when a
teacher does not maintain accurate and current
times a particular student leaves class for a given number of
records. This situation becomes magnified if the
weeks or months. Furthermore, the teacher notes the exact time
o ense is great enough to warrant police
the student leaves and then re-enters the classroom.
assistance.

In most schools, attendance forms are collected from each class during the first class period. This information is often
summarized into a master list and returned to teachers. Middle and high school teachers may use this list in later classes
to determine if a student is deliberately missing a class. The form is also used by administrators and the police to
determine if a child is present in school.

In a similar process, teachers typically record grades by listing students alphabetically or according to the seating chart in
their permanent grade book. They are careful to label columns that indicate the total number of possible points and the
title of the event. For example, an entry could be listed as “Quiz 1: The Alphabet” and include the date of the event. On
lines that intersect the columns, the teacher enters the students’ names. In this way, student scores are recorded by date
and by activity in the event that they are called into question.
A number of vendors have created electronic grade books that serve as an aid to organize the record keeping, calculate
the current grade for each child, and create a hard copy upon demand. Although teachers often have to enter their own
students’ names into the electronic record keeper, the organization is comprehensive and the calculations save time.
These records can also be easily accessed by administrators and central o ce specialists for system-wide aggregation.

TEACHER TIP
Once the intricacies of electronic grade books have been mastered, they are a very useful
tool to e ciently record student grades.

There are occasions on which it is important for a teacher to keep track of the number and types of discipline situations
in which a particular student has been involved. It is always a good idea for teachers to monitor and record student
discipline activity that involves any action beyond a verbal warning such as a detention or referral to the administrator. It
is equally important to record the date of the phone call to the parents informing them of the disciplinary action.

Like the grade book, the teacher can create a form by labeling the date, the date of the parent phone call, the nature of
the o ense, and the disposition by the teacher. If a student continually misbehaves, a running record of the events allows
the teacher to escalate the consequences and actions to an appropriate level. It also gives the teacher evidence when
talking with parents or administrators. Cumulative discipline records for several teachers may be combined by
administrators to create a holistic picture of a child who needs special attention. There are also circumstances when a
teacher may be asked to provide a recommendation for a student, such as for the National Honor Society or for clubs
around the school. In those situations, the cumulative discipline log is a helpful reference document.

8. Maintains Clear and High Expectations for Students

High expectations reflect what a teacher believes students should be able to achieve, taking into consideration their
academic achievement, social adjustment, and capacity to work towards goals. High expectations are the marks or
standards that the teacher sets as goals for the students in a given time period. These expectations are designed to be
realistic and to allow students to grow to the desired level within these domains. Successful teachers always couple high
expectations with the tools and resources for helping students to reach them.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Setting high academic expectations for students is one of the
There is a growing alarm over the tendency for most important duties that the public expects teachers to fulfill.
minority students to perform at lower academic Above all else, parents send their children to school to earn a
levels than their white peers. One factor may be quality education in the subject disciplines. The expectation is
that teachers do not expect the same level of that the teacher has a clear vision of what the students are
achievement from all students. supposed to learn during a given school year and also a
workable plan for ensuring that they learn it.
The teacher has to ensure that the expectations are curricular-based and are commensurate with the existing level of
student progress. This is an important point because the students may have prior knowledge that indicates that they can
easily meet and exceed the established benchmark and are therefore in need of a new, more advanced standard. On the
other hand, some students may not have the prerequisite knowledge needed for success. In these cases, the teacher will
have to create additional learning pathways for the students.

THE BIG PICTURE

A teacher once told me that he did not have the same expectations for all students. He did not expect certain
students to do well and he did not want to embarrass them in class by asking them to respond or to stand out in
any way. Such misplaced e orts inadvertently result in stereotyping and they downgrade the learning
experience. The child becomes a second-class student incapable of attaining the same level of achievement as
others in the class. Holding students to low expectations is actually a form of discrimination.

The standards for student achievement may begin at the same point for all students in a grade level, but they can be
adjusted upward for students in need of additional challenges. Lowering the standards is not a wise decision because the
students would then begin the next grade behind other students and with less time to catch up.

In most situations, the academic achievement goals are established by the approved curriculum. The teacher decides
how the lessons will be designed to maximize student learning of these goals. It is common practice for a school or a
school system to have a comprehensive curriculum for teachers that defines particular achievement goals based on state
or national standards, a series of lessons designed to teach each goal, and an assessment to measure if the students have
met or exceeded the goal and if the information needs to be re-taught. This curricular complement makes it much easier
for a teacher to create aligned lesson plans.

The Every Student Succeeds Act underscores the fact that it is important for teachers to hold every student accountable
to the benchmarks established for a subject. Students and teachers are encouraged to go beyond the standards if they
can demonstrate mastery of the expectations. Teachers are discouraged from lowering standards for any student or
subpopulation of students.

Students will perform up to the level that is expected of them, and occasionally go beyond it. Challenging students to
perform at increasing levels of achievement inserts growth into the vertically articulated curriculum. If students do not
grow, the spiraling e ect of the curriculum dooms them to continued failure and a feeling of hopelessness. Only by
intensive and concentrated e orts will these students be able to perform at the level of their peers who have met the
expectations.

Expectations, therefore, are self-fulfilling prophesies. When a teacher has high expectations and provides assistance, the
students will respond appropriately. When a teacher is not concerned about student expectations, then the students will
not be either. Teaching is a process whereby a teacher provides experiences for students so that they can achieve or
exceed the high expectations that have been set for them. Successful teachers are aware of the capabilities of their
students and set realistically high expectations for all students. They then construct lesson plans that will allow every
child to be successful.

THE BIG PICTURE

I once coordinated a one-week summer program for students. During the first week, one of the challenges
required them to understand the principle behind magnetic levitation. The challenge was to design and race a
MagLev vehicle to demonstrate their knowledge. The vehicles had to be engineered to fit on a track and to race
in a time under 5.5 seconds. Given the complexity of the design, and the time limit, the coordination team
allowed several days for students to complete the event. The teams, however, engineered the project in one day.
So the following week, the coordinators raised the requirements for the next group of students and provided an
even shorter time for students to prepare the project. Again, the students exceeded the requirements. So the
next week, we raised the requirements again, and as before, the students performed better than expected.

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T W O R K SHO P

The Characteristics of Successful Teachers Part II

Objective
In this workshop you will learn how to identify characteristics that are common to successful teachers.You can then adapt
this list to create your own list of what characteristics make exceptional educators and use your list to help yourself grow
into the teacher that you would like to be.

This lesson will continue listing characteristics that will be evident in a successful teacher including:

9. Models Professionalism

10. Uses Creativity and Their Individuality

11. Displays and Promotes Student Work

12. Presents a Positive Attitude

13. Demonstrates Calm and Confidence in a Crisis

14. Remains Loyal

15. Cares About Students

16. Creates a Caring and Welcoming Learning Environment

The video case study of this workshop will highlight a few select characteristics and explore them through the perspective
of students, teachers, and principals as well as our workshop creators, Mike Kelley, former Director of Teacher
Preparation at the American Board, and Dr. Glen Moulton, American Board’s former Resident Teaching Expert.

9. Models Professionalism
Professionalism is the act of performing in the accepted manner for a given profession each and every day. There is an
unwritten code of conduct and expectations that separate professionals from employees. A consistent work ethic, a
personal dedication to the profession, and a desire to always improve are characteristics of a professional. There is an air
about a professional that is unmistakable.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Teaching is a profession and not merely a job or a hobby.

New teachers are advised to leave the Teachers who model appropriate professionalism uplift the
community where their school is located for any entire school as well as their classroom. They extol education as
of their personal social events that may detract a respected and desirable occupation in the community.
from their professionalism. Imagine how it
might feel to run into a student’s parent at an For teachers, in fact, the standard for professionalism may be
inopportune time. Rumors of undesirable even higher than in other professions. Community leaders and
behavior can travel through a community
parents know that teachers set and reinforce the standards for
rapidly and lead to negative outcomes for
citizenship in their schools. Teachers are expected, therefore, to
everyone involved.
look and act the part at all times, including after school and at
social events.

Teachers demonstrate professionalism by displaying a sense of seriousness and purpose in their everyday conduct. They
create lessons that maximize the potential in all students. They often serve as mentors to other teachers or assist the
parents of their students. Such teachers command respect and are treated di erently by the community than those who
are less formal in their appearance and demeanor. Teachers who do not embrace a code of professionalism
commensurate with the expectations for a teacher degrade themselves in the community to the detriment of the
profession. It only takes one slovenly teacher to detract from all of the fine e orts of many devoted teachers and to give a
school a bad name. Sadly, in such situations, the actions of one problematic teacher make the headlines while the hard
work and e orts of the remainder of the school are overshadowed.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Professionalism also refers to significance and productivity.

Dress codes for teachers are controversial in Significance is the construction of something meaningful that
some areas. However, teachers who dress like has lasting e ects. Teachers with a philosophy that aims for
professionals are treated with the respect due to lifetime goals create a positive impact beyond their times.
their position. Teachers who dress like students Significance is earned and not bestowed, and successful
blur the distinction. teachers know that exhibiting professionalism earns
significance. The importance of achieving this objective leads teachers to provide stimulating learning experiences for all
of the students every day. With each lesson, students are prepared to be good citizens who will generate new ideas and
the energy to make tomorrow better than today. It also prompts teachers to interact with their colleagues to obtain new
ideas and strategies and to form learning communities.

Productivity, on the other hand, is a measure of the gain achieved. The need to be productive on the job encourages
teachers to continue their growth and to remain current in their field. They can achieve both of these goals by joining and
actively participating in professional organizations and by attending professional or sta development courses. In
addition, teachers who share their knowledge and expertise display one of the highest forms of professionalism. Helping
other teachers promotes teamwork and increases the capacity of the school to anticipate change.

TEACHER TIP
Develop or join a professional circle within your school that espouses the continual search
for academic progress as a goal. The aggregate knowledge of multiple teachers with a
variety of backgrounds is powerful, and can enable the school to provide more e ective
opportunities for learning and growth.

Successful teachers take their profession seriously. They arrive at work on time and ready to provide a full measure of
meaningful instruction tailored to the needs of their students. They are quick to point out that educational
inconsistencies are opportunities, not problems, and pose realistic solutions that turn negatives into positives. When
called upon for a special duty they respond with eagerness and complete the task promptly and completely to the best of
their ability. For these teachers, no child is too insignificant to work with after school or at other opportune times. Parents
of students are seen as an instructional asset and are utilized to support the teachers’ e orts. In short, successful
teachers visualize their teaching assignment to expand beyond their classroom. Teaching is their chosen profession, one
that they believe in, and as a result they are always trying to improve themselves and those around them.

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10. Uses Creativity and Their Individuality
Creative teachers are able to use any available resources to bring a lesson to life for their students. Innovative uses of
time, space and instructional materials increase student motivation, decrease disruptions, and generate a sense that
something special is occurring in the classroom. This feeling of experiencing something special is exciting to students
and predisposes them to greater attentiveness and participation.

Successful teachers analyze the intent of the curriculum, compare it to the abilities of their students, and then obtain the
props, learning aids, and ancillary materials needed to immerse students in the lesson objectives. This type of
preparation invites the teacher to extend his or her thinking and to look beyond the routines of instruction to create new
and better ways to teach the objectives. Some examples would include an elementary teacher who redecorates his room
to resemble a barnyard while the students are reading Charlotte’s Web, or a social studies teacher who converts a
teaching area into a courtroom to re-enact the Scopes Trial. It is not unusual for a creative teacher to change aspects of
the learning environment on a periodic basis to magnify the intent of the lessons.

Teachers can also use props and facilities in creative ways. For instance, a particular lesson may lend itself to an outside
activity or a lesson in the hallway. The teacher may also ask the students to become the characters or props rather than
to make them. In a similar fashion, the teacher may adjust the normal class routine to use class time in a nontraditional
manner. It is not necessary to reconstruct the classroom setting on a daily basis to emphasize a point or to create a
Disneyland experience in their classroom. Sometimes just a slight change in the ordinary routine can make a significant
di erence in the quality of a lesson. Just be aware that you can utilize every facet of the classroom, school, and school
grounds to generate student interest and motivation.

TEACHER TIP
It is helpful to locate a storage area where props can be safely stored for repeated use.
Sometimes the custodian is the best person to ask to locate space you can use before
petitioning the administration.

Teachers’ creativity often comes from embracing their own individual style. When teachers draw on their own interests
and experiences while preparing their instruction, students can usually sense that they are being genuine and enjoy the
chance to see them as not just their teacher, but a person with stories and wisdom to share. When a teacher has obvious
interest in the subject, it will also be contagious and picked up by the students.

New teachers may be tempted to embrace all of the advice that they are given by mentors and experienced teachers, but
they should also make sure that they leave room for the strengths that they bring to the profession. Many teachers find
that the classroom is their place to let out their silly, expressive, or humorous side. Not every teacher is the same and
successful teachers let their personality come through in the classroom. Both the teacher and their students will benefit
from an environment where everyone can be themselves.

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11. Displays and Promotes Student Work
Just as successful teachers embrace their own creativity, they should also embrace the creativity of their students. One of
the best ways to motivate students is to display their work and achievements in a prominent location. Showcasing
students’ work promotes active learning among those students and demonstrates to other students that the teacher may
also display their own assignment, thereby motivating them to do better. Successful teachers promote student work to
increase students’ motivation, learning, and self-confidence.

Student exhibits are also an e ective way of communicating success stories to the community. Displays of student work
garner attention and present a positive image of the classroom and the school.

There are often designated areas within a school that are ideal for showcasing student work. Teachers should arrange to
display their students’ work at a suitable location at various times during the year. The school newspaper, PTSA monthly
flier, or the Principal’s memoranda are possible outlets.

THE BIG PICTURE

It is a good idea to display student work during community events that are held at the school, such as Parents’
Day, PTSA meetings, and civic events.I was recently in a middle school where a display of student work had
 been created. There was a crowd of students and parents looking at the display. I can remember when my wife
and I did the same thing as parents.

TEACHER TIP
Be careful not to exclude students when displaying work. It is counterproductive for a
teacher to display every student’s work and exclude one student. Similarly, it is
demoralizing for a student to never have his or her work showcased.

Whenever a teacher announces that he or she will publicly display student work from the current assignment, student
motivation to do well on that assignment increases. Everyone is pleased to have their work displayed, as it serves as a
visible demonstration of who they are as a person. It also increases their popularity and recognition. Students will work
more diligently if they know their work will be in an exhibit, especially if the exhibit extends beyond the classroom or
connects with a class or school-wide event, such as Grandparents’ Day. Students will typically work hard to present their
best product for display and will dedicate more seriousness to the activity. They are also more likely to fully accomplish
the curricular objectives established by the teacher.

Teachers can vary the exhibit strategy for other reasons. For instance, rather than displaying work from every student, the
teacher may decide to only display those projects where students have successfully met or exceeded the curricular
objectives for the assignment. The teacher may also elect to have a classroom-only display for certain activities and a
school-wide display for more advanced projects.

Classroom displays are beneficial because the teacher can engage students in a gallery walk to identify particular
highlights. Further, the teacher may reference aspects of the class displays to emphasize or review a particular concept.
Whole school displays are less e ective than classroom displays for instruction but more e ective in communicating
good news to the community and giving younger students the opportunity to visualize what is expected of the older
students. Successful teachers promote student work in public displays for a variety of instructional and non-instructional
reasons.

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12. Presents a Positive Attitude
The process of education is greatly influenced by the teacher and the persona that the teacher brings to the work setting.
People are judged by how they comport themselves on a daily basis. Everyone likes a cheerful and happy instructor and
no one responds well to an irritable one.

Successful teachers serve as a positive reflection of the joy that accompanies learning. People who make the decision to
be pleasant can exude happiness when they arrive for work in the morning and can convey this enthusiasm for the
remainder of the day. Everyone they meet is greeted with a smile, and before long the climate of the school conveys a
positive outlook. A negative or defeated outlook is also equally infectious. It can go a long way toward creating a
miserable workplace for teachers and students alike. Principals generally try to reform, and sometimes even choose to
relocate, negative teachers.

TEACHER TIP
Sometimes the faculty lounge becomes a place where negative attitudes rule. If this is true
in your school, avoid the lounge lizards and find a di erent place to eat lunch in order to
surround yourself with more positive people.

A positive demeanor invites friendship which can lead to cooperation with parents and other teachers. The process of
teaching is streamlined and strengthened when professionals work together. The old adage that “two heads are better
than one” still holds true. The value of teachers working in cooperative groups to confront and resolve a problem is
immeasurable. It is greatly enhanced when participants demonstrate a positive attitude about each other, the
problematic situation, and the task of reaching a common goal. Some teachers are never selected or invited to work on a
committee and it is usually no surprise to the rest of the school why. Their attitude and unwillingness to cooperate are
often to blame.

Students are quick to sense the attitude of a teacher. They learn early on to “read” a teacher’s demeanor to discover their
mood, likes and dislikes, and attitude. If students sense a negative or defeatist attitude, then they often simulate it in
class. If, on the other hand, the teacher exudes energy and enthusiasm for the students and for teaching, then the
students are predisposed to respond in kind. This creates a positive environment that stimulates learning and prevents
discipline problems from arising. You should be aware of your attitude before leaving home in the morning and
determine how you want to project your attitude to your students.

THE BIG PICTURE

Once I tried shadowing students for an entire school day. I attended every class with the students. Interestingly,
I noted several student behavioral changes that occurred during the day. The same students acted di erently
depending on the attitude of the teacher. If the teacher appeared happy and enthusiastic, the students did too.
If the teacher was melancholy or unhappy, the students were passive or unruly. The change in student
demeanor between classrooms was an eye-opener for me. I highly recommend this activity to all new teachers.

In conclusion, successful teachers maintain a positive attitude, which a ects the students, school sta , other teachers,
and the school community even in di cult times. They know that a helpful attitude is contagious and that a bad
situation can be improved by creating a positive atmosphere. Teachers with a good attitude deflect harmful or unhealthy
comments and criticism and change the outlook of those around them. They have the capacity to transform the outlook
of a school.

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13. Demonstrates Calm and Confidence in a Crisis
PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT The ability to remain calm when everyone else begins to panic
Teachers are expected to help out in any and all signifies that a teacher recognizes the situation and knows how
school emergency situations. to respond with the correct action. Successful teachers know
that if they lose control of a situation, it is likely that their
students will do the same. When this happens, the situation intensifies and chaos is the end result. The confusion can
spread until it is appropriately confronted by a calm and confident teacher or administrator.

On any given day, schools are confronted with a number of potential emergency situations, such as inclement weather,
gang fights, bus accidents, or intruders. Yet teachers must remain calm and in control. New teachers can brace
themselves for these unfortunate occurrences by preparing thoroughly for them. There are several simple rules for
emergency situations that successful teachers know.

The first rule is that teachers are never alone. There is always another teacher or administrator nearby. If a new teacher is
uncertain about a situation, advice and assistance are typically only a short distance away. Sometimes it is beneficial to
follow the lead of the experienced teacher next door and to do as he or she does. Successful teachers plan ahead by
looking to see which teachers, administrators, and support personnel are located near their teaching area and discuss
possible options with them for relieving emergency situations.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT The second rule is that there is a school procedure for every
Before school begins, consult with the emergency. For example, your school will most likely have plans
administration to locate the school emergency in place for the problems associated with inclement weather.
procedures and learn them before classes Beginning teachers are advised to know their school’s
commence. procedures for all types of emergencies.

The third rule is that teachers have the support of the community. Parents want their children to be in a safe environment
and teachers receive their support for any actions taken on behalf of maintaining a safe and orderly environment.
Likewise, students also support their teachers and look to them for direction in crisis situations. They are willing to help
and follow instructions without delay or complaining.

New teachers should take comfort in knowing that they are doing the right thing and that the situation could become
worse if they fail to act. It is important to realize that many challenging occurrences happen at unpredictable times in a
school environment. It is also important to know that teachers unite in an emergency situation and that the strength of
the experience and wisdom of the entire school is engaged in these situations. Successful teachers know that there is no
emergency that they cannot handle either alone or as part of a team.

THE BIG PICTURE

 I walked with a principal as he made certain the school was evacuated after a bomb threat. I asked him how it
felt to be the last one out of the building in an emergency situation. He informed me that the teachers were the
most important element in any emergency because their poise and leadership was essential in getting the
students out of danger and into a safe location. He stated that they were like the o cers on a sinking ship who
work to ensure that personnel are safely evacuated and that he was like the captain who waits to verify that
everyone is o the ship before departing himself. When I commented that it appeared heroic, he responded by
saying that it was not due to heroism as much as the fact that he could not live with himself if a single person
was injured because he was negligent in leading them to safety.

There are new threats to schools that have created a new set of protective procedures in recent years. The threat of a
terrorist attack or an intruder intending to do harm has surfaced as a concern for all schools. By their nature, schools
have many portals for entry and exit. They are needed in the event of a fire or other emergencies that call for a quick exit
from the school. This also makes it easier, however, for unwanted intruders to gain access to the building. The awareness
level around schools for these types of situations will remain at high levels. Some schools have installed metal detectors
at all entrances and have uniformed police or safety o cers at every entrance and area where students congregate.
Other schools require students, building personnel, and visitors to wear a clearly visible identification badge on their
person at all times during the school day. Anyone caught without proper identification is immediately referred to the
main o ce.

TEACHER TIP
If the student ID badges are assigned a di erent-colored background for each grade level
or other distinguishing characteristic, they are also useful in identifying students who
belong in the school but are in the wrong part of the building without authorization.

In more extreme cases, such as a situation involving a school shooting, most schools have another set of protocols which
provide maximum security for students and teachers. Although these procedures have a variety of names, there are two
that are commonly used. One of them is referred to as a class or school lockdown. A lockdown is ordered when
circumstances around or within a school are dangerous for students and parents. In this case, students and school
personnel are locked into their classrooms. They are not permitted to go outside of the classroom and school buses are
not permitted near the building. Parents are advised to not attempt to retrieve their children until the situation is
resolved.

Another type of prevention is often referred to as a shelter-in-place. Similar to a lockdown, anyone inside of the school or
belonging inside of the school is required to remain in the school until the emergency is lifted. However, students may be
assembled in a large area such as the gym rather than in their classroom. A shelter-in-place is a more secure situation
than a lockdown. Parents are not allowed to pick up their children and are discouraged from venturing near the school.
All of these precautions and others are designed to add a layer of prevention and protection into the school emergency
response. Successful teachers understand these procedures and, if called upon in an emergency, are prepared to
implement them without hesitation. The improper actions of just one teacher can lead to significant problems in a crisis.

THE BIG PICTURE

Local police agencies are proactive about helping schools in times of crisis, especially since the incident at
Columbine High School. I witnessed a police special unit do a mock sweep through a school in pursuit of an
intruder. They were extremely e cient and made everyone feel protected.

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14. Remains Loyal
Loyalty assumes a number of di erent forms and is reflected in di erent styles. The fundamentals of loyalty include a
personal allegiance and devotion to a particular person, place, or thing. In the case of teachers, loyalty refers to a
dedication to students, parents, and the school. Loyalty extends professionalism and combines purpose with reason and
action.

For teachers, loyalty means more than just preparing and delivering excellent lessons every day. Whereas these elements
form a necessary component of it, the concept also links daily actions and purpose. A loyal teacher is one who
thoughtfully follows the lead of the community and administration. This does not infer blind faith but rather refers to
maintaining respect and obedience to the organization.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Teachers express their loyalty daily by following school rules and
Teachers can contribute good ideas and supporting those who created them. Successful teachers
strategies to enhance or change school policies. understand that rules are designed to protect teachers and to
However, once the rule is established, teachers assist them in making good decisions. Rules also exist to assist
are expected to uphold it. teachers with the process of educating students, and are
designed to solve or prevent problems from occurring. School rules are the administration’s domain, though they are
often developed in collaboration with teachers and other professionals. Successful teachers volunteer to serve on
decision-making committees whenever possible. Administrators often utilize these committees to make changes around
the school and a teacher’s perspective is a welcomed viewpoint.

It is the responsibility of all members of the school community to enforce the school rules. Within the school, whenever a
rule does not seem to make sense, a loyal teacher will ask the relevant administrator for a better understanding of it. If
the rule is inadequate or nonfunctional, then the loyal teacher will work through appropriate channels within the school
structure to suggest changes. A non-loyal teacher will complain in the faculty room or begin conversations in the hallway
with other teachers seeking to gain support for a change and thereby splintering the team.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
There will always be occasions when a teacher does not agree One of the worst o enses a teacher can commit
with a ruling by the administration. Loyalty and professionalism is to deliberately misinform members of the
require teachers to discuss the reason for the rule with the community about a school rule.

appropriate person. The chance to be heard and to listen often leads to a greater understanding by both parties and a
resolution. Teachers who attempt to subvert a decision for personal or invalid reasons or choose alternate methods
beyond the appropriate channels may be seen as a negative or divisive influence on the faculty. They also decrease the
overall e ectiveness of the educational mission for the students.

Loyalty requires teachers to interpret and support school decisions when dealing with parents and community members.
This extension includes a defense of existing rules and policies and the people who made them. As changes are
communicated to parents and the community, the reason for a particular change or its ramifications may become
distorted. When this happens, parents may become upset if the rule appears to a ect them or their children in a negative
way. Loyal teachers seize every opportunity to interpret changes so that parents fully understand the reason for the
change and the actual meaning of the change.

Strong administrators equip teachers with the appropriate amount of non-confidential knowledge regarding change for
two reasons. First, the changes must make sense to the teachers to gain their support. Second, the teachers must have
enough information to clearly explain and defend administrative actions to the community. Teachers are encouraged to
ensure that the administration presents a holistic plan for every creation or change of rule.

THE BIG PICTURE

I once worked with an administrator who encouraged every teacher and other professional in his building to
contribute thoughts and suggestions at every opportunity as an on-going method for handling problems that
arose. He always completed this invitation by stating that all proposals would be treated with respect and that
all proposals would be read and considered before any decision was made. He also said that anyone not
contributing to the success of the endeavor forfeited his or her right to complain about the decision.

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15. Cares for Their Students
Successful teachers love working with children and invest heavily in their students’ development. Teachers who care for
their students retain a youthful attitude and are well-suited for the profession. For these teachers, students energize
them and a rm their purpose in life on a daily basis. Their work allows them to express themselves in a productive
manner that improves the lives of their students and influences society positively. At the end of their career, these
teachers remember countless situations where their e orts made a life-changing di erence in a student’s life and
allowed children to meet or exceed their own expectations. It is a life worth living and a profession worth loving.

THE BIG PICTURE

 In my formative teaching years, I was frustrated by a couple of students who simply would not behave in class. A
veteran teacher o ered her advice saying, “You know these trouble-makers just want to be loved.” In my
opinion, these students did not want to be loved but wanted a free ticket to the principal’s o ce, which I was
happy to give them at the time. However, I came to see that she was right. In many instances your problem
students may be experiencing some sort of stress or are just seeking out your attention.

For teachers who do not like working with children, teaching is not the best option for a lifelong career. It is a challenging
profession that involves a degree of physical labor, a tremendous mental outlay, and an even greater emotional
investment. To approach it with an apathetic attitude towards children makes each day long and exhausting. It is easy for
teachers to forgive students their shortcomings and work tirelessly on their behalf when they feel love and concern for
them. It is a source of daily frustration when they do not. Likewise, it is easy for students to work hard to please teachers
who demonstrate a caring and supportive attitude.

THE BIG PICTURE

A middle school principal once told me that he had received a record number of phone calls and personal visits
from parents regarding a certain teacher. When I inquired about the reason, the principal simply said that the
teacher did not like children and would always be on bad terms with parents as a result.

TEACHER TIP
Not everyone is well suited to be a teacher. If you are not certain of your career choice, try
an intermediate step such as coaching a Parks and Recreation team, teaching a Sunday
School class, or coordinating a boy or girl scout pack. If working with young people
energizes you and you find the patience to work with them even when others do not, and if
you can feel sympathy for those who are challenging to work with, then you have found a
lifelong profession that will challenge, sustain, and enrich your life.

When a teacher does not demonstrate such caring and concern, even correcting a student for a minor issue such as
forgetting to bring a pencil for five days in a row may create an unsustainable situation. These teachers receive few of the
expressions of gratitude and a ection generously given to other teachers. The day to day interaction with students
becomes a grind and the teacher’s only relief is during weekends, holidays, and summer vacation. Without a love for
students, therefore, teaching becomes a grueling profession that should be avoided for the benefit of both the teacher
and the students.

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16. Creates a Caring and Welcoming Learning Environment
Students realize when a teacher cares about them as a person. Likewise, they are aware when a teacher is indi erent.
Successful teachers know that teaching is a personal event that is based on a connection between the teacher and the
student. This one-to-one connection occurs regardless of how many students are present in the class. Successful
teachers also know that students respond better to a teacher who likes them and who has taken the time to get to know
them on a personal level.

THE BIG PICTURE

I recently asked current teachers to describe one of their own favorite school teachers. One of the most
common responses was that their favorite teacher always took the time to make them feel welcome and made
them feel like they were part of a community.

One of the most important aspects of teaching is the creation of a student-centered learning environment where all
students are challenged to reach their full potential and are not inhibited by teacher-made obstacles. Successful teachers
construct a variety of learning environments that include all students and appeal to their desire for advancement.

To implement this goal, the first item of importance is the climate established by the teacher. This determines whether a
student feels welcomed and has a sense of belonging in the class. Students who feel accepted as a full member of the
class are more likely to perform well and less likely to cause trouble than students who feel left out or unappreciated. So
what can a teacher do to instill a feeling of togetherness?

Teachers can create a sense of team membership within the class by means of several deliberate actions, which are best
performed at the beginning of the year and modified or repeated as new students are added to the class. One of the best
ways to build a team is to provide team building activities, of which there are an endless number of variations to choose
from. The purpose is to have all of the members act cooperatively to focus on a goal.

It is important that the challenges be arranged so that students receive the full benefit of the strategy. For example, all
activities should be within reach of the students’ abilities. The first challenges should be non-competitive, active, and
simple to allow for name recognition and the celebration of a successful solution. A successful beginning is imperative.
Everybody likes to be on a winning team and nobody wants to be on one that is losing.

As the team building proceeds and the teams mature, the activities may become more complicated. Increasing the
complexity of the challenges forces the students to interact at a di erent level and to learn to delegate responsibilities.
The team may even subdivide for extreme challenges in order to better utilize each person’s abilities. A fully functioning
team is one in which all of the students are actively involved in moving their team toward a goal, are comfortable working
with established roles and procedures, and are capable of constructing new knowledge by evaluating the input of all
members.

TEACHER TIP
 Whole class team building exercises are a good use of class time. However, the teacher
must continually monitor the students to prevent certain students from being excluded
from the activity. This must occur in such a way that the teacher does not appear to be
controlling the team building e orts of the students.

The teacher should decide if the team building activity is designed for the entire class or for small groups within the class.
Whole class teams are slow and often cumbersome but are highly e ective in bringing the class together. A good activity
for the entire class might be the production of a school play, the creation of a schoolyard habitat, or the formulation of a
school-wide recycling model.

Smaller teams are usually more e cient, which allows them to reach greater levels of specialization with one member
serving as the leader and other members filling specific roles. Functional groups may also reach a level of comfort where
they can redefine the task, subdivide into groups according to function, elect subgroup leaders, and reconvene to
assemble results.

One potential problem with small-group team building is that the groups often become so independent that they do not
need the rest of the class to proceed with their learning; they become islands. In a more extreme version, certain groups
may label other groups as inferior, which defeats the purpose of team building. To prevent this from happening, teachers
can reorganize the members of the groups on a regular basis, such as at the beginning of every new activity.

THE BIG PICTURE

I know an elementary teacher who planned a team building sequence of activities with his class at the start of
the year. His principal was so pleased by the results that she arranged for the rest of her teachers to complete a
similar sequence at the next sta development day.

TEACHER TIP
A strong sense of compassion for all students is fundamental to creating an inviting
environment. Caring about students who exhibit di cult behavior is a challenging
assignment for teachers, but those teachers who are compassionate are repaid many times
over in student success stories.

Teachers who take the time to work with students as individuals show that they care. For example, when teachers learn
their students’ names and call them by name, students feel welcome in the classroom. Students who are allowed to
express themselves completely and receive positive comments from the teacher and from other students feel
appreciated. Teachers who challenge individuals with personalized projects or assignments promote positive feelings. In
addition, teachers who miss students when they are absent confirm their sense of belonging in the class.
It is commonly held that students who feel that they are an PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
integral part of a class perform better than those who feel Teachers who create a sense of belonging and
alienated. Successful teachers view each child as a whole person teamwork within their classroom have fewer
consisting of many di erent parts, and they provide the discipline problems.
environment to embrace students’ uniqueness in ways that
promote their achievement.

11 Things to Remember about the Characteristics of Successful Teachers

1. New teachers can learn many crucial lessons from successful teachers.

2. Teaching is a profession and not merely a job. There is an unwritten code of conduct
that accompanies this profession and new teachers should learn it quickly.

3. Successful teachers model professionalism.

4. Significance is the ability to a ect a meaningful, positive change that has lasting e ects.

5. Successful teachers will remain significant to their students for years to come.

6. It does not matter whether teachers received preparation for teaching in college or from previous careers. Both
are highly qualified and can enhance each other’s techniques when allowed to collaborate.

7. Successful teachers use techniques to improve student learning and their ability to
remember the learning.

8. Creative teachers assemble resources to convert simple classrooms into diverse

learning environments that match the lesson and the aptitudes of the students.

9. Teachers serve as leaders and crisis managers during a school emergency.

10. It is important to remain current on all school procedures and changes.

11. Not every veteran teacher exhibits all of the characteristics of a successful teacher all of the time.

Video Review: Characteristics of Successful Teachers (13:57)

0:00 / 13:57
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supports HTML5 video

Review Questions
1. Which of the characteristics of successful teachers do you already possess? Which characteristics will be a
challenge for you to acquire? What will you do to try and incorporate these characteristics into your personal style?

2. List and explain any characteristics of successful teachers that you feel would belong on your list. Explain how
they would be helpful to you as a teacher.

3. Explain the advantages that a second-career teacher might have that a college trained first-year teacher might not
possess.

4. What does it mean to be a professional? What are the characteristics of a professional? In which ways is the
teaching profession similar to and di erent from other professions?

5. How is it possible for a teacher to remain cool, calm, and collected during a school emergency?

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T W O R K SHO P

Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of successful teachers.

1. Adalsteinsdotter, Kristin. “Teachers Behaviour and Practices in the Classroom”. Scandanavian Journal of
Education Research. 48.1 (2004): 95-113.

2. Attell, Monica. “What A Performance!” Teaching Pre K-8. 5 January 2007.

http://www.teachingk-8.com/archives/articles/what_a_performance_by_monica_attell.html

3. Billingsley, Bonnie S. “Beginning Special Educators: Characteristics, Qualifications , and Experiences.” Study of
Personnel Needs in Special Education. 2002. University of Florida Department of Special Education. 5 January 2007.

4. Brown, Nigel. “What Makes a Good Educator? The Relevance of Metta Programmes”. Assessment and
Evaluation in Higher Education. 29.5 (2004): 515-533.

5. Fulton, Kathleen, et al. “Induction Into Learning Communities”. National Commission on Teaching and America’s
Future. 2005. Available from NCTAF.
 6. Korthagen, Fred A.J. “In Search of the Essence of a Good Teacher: Towards a More Holistic Approach in Teacher
Education”. Teaching & Teacher Education: An International Journal Research and Studies. 20.1. (2004): 77-97.

7. McArdle, Karen and Norman Coutts. “A Strong Core of Qualities—A Model of the Professional Educator that
Moves Beyond Reflection”. Studies in Continuing Eduction. 25.2 (2003): 225-237.

8. Murphy, Karen P., et al. “The Good Teacher and Good Teaching: Comparing Beliefs of Second-Grade Students,
Preservice Teachers, And Inservice Teachers”. Journal of Experimental Education. 72.2 (2004): 69-92. Available from
Heldref Publications.

9. Opdenakker, Marie-Christine., and Jan Van Damme. “Teacher Characteristics and Teaching Styles as
E ectiveness Enhancing Factors of Classroom Practice”. Teaching & Teacher Education: An International Journal of
Research and Studies. 22.1 (2006):1-21. Available from ScienceDirect.com.

10. Xu, Zeyu. and Charisse Gulosino. “How Does Teacher Quality Matter? The E ect of Teacher-Parent Partnership
on Early Childhood Performance in Public and Private Schools”. Education Economics. 14.3 (2006): 345-367. Available
from IngentaConnect.

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T W O R K SHO P

The Characteristics of Successful Teachers Part II

Objective
In this workshop you will learn how to identify characteristics that are common to successful teachers.You can then adapt
this list to create your own list of what characteristics make exceptional educators and use your list to help yourself grow
into the teacher that you would like to be.

This lesson will continue listing characteristics that will be evident in a successful teacher including:

9. Models Professionalism

10. Uses Creativity and Their Individuality

11. Displays and Promotes Student Work

12. Presents a Positive Attitude

13. Demonstrates Calm and Confidence in a Crisis

14. Remains Loyal

15. Cares About Students

16. Creates a Caring and Welcoming Learning Environment

The video case study of this workshop will highlight a few select characteristics and explore them through the perspective
of students, teachers, and principals as well as our workshop creators, Mike Kelley, former Director of Teacher
Preparation at the American Board, and Dr. Glen Moulton, American Board’s former Resident Teaching Expert.

9. Models Professionalism
Professionalism is the act of performing in the accepted manner for a given profession each and every day. There is an
unwritten code of conduct and expectations that separate professionals from employees. A consistent work ethic, a
personal dedication to the profession, and a desire to always improve are characteristics of a professional. There is an air
about a professional that is unmistakable.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Teaching is a profession and not merely a job or a hobby.

New teachers are advised to leave the Teachers who model appropriate professionalism uplift the
community where their school is located for any entire school as well as their classroom. They extol education as
of their personal social events that may detract a respected and desirable occupation in the community.
from their professionalism. Imagine how it
might feel to run into a student’s parent at an For teachers, in fact, the standard for professionalism may be
inopportune time. Rumors of undesirable even higher than in other professions. Community leaders and
behavior can travel through a community
parents know that teachers set and reinforce the standards for
rapidly and lead to negative outcomes for
citizenship in their schools. Teachers are expected, therefore, to
everyone involved.
look and act the part at all times, including after school and at
social events.

Teachers demonstrate professionalism by displaying a sense of seriousness and purpose in their everyday conduct. They
create lessons that maximize the potential in all students. They often serve as mentors to other teachers or assist the
parents of their students. Such teachers command respect and are treated di erently by the community than those who
are less formal in their appearance and demeanor. Teachers who do not embrace a code of professionalism
commensurate with the expectations for a teacher degrade themselves in the community to the detriment of the
profession. It only takes one slovenly teacher to detract from all of the fine e orts of many devoted teachers and to give a
school a bad name. Sadly, in such situations, the actions of one problematic teacher make the headlines while the hard
work and e orts of the remainder of the school are overshadowed.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Professionalism also refers to significance and productivity.

Dress codes for teachers are controversial in Significance is the construction of something meaningful that
some areas. However, teachers who dress like has lasting e ects. Teachers with a philosophy that aims for
professionals are treated with the respect due to lifetime goals create a positive impact beyond their times.
their position. Teachers who dress like students Significance is earned and not bestowed, and successful
blur the distinction. teachers know that exhibiting professionalism earns
significance. The importance of achieving this objective leads teachers to provide stimulating learning experiences for all
of the students every day. With each lesson, students are prepared to be good citizens who will generate new ideas and
the energy to make tomorrow better than today. It also prompts teachers to interact with their colleagues to obtain new
ideas and strategies and to form learning communities.

Productivity, on the other hand, is a measure of the gain achieved. The need to be productive on the job encourages
teachers to continue their growth and to remain current in their field. They can achieve both of these goals by joining and
actively participating in professional organizations and by attending professional or sta development courses. In
addition, teachers who share their knowledge and expertise display one of the highest forms of professionalism. Helping
other teachers promotes teamwork and increases the capacity of the school to anticipate change.

TEACHER TIP
Develop or join a professional circle within your school that espouses the continual search
for academic progress as a goal. The aggregate knowledge of multiple teachers with a
variety of backgrounds is powerful, and can enable the school to provide more e ective
opportunities for learning and growth.

Successful teachers take their profession seriously. They arrive at work on time and ready to provide a full measure of
meaningful instruction tailored to the needs of their students. They are quick to point out that educational
inconsistencies are opportunities, not problems, and pose realistic solutions that turn negatives into positives. When
called upon for a special duty they respond with eagerness and complete the task promptly and completely to the best of
their ability. For these teachers, no child is too insignificant to work with after school or at other opportune times. Parents
of students are seen as an instructional asset and are utilized to support the teachers’ e orts. In short, successful
teachers visualize their teaching assignment to expand beyond their classroom. Teaching is their chosen profession, one
that they believe in, and as a result they are always trying to improve themselves and those around them.

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10. Uses Creativity and Their Individuality
Creative teachers are able to use any available resources to bring a lesson to life for their students. Innovative uses of
time, space and instructional materials increase student motivation, decrease disruptions, and generate a sense that
something special is occurring in the classroom. This feeling of experiencing something special is exciting to students
and predisposes them to greater attentiveness and participation.

Successful teachers analyze the intent of the curriculum, compare it to the abilities of their students, and then obtain the
props, learning aids, and ancillary materials needed to immerse students in the lesson objectives. This type of
preparation invites the teacher to extend his or her thinking and to look beyond the routines of instruction to create new
and better ways to teach the objectives. Some examples would include an elementary teacher who redecorates his room
to resemble a barnyard while the students are reading Charlotte’s Web, or a social studies teacher who converts a
teaching area into a courtroom to re-enact the Scopes Trial. It is not unusual for a creative teacher to change aspects of
the learning environment on a periodic basis to magnify the intent of the lessons.

Teachers can also use props and facilities in creative ways. For instance, a particular lesson may lend itself to an outside
activity or a lesson in the hallway. The teacher may also ask the students to become the characters or props rather than
to make them. In a similar fashion, the teacher may adjust the normal class routine to use class time in a nontraditional
manner. It is not necessary to reconstruct the classroom setting on a daily basis to emphasize a point or to create a
Disneyland experience in their classroom. Sometimes just a slight change in the ordinary routine can make a significant
di erence in the quality of a lesson. Just be aware that you can utilize every facet of the classroom, school, and school
grounds to generate student interest and motivation.

TEACHER TIP
It is helpful to locate a storage area where props can be safely stored for repeated use.
Sometimes the custodian is the best person to ask to locate space you can use before
petitioning the administration.

Teachers’ creativity often comes from embracing their own individual style. When teachers draw on their own interests
and experiences while preparing their instruction, students can usually sense that they are being genuine and enjoy the
chance to see them as not just their teacher, but a person with stories and wisdom to share. When a teacher has obvious
interest in the subject, it will also be contagious and picked up by the students.

New teachers may be tempted to embrace all of the advice that they are given by mentors and experienced teachers, but
they should also make sure that they leave room for the strengths that they bring to the profession. Many teachers find
that the classroom is their place to let out their silly, expressive, or humorous side. Not every teacher is the same and
successful teachers let their personality come through in the classroom. Both the teacher and their students will benefit
from an environment where everyone can be themselves.

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11. Displays and Promotes Student Work
Just as successful teachers embrace their own creativity, they should also embrace the creativity of their students. One of
the best ways to motivate students is to display their work and achievements in a prominent location. Showcasing
students’ work promotes active learning among those students and demonstrates to other students that the teacher may
also display their own assignment, thereby motivating them to do better. Successful teachers promote student work to
increase students’ motivation, learning, and self-confidence.

Student exhibits are also an e ective way of communicating success stories to the community. Displays of student work
garner attention and present a positive image of the classroom and the school.

There are often designated areas within a school that are ideal for showcasing student work. Teachers should arrange to
display their students’ work at a suitable location at various times during the year. The school newspaper, PTSA monthly
flier, or the Principal’s memoranda are possible outlets.

THE BIG PICTURE

It is a good idea to display student work during community events that are held at the school, such as Parents’
Day, PTSA meetings, and civic events.I was recently in a middle school where a display of student work had
 been created. There was a crowd of students and parents looking at the display. I can remember when my wife
and I did the same thing as parents.

TEACHER TIP
Be careful not to exclude students when displaying work. It is counterproductive for a
teacher to display every student’s work and exclude one student. Similarly, it is
demoralizing for a student to never have his or her work showcased.

Whenever a teacher announces that he or she will publicly display student work from the current assignment, student
motivation to do well on that assignment increases. Everyone is pleased to have their work displayed, as it serves as a
visible demonstration of who they are as a person. It also increases their popularity and recognition. Students will work
more diligently if they know their work will be in an exhibit, especially if the exhibit extends beyond the classroom or
connects with a class or school-wide event, such as Grandparents’ Day. Students will typically work hard to present their
best product for display and will dedicate more seriousness to the activity. They are also more likely to fully accomplish
the curricular objectives established by the teacher.

Teachers can vary the exhibit strategy for other reasons. For instance, rather than displaying work from every student, the
teacher may decide to only display those projects where students have successfully met or exceeded the curricular
objectives for the assignment. The teacher may also elect to have a classroom-only display for certain activities and a
school-wide display for more advanced projects.

Classroom displays are beneficial because the teacher can engage students in a gallery walk to identify particular
highlights. Further, the teacher may reference aspects of the class displays to emphasize or review a particular concept.
Whole school displays are less e ective than classroom displays for instruction but more e ective in communicating
good news to the community and giving younger students the opportunity to visualize what is expected of the older
students. Successful teachers promote student work in public displays for a variety of instructional and non-instructional
reasons.

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12. Presents a Positive Attitude
The process of education is greatly influenced by the teacher and the persona that the teacher brings to the work setting.
People are judged by how they comport themselves on a daily basis. Everyone likes a cheerful and happy instructor and
no one responds well to an irritable one.

Successful teachers serve as a positive reflection of the joy that accompanies learning. People who make the decision to
be pleasant can exude happiness when they arrive for work in the morning and can convey this enthusiasm for the
remainder of the day. Everyone they meet is greeted with a smile, and before long the climate of the school conveys a
positive outlook. A negative or defeated outlook is also equally infectious. It can go a long way toward creating a
miserable workplace for teachers and students alike. Principals generally try to reform, and sometimes even choose to
relocate, negative teachers.

TEACHER TIP
Sometimes the faculty lounge becomes a place where negative attitudes rule. If this is true
in your school, avoid the lounge lizards and find a di erent place to eat lunch in order to
surround yourself with more positive people.

A positive demeanor invites friendship which can lead to cooperation with parents and other teachers. The process of
teaching is streamlined and strengthened when professionals work together. The old adage that “two heads are better
than one” still holds true. The value of teachers working in cooperative groups to confront and resolve a problem is
immeasurable. It is greatly enhanced when participants demonstrate a positive attitude about each other, the
problematic situation, and the task of reaching a common goal. Some teachers are never selected or invited to work on a
committee and it is usually no surprise to the rest of the school why. Their attitude and unwillingness to cooperate are
often to blame.

Students are quick to sense the attitude of a teacher. They learn early on to “read” a teacher’s demeanor to discover their
mood, likes and dislikes, and attitude. If students sense a negative or defeatist attitude, then they often simulate it in
class. If, on the other hand, the teacher exudes energy and enthusiasm for the students and for teaching, then the
students are predisposed to respond in kind. This creates a positive environment that stimulates learning and prevents
discipline problems from arising. You should be aware of your attitude before leaving home in the morning and
determine how you want to project your attitude to your students.

THE BIG PICTURE

Once I tried shadowing students for an entire school day. I attended every class with the students. Interestingly,
I noted several student behavioral changes that occurred during the day. The same students acted di erently
depending on the attitude of the teacher. If the teacher appeared happy and enthusiastic, the students did too.
If the teacher was melancholy or unhappy, the students were passive or unruly. The change in student
demeanor between classrooms was an eye-opener for me. I highly recommend this activity to all new teachers.

In conclusion, successful teachers maintain a positive attitude, which a ects the students, school sta , other teachers,
and the school community even in di cult times. They know that a helpful attitude is contagious and that a bad
situation can be improved by creating a positive atmosphere. Teachers with a good attitude deflect harmful or unhealthy
comments and criticism and change the outlook of those around them. They have the capacity to transform the outlook
of a school.

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13. Demonstrates Calm and Confidence in a Crisis
PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT The ability to remain calm when everyone else begins to panic
Teachers are expected to help out in any and all signifies that a teacher recognizes the situation and knows how
school emergency situations. to respond with the correct action. Successful teachers know
that if they lose control of a situation, it is likely that their
students will do the same. When this happens, the situation intensifies and chaos is the end result. The confusion can
spread until it is appropriately confronted by a calm and confident teacher or administrator.

On any given day, schools are confronted with a number of potential emergency situations, such as inclement weather,
gang fights, bus accidents, or intruders. Yet teachers must remain calm and in control. New teachers can brace
themselves for these unfortunate occurrences by preparing thoroughly for them. There are several simple rules for
emergency situations that successful teachers know.

The first rule is that teachers are never alone. There is always another teacher or administrator nearby. If a new teacher is
uncertain about a situation, advice and assistance are typically only a short distance away. Sometimes it is beneficial to
follow the lead of the experienced teacher next door and to do as he or she does. Successful teachers plan ahead by
looking to see which teachers, administrators, and support personnel are located near their teaching area and discuss
possible options with them for relieving emergency situations.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT The second rule is that there is a school procedure for every
Before school begins, consult with the emergency. For example, your school will most likely have plans
administration to locate the school emergency in place for the problems associated with inclement weather.
procedures and learn them before classes Beginning teachers are advised to know their school’s
commence. procedures for all types of emergencies.

The third rule is that teachers have the support of the community. Parents want their children to be in a safe environment
and teachers receive their support for any actions taken on behalf of maintaining a safe and orderly environment.
Likewise, students also support their teachers and look to them for direction in crisis situations. They are willing to help
and follow instructions without delay or complaining.

New teachers should take comfort in knowing that they are doing the right thing and that the situation could become
worse if they fail to act. It is important to realize that many challenging occurrences happen at unpredictable times in a
school environment. It is also important to know that teachers unite in an emergency situation and that the strength of
the experience and wisdom of the entire school is engaged in these situations. Successful teachers know that there is no
emergency that they cannot handle either alone or as part of a team.

THE BIG PICTURE

 I walked with a principal as he made certain the school was evacuated after a bomb threat. I asked him how it
felt to be the last one out of the building in an emergency situation. He informed me that the teachers were the
most important element in any emergency because their poise and leadership was essential in getting the
students out of danger and into a safe location. He stated that they were like the o cers on a sinking ship who
work to ensure that personnel are safely evacuated and that he was like the captain who waits to verify that
everyone is o the ship before departing himself. When I commented that it appeared heroic, he responded by
saying that it was not due to heroism as much as the fact that he could not live with himself if a single person
was injured because he was negligent in leading them to safety.

There are new threats to schools that have created a new set of protective procedures in recent years. The threat of a
terrorist attack or an intruder intending to do harm has surfaced as a concern for all schools. By their nature, schools
have many portals for entry and exit. They are needed in the event of a fire or other emergencies that call for a quick exit
from the school. This also makes it easier, however, for unwanted intruders to gain access to the building. The awareness
level around schools for these types of situations will remain at high levels. Some schools have installed metal detectors
at all entrances and have uniformed police or safety o cers at every entrance and area where students congregate.
Other schools require students, building personnel, and visitors to wear a clearly visible identification badge on their
person at all times during the school day. Anyone caught without proper identification is immediately referred to the
main o ce.

TEACHER TIP
If the student ID badges are assigned a di erent-colored background for each grade level
or other distinguishing characteristic, they are also useful in identifying students who
belong in the school but are in the wrong part of the building without authorization.

In more extreme cases, such as a situation involving a school shooting, most schools have another set of protocols which
provide maximum security for students and teachers. Although these procedures have a variety of names, there are two
that are commonly used. One of them is referred to as a class or school lockdown. A lockdown is ordered when
circumstances around or within a school are dangerous for students and parents. In this case, students and school
personnel are locked into their classrooms. They are not permitted to go outside of the classroom and school buses are
not permitted near the building. Parents are advised to not attempt to retrieve their children until the situation is
resolved.

Another type of prevention is often referred to as a shelter-in-place. Similar to a lockdown, anyone inside of the school or
belonging inside of the school is required to remain in the school until the emergency is lifted. However, students may be
assembled in a large area such as the gym rather than in their classroom. A shelter-in-place is a more secure situation
than a lockdown. Parents are not allowed to pick up their children and are discouraged from venturing near the school.
All of these precautions and others are designed to add a layer of prevention and protection into the school emergency
response. Successful teachers understand these procedures and, if called upon in an emergency, are prepared to
implement them without hesitation. The improper actions of just one teacher can lead to significant problems in a crisis.

THE BIG PICTURE

Local police agencies are proactive about helping schools in times of crisis, especially since the incident at
Columbine High School. I witnessed a police special unit do a mock sweep through a school in pursuit of an
intruder. They were extremely e cient and made everyone feel protected.

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14. Remains Loyal
Loyalty assumes a number of di erent forms and is reflected in di erent styles. The fundamentals of loyalty include a
personal allegiance and devotion to a particular person, place, or thing. In the case of teachers, loyalty refers to a
dedication to students, parents, and the school. Loyalty extends professionalism and combines purpose with reason and
action.

For teachers, loyalty means more than just preparing and delivering excellent lessons every day. Whereas these elements
form a necessary component of it, the concept also links daily actions and purpose. A loyal teacher is one who
thoughtfully follows the lead of the community and administration. This does not infer blind faith but rather refers to
maintaining respect and obedience to the organization.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Teachers express their loyalty daily by following school rules and
Teachers can contribute good ideas and supporting those who created them. Successful teachers
strategies to enhance or change school policies. understand that rules are designed to protect teachers and to
However, once the rule is established, teachers assist them in making good decisions. Rules also exist to assist
are expected to uphold it. teachers with the process of educating students, and are
designed to solve or prevent problems from occurring. School rules are the administration’s domain, though they are
often developed in collaboration with teachers and other professionals. Successful teachers volunteer to serve on
decision-making committees whenever possible. Administrators often utilize these committees to make changes around
the school and a teacher’s perspective is a welcomed viewpoint.

It is the responsibility of all members of the school community to enforce the school rules. Within the school, whenever a
rule does not seem to make sense, a loyal teacher will ask the relevant administrator for a better understanding of it. If
the rule is inadequate or nonfunctional, then the loyal teacher will work through appropriate channels within the school
structure to suggest changes. A non-loyal teacher will complain in the faculty room or begin conversations in the hallway
with other teachers seeking to gain support for a change and thereby splintering the team.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
There will always be occasions when a teacher does not agree One of the worst o enses a teacher can commit
with a ruling by the administration. Loyalty and professionalism is to deliberately misinform members of the
require teachers to discuss the reason for the rule with the community about a school rule.

appropriate person. The chance to be heard and to listen often leads to a greater understanding by both parties and a
resolution. Teachers who attempt to subvert a decision for personal or invalid reasons or choose alternate methods
beyond the appropriate channels may be seen as a negative or divisive influence on the faculty. They also decrease the
overall e ectiveness of the educational mission for the students.

Loyalty requires teachers to interpret and support school decisions when dealing with parents and community members.
This extension includes a defense of existing rules and policies and the people who made them. As changes are
communicated to parents and the community, the reason for a particular change or its ramifications may become
distorted. When this happens, parents may become upset if the rule appears to a ect them or their children in a negative
way. Loyal teachers seize every opportunity to interpret changes so that parents fully understand the reason for the
change and the actual meaning of the change.

Strong administrators equip teachers with the appropriate amount of non-confidential knowledge regarding change for
two reasons. First, the changes must make sense to the teachers to gain their support. Second, the teachers must have
enough information to clearly explain and defend administrative actions to the community. Teachers are encouraged to
ensure that the administration presents a holistic plan for every creation or change of rule.

THE BIG PICTURE

I once worked with an administrator who encouraged every teacher and other professional in his building to
contribute thoughts and suggestions at every opportunity as an on-going method for handling problems that
arose. He always completed this invitation by stating that all proposals would be treated with respect and that
all proposals would be read and considered before any decision was made. He also said that anyone not
contributing to the success of the endeavor forfeited his or her right to complain about the decision.

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15. Cares for Their Students
Successful teachers love working with children and invest heavily in their students’ development. Teachers who care for
their students retain a youthful attitude and are well-suited for the profession. For these teachers, students energize
them and a rm their purpose in life on a daily basis. Their work allows them to express themselves in a productive
manner that improves the lives of their students and influences society positively. At the end of their career, these
teachers remember countless situations where their e orts made a life-changing di erence in a student’s life and
allowed children to meet or exceed their own expectations. It is a life worth living and a profession worth loving.

THE BIG PICTURE

 In my formative teaching years, I was frustrated by a couple of students who simply would not behave in class. A
veteran teacher o ered her advice saying, “You know these trouble-makers just want to be loved.” In my
opinion, these students did not want to be loved but wanted a free ticket to the principal’s o ce, which I was
happy to give them at the time. However, I came to see that she was right. In many instances your problem
students may be experiencing some sort of stress or are just seeking out your attention.

For teachers who do not like working with children, teaching is not the best option for a lifelong career. It is a challenging
profession that involves a degree of physical labor, a tremendous mental outlay, and an even greater emotional
investment. To approach it with an apathetic attitude towards children makes each day long and exhausting. It is easy for
teachers to forgive students their shortcomings and work tirelessly on their behalf when they feel love and concern for
them. It is a source of daily frustration when they do not. Likewise, it is easy for students to work hard to please teachers
who demonstrate a caring and supportive attitude.

THE BIG PICTURE

A middle school principal once told me that he had received a record number of phone calls and personal visits
from parents regarding a certain teacher. When I inquired about the reason, the principal simply said that the
teacher did not like children and would always be on bad terms with parents as a result.

TEACHER TIP
Not everyone is well suited to be a teacher. If you are not certain of your career choice, try
an intermediate step such as coaching a Parks and Recreation team, teaching a Sunday
School class, or coordinating a boy or girl scout pack. If working with young people
energizes you and you find the patience to work with them even when others do not, and if
you can feel sympathy for those who are challenging to work with, then you have found a
lifelong profession that will challenge, sustain, and enrich your life.

When a teacher does not demonstrate such caring and concern, even correcting a student for a minor issue such as
forgetting to bring a pencil for five days in a row may create an unsustainable situation. These teachers receive few of the
expressions of gratitude and a ection generously given to other teachers. The day to day interaction with students
becomes a grind and the teacher’s only relief is during weekends, holidays, and summer vacation. Without a love for
students, therefore, teaching becomes a grueling profession that should be avoided for the benefit of both the teacher
and the students.

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16. Creates a Caring and Welcoming Learning Environment
Students realize when a teacher cares about them as a person. Likewise, they are aware when a teacher is indi erent.
Successful teachers know that teaching is a personal event that is based on a connection between the teacher and the
student. This one-to-one connection occurs regardless of how many students are present in the class. Successful
teachers also know that students respond better to a teacher who likes them and who has taken the time to get to know
them on a personal level.

THE BIG PICTURE

I recently asked current teachers to describe one of their own favorite school teachers. One of the most
common responses was that their favorite teacher always took the time to make them feel welcome and made
them feel like they were part of a community.

One of the most important aspects of teaching is the creation of a student-centered learning environment where all
students are challenged to reach their full potential and are not inhibited by teacher-made obstacles. Successful teachers
construct a variety of learning environments that include all students and appeal to their desire for advancement.

To implement this goal, the first item of importance is the climate established by the teacher. This determines whether a
student feels welcomed and has a sense of belonging in the class. Students who feel accepted as a full member of the
class are more likely to perform well and less likely to cause trouble than students who feel left out or unappreciated. So
what can a teacher do to instill a feeling of togetherness?

Teachers can create a sense of team membership within the class by means of several deliberate actions, which are best
performed at the beginning of the year and modified or repeated as new students are added to the class. One of the best
ways to build a team is to provide team building activities, of which there are an endless number of variations to choose
from. The purpose is to have all of the members act cooperatively to focus on a goal.

It is important that the challenges be arranged so that students receive the full benefit of the strategy. For example, all
activities should be within reach of the students’ abilities. The first challenges should be non-competitive, active, and
simple to allow for name recognition and the celebration of a successful solution. A successful beginning is imperative.
Everybody likes to be on a winning team and nobody wants to be on one that is losing.

As the team building proceeds and the teams mature, the activities may become more complicated. Increasing the
complexity of the challenges forces the students to interact at a di erent level and to learn to delegate responsibilities.
The team may even subdivide for extreme challenges in order to better utilize each person’s abilities. A fully functioning
team is one in which all of the students are actively involved in moving their team toward a goal, are comfortable working
with established roles and procedures, and are capable of constructing new knowledge by evaluating the input of all
members.

TEACHER TIP
 Whole class team building exercises are a good use of class time. However, the teacher
must continually monitor the students to prevent certain students from being excluded
from the activity. This must occur in such a way that the teacher does not appear to be
controlling the team building e orts of the students.

The teacher should decide if the team building activity is designed for the entire class or for small groups within the class.
Whole class teams are slow and often cumbersome but are highly e ective in bringing the class together. A good activity
for the entire class might be the production of a school play, the creation of a schoolyard habitat, or the formulation of a
school-wide recycling model.

Smaller teams are usually more e cient, which allows them to reach greater levels of specialization with one member
serving as the leader and other members filling specific roles. Functional groups may also reach a level of comfort where
they can redefine the task, subdivide into groups according to function, elect subgroup leaders, and reconvene to
assemble results.

One potential problem with small-group team building is that the groups often become so independent that they do not
need the rest of the class to proceed with their learning; they become islands. In a more extreme version, certain groups
may label other groups as inferior, which defeats the purpose of team building. To prevent this from happening, teachers
can reorganize the members of the groups on a regular basis, such as at the beginning of every new activity.

THE BIG PICTURE

I know an elementary teacher who planned a team building sequence of activities with his class at the start of
the year. His principal was so pleased by the results that she arranged for the rest of her teachers to complete a
similar sequence at the next sta development day.

TEACHER TIP
A strong sense of compassion for all students is fundamental to creating an inviting
environment. Caring about students who exhibit di cult behavior is a challenging
assignment for teachers, but those teachers who are compassionate are repaid many times
over in student success stories.

Teachers who take the time to work with students as individuals show that they care. For example, when teachers learn
their students’ names and call them by name, students feel welcome in the classroom. Students who are allowed to
express themselves completely and receive positive comments from the teacher and from other students feel
appreciated. Teachers who challenge individuals with personalized projects or assignments promote positive feelings. In
addition, teachers who miss students when they are absent confirm their sense of belonging in the class.
It is commonly held that students who feel that they are an PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
integral part of a class perform better than those who feel Teachers who create a sense of belonging and
alienated. Successful teachers view each child as a whole person teamwork within their classroom have fewer
consisting of many di erent parts, and they provide the discipline problems.
environment to embrace students’ uniqueness in ways that
promote their achievement.

11 Things to Remember about the Characteristics of Successful Teachers

1. New teachers can learn many crucial lessons from successful teachers.

2. Teaching is a profession and not merely a job. There is an unwritten code of conduct
that accompanies this profession and new teachers should learn it quickly.

3. Successful teachers model professionalism.

4. Significance is the ability to a ect a meaningful, positive change that has lasting e ects.

5. Successful teachers will remain significant to their students for years to come.

6. It does not matter whether teachers received preparation for teaching in college or from previous careers. Both
are highly qualified and can enhance each other’s techniques when allowed to collaborate.

7. Successful teachers use techniques to improve student learning and their ability to
remember the learning.

8. Creative teachers assemble resources to convert simple classrooms into diverse

learning environments that match the lesson and the aptitudes of the students.

9. Teachers serve as leaders and crisis managers during a school emergency.

10. It is important to remain current on all school procedures and changes.

11. Not every veteran teacher exhibits all of the characteristics of a successful teacher all of the time.

Video Review: Characteristics of Successful Teachers (13:57)

0:00 / 13:57
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supports HTML5 video

Review Questions
1. Which of the characteristics of successful teachers do you already possess? Which characteristics will be a
challenge for you to acquire? What will you do to try and incorporate these characteristics into your personal style?

2. List and explain any characteristics of successful teachers that you feel would belong on your list. Explain how
they would be helpful to you as a teacher.

3. Explain the advantages that a second-career teacher might have that a college trained first-year teacher might not
possess.

4. What does it mean to be a professional? What are the characteristics of a professional? In which ways is the
teaching profession similar to and di erent from other professions?

5. How is it possible for a teacher to remain cool, calm, and collected during a school emergency?

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T W O R K SHO P

Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of successful teachers.

1. Adalsteinsdotter, Kristin. “Teachers Behaviour and Practices in the Classroom”. Scandanavian Journal of
Education Research. 48.1 (2004): 95-113.

2. Attell, Monica. “What A Performance!” Teaching Pre K-8. 5 January 2007.

http://www.teachingk-8.com/archives/articles/what_a_performance_by_monica_attell.html

3. Billingsley, Bonnie S. “Beginning Special Educators: Characteristics, Qualifications , and Experiences.” Study of
Personnel Needs in Special Education. 2002. University of Florida Department of Special Education. 5 January 2007.

4. Brown, Nigel. “What Makes a Good Educator? The Relevance of Metta Programmes”. Assessment and
Evaluation in Higher Education. 29.5 (2004): 515-533.

5. Fulton, Kathleen, et al. “Induction Into Learning Communities”. National Commission on Teaching and America’s
Future. 2005. Available from NCTAF.
 6. Korthagen, Fred A.J. “In Search of the Essence of a Good Teacher: Towards a More Holistic Approach in Teacher
Education”. Teaching & Teacher Education: An International Journal Research and Studies. 20.1. (2004): 77-97.

7. McArdle, Karen and Norman Coutts. “A Strong Core of Qualities—A Model of the Professional Educator that
Moves Beyond Reflection”. Studies in Continuing Eduction. 25.2 (2003): 225-237.

8. Murphy, Karen P., et al. “The Good Teacher and Good Teaching: Comparing Beliefs of Second-Grade Students,
Preservice Teachers, And Inservice Teachers”. Journal of Experimental Education. 72.2 (2004): 69-92. Available from
Heldref Publications.

9. Opdenakker, Marie-Christine., and Jan Van Damme. “Teacher Characteristics and Teaching Styles as
E ectiveness Enhancing Factors of Classroom Practice”. Teaching & Teacher Education: An International Journal of
Research and Studies. 22.1 (2006):1-21. Available from ScienceDirect.com.

10. Xu, Zeyu. and Charisse Gulosino. “How Does Teacher Quality Matter? The E ect of Teacher-Parent Partnership
on Early Childhood Performance in Public and Private Schools”. Education Economics. 14.3 (2006): 345-367. Available
from IngentaConnect.

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Techniques for Addressing Student Discipline

Problems Part I
Objective
In this workshop we will introduce the topic of classroom management. This lesson will address:

Starting the School Year on the Right Foot

Minimizing Discipline Problems Once School Has Begun

Identifying Class Procedures and Expectations

Introduction
The one problem all beginning teachers struggle with is controlling inappropriate student behavior. Students have unique
backgrounds and experiences, so every day the teacher needs to address a wide spectrum of individual student needs.
On some days the needs of one student may conflict with those of another student or with the intent of the teacher. This
makes life interesting for a typical teacher. Appropriate student behavior is critical to establishing and maintaining a
learning environment. Student behavior must be under control and directed toward active learning. Some students arrive
ready to learn, some arrive ready to disrupt learning, and some do little more than just arrive. It is the job of the teacher
to move all students toward learning.

As a new teacher, it is helpful to visualize student problems in advance and prepare options for their remediation. Talking
with peer teachers, mentor teachers, and administrators is a good place to start. This workshop will help you formulate
your classroom management strategies to minimize student discipline problems.

A number of subtle discipline strategies are presented that are particularly useful for smaller, misdemeanor types of
o enses. Why use a jackhammer to drive a nail when a normal hammer will do the job more quickly and e ciently? In
many cases, subtle disciplinary responses are better suited to solving problems and preventing them from recurring
because they provide opportunities for the teacher to remind the students of existing class rules in a non-threatening
way, and they do so without a ecting the flow of the lesson. A wise teacher can maintain class control so subtlety that the
majority of the students in class are unaware she is even doing it.

For students who need more structure, models for a progressive discipline plan are presented in such a manner that they
can be easily modified for use in any new teacher’s classroom. Additionally, a sample Student Daily Disciplinary Form and
a Student Cumulative Disciplinary Form are provided that can be used to track continuing discipline problems when
additional record keeping is required.

It is the teacher’s responsibility to create and enforce the rules. If the students help create the rules for their own
classroom, they are more likely to remember and abide by them. Ideas are provided which allow students a modicum of
ownership in the creation of these rules and the consequences for not abiding by them. Tactics are presented which allow
the teacher to facilitate the development of their own rules that coincide with existing school rules.

Sometimes students do not want to do what is in their best interest. When that happens the teacher needs a tool box full
of responses that vary from gentle and passive to confrontational and aggressive in order to deal with any discipline
problems that arise. Additionally, a narrative is included that helps identify reasons for student misbehavior and how to
tweak your disciplinary plan for maximum e ectiveness. A sample Student Behavioral Contract and an O ce Referral
Form are available for use or modification.

Once you have completed this workshop, you will be able to develop a Progressive Discipline Model (PDM) and will
understand strategies to manage student behavior in a wide variety of scenarios.

Starting the School Year on the Right Foot

Behavioral modification techniques must be used e ectively and consistently throughout the school year in order to
keep students focused. However, there are a few things you can do very early in the school year to minimize later student
behavior problems:

Learn the students’ names as quickly as possible. The sooner, the better, so the first day is the best. Experienced
teachers often have an opening activity involving the use of their students’ names to help them to remember them
more quickly. One such activity asks the student to name something they like that begins with the same letter as
their name. An appropriate response would be, “My name is Megan and I like monkeys.” The teacher then calls on a
second student and has her repeat the preceding student’s name and choice. The third student called must then
repeat the information for the previous two students. This procedure repeats until all of the students have been
identified, each student responsible for one more name than the last. The teacher ends the activity by naming all of
the students before the instructional period is over. Calling a student by name is a powerful tool.
 Be positive. Teachers who expect and emphasize good things in class receive more of them, and vice-versa.
Students need to know what the teacher expects of them. The teacher must then create lessons that direct the
students to meet or exceed this level of expectation. Before, during, and after that happens, the teacher provides a
positive outlook and expects success. An experienced teacher never misses an opportunity to praise a child for good
behavior, quality work, or continued e ort.

Be prepared. Have a structured, student-centered lesson that requires students to remain attentive and active.
Idle hands are the devil’s workshop; idle heads magnify the problem.

Begin class with an introductory engagement activity (IEA). This is also known as a pre-operational set or “warm-
up.” The IEA allows the class to begin as the students enter the room, not when the teacher decides to begin class.
Most IEAs are displayed in the same prominent location every day so the students can see them as they enter the
room. An e ective IEA may ask the students to respond to a question from a previous lesson or begin previewing
today’s lesson. It is designed to focus the attention of the students while preparing them to learn so that the teacher
may complete clerical duties such as taking attendance. Most discipline problems occur at the beginning and the
end of class, and IEAs help to get the class period started on the right foot.

Have the students complete an information card on the first day. Make sure it contains the home and work phone
numbers and names of their parents or legal guardians, as well as the best time to reach them. Make sure the
students include their parent’s first and last names (in case the parent’s and student’s last name are di erent). Keep
it on file for the entire year. If you have a phone in your classroom, verifying a parent’s work phone number during in
class is a mild deterrent for student misbehavior.

Be the first one in class or remain in the doorway to greet each student as they arrive to class. A lion tamer is always
present in a cage before the animals are introduced. It shows that the trainer is in control of the space. Similarly, to
tame your own savage beasts, you should be the first in and last out of your room in order to stake your claim that it
is your territory and that peaceful coexistence with you in that territory requires abiding by your rules. Use in
conjunction with an IEA.

Familiarize the students with the class rules and penalties the first week of school. Students will usually give you a
week or two to establish control of the classroom. During this “honeymoon period,” insist on proper student
behavior, citizenship, and self-discipline. It’s the best time to set the tone and work ethic of the class. Teacher actions
even on the first day form an impression with the students that will last for the entire school year.

Many new teachers make the mistake of waiting too long to identify and enforce their rules. The best first step to
establishing classroom discipline is to take steps on the first day.

THE BIG PICTURE

 I noticed once that a particular teacher always stood in the doorway and shook hands with each student that
entered his class. He told me that by greeting each student and looking them in the eye, he had a head start on
preventing problems and getting them into a learning mode. I checked later to discover that he has virtually no
discipline problems that are referred to the administration.

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Minimizing Discipline Problems Once School Has Begun
The benefits of beginning the year on the right disciplinary foot cannot be emphasized enough. However, the entire task
of establishing an orderly classroom is not complete once the foundation has been laid. You must build upon that
foundation for the remainder of the school year. Here are a few things to keep in mind:

Enforce class rules in a clear, fair, and consistent manner. All of the rules apply to all of the students. Do not enforce
your policies for some students but not for others. Furthermore, ensure that equal punishments are meted out for equal
behavioral infractions. Once students suspect that you favor one student over another, even if those suspicions are
groundless, your leadership in the classroom has been compromised. Students expect you to be fair, and in their situation,
you would expect the same.

Eliminate visual barriers between you and your students. This typically happens when the teacher is behind his desk
and students approach to hand in an assignment or a test. The visual barrier prevents the teacher from full view of the class.
When this occurs, watchful students may take the opportunity to create havoc. Position students so that they are always
standing by your side, not directly in front of you.

Position yourself so you can always see the entire class. Often teachers circulate around the room (which is a good
thing), but end up turning their back on parts of the class for a prolonged period of time while they help a student (which is
a bad thing). Continuously move about the room in a manner that allows the teacher to see as many students as possible.
Avoid prolonged standing in a position that places students at your back.

Use the document camera or LCD/overhead projector instead of the chalkboard/whiteboard. The overhead allows
teachers to face the class and maintain eye contact with students. It also allows the teacher to use pre-made transparencies,
eliminating the need to write in front of the class. If class control is a problem, avoid writing on the chalkboard because it
requires you to turn your back on the class.

TEACHER TIP
Be proactive. Check with your guidance department before school begins to identify
students who may need special attention and then proceed to di erentiate lessons
accordingly.

Constantly circulate throughout the room. When a teacher moves around, the students sense that the teacher uses
the entire space and the “front” of the room can be any location. When giving a test, it is helpful to sit behind the students
so they do not know exactly where the teacher is located or where the teacher is looking. A student who is looking around
while taking a test is either trying to find the teacher for help or they are looking to see if the teacher is watching.
 Handle discipline problems promptly. If you wait too long to take action, that action will have little e ect. Besides, the
longer you wait to act, the worse the situation can get.

Adjust the location of student desks to promote or limit student-student interaction. Placing students in rows
limits interaction; placing desks together in small groups enhances student-student interaction. Students working in
cooperative groups are not as noisy if their desks are pushed together. The teacher can always direct the class to rearrange
the seating before and after the activity. All seating arrangements must allow the teacher easy access and close proximity to
all students.

Determine whether or not the student has been correctly assigned to your class. Guidance counselors have been
known to make mistakes (usually from a lack of quality information or from a simple clerical error), like placing a student
into an advanced class instead of an introductory or on-level class. These students are easy to identify and often ask the
teacher why they are in that class. The teacher simply needs to connect with the appropriate guidance counselor to remedy
the situation. Not correcting the error may doom a student to sit in a class for which the pre-requisites have not been met.
This is especially di cult for student enrolled in sequential courses that require and build upon prior learning such as
foreign language and mathematics instruction.

Ensure that your students are able to keep up with the curriculum. A student that is hopelessly lost, for whatever
reason, is a potential classroom disruption waiting to explode. In this case, the teacher needs an intervention/remediation
plan to bring the student up to an acceptable level of performance. This plan may include di erential instruction, peer or
professional tutoring, or make-up sessions conducted during lunch or after school.

TEACHER TIP
A teacher unwilling to provide appropriate lesson plans for substitute teachers creates a
position that cannot be defended by the administration. It also makes it di cult to recruit
substitute teachers.

Implement appropriate accommodations when necessary. A student physically unable to actively learn is at a
severe disadvantage in subjects such as physical education and fine arts. Instructional accommodations are needed
to keep these students engaged in the instruction. Other physical limitations, such as deafness and blindness,
prevent a ected students from complete and total access to the curriculum and may create a sense of frustration
and hopelessness in the student. Fortunately, students with physical limitations are identified by the school and the
information is shared with the teacher so that proper accommodations can be provided.

Monitor students who are absent from the classroom for any length of time. New students or students returning
from the hospital, home recovery of an illness, or extended vacations may lag behind the rest of the class due to
missing too much instruction. A wise teacher shares curriculum, helps with lesson planning, and provides resources
for itinerant teachers and arranges support for new students or students returning to class after a prolonged
absence.Use Form A to communicate with a substitute or other specialized teacher. Note that this form may be
amended to suit the particular needs of the user. It can be used as a monthly, weekly, or daily lesson plan. When
completed, this document should communicate exactly what the substitute teacher should accomplish and how it
 should be accomplished, without any misinterpretation. It can also be used as an emergency lesson plan to be filed
with the school administrator for those unfortunate days where unusual circumstances require the teacher to be out
of school.

An organized and well-managed classroom is like a living organism, requiring constant attention and maintenance to
ensure its continued good heath.

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Identifying Class Procedures and Expectations
As the leader of the classroom, you have to define what behaviors are acceptable. Whereas some rules and procedures
are universal, the following classroom characteristics are not. All teachers are di erent, as is the learning atmosphere in
each of their classrooms:

Define what acceptable class participation looks like. Does the teacher expect the students to sit passively as they
absorb learning from the teacher or is it okay for students to roam freely about the room? Likewise, when are students
encouraged to share in a whole class discussion?

Describe the rules that govern student interaction. When students work cooperatively or in groups, what are the
rules? A clear reminder of pre-existing rules and classroom reorganization can prevent pandemonium and increase
productivity.

Clarify what is implied by “independent work time.” Does it mean that students have to work alone? Do they have to
sit by themselves? Are they allowed to talk? Until the pattern is established by the teacher, student confusion may escalate
to and become student choice, which may strike against lesson intent. Make sure you define the parameters of your
activities, rather than forcing your students to improvise as the activities unfold.

TEACHER TIP
Di erent types of instruction and modality should come with a set of rules and
expectations. The moments spent in transition between lessons are the ideal time to
remind students of these rules and expectations.

Communicate the details of your homework policy. Homework extends the learning process and is an essential
component of students’ academic and character development. Clarify in advance whether the students are allowed to have
assistance—whether parent or peer—or whether each assignment is a solo event. The teacher may introduce specific
limitations on particular homework assignments such as no internet surfing or references allowed. Note that if no
limitations are clearly declared in advance by the teacher, then no penalty can be assessed if 21 assignments look identical.

Model the correct procedures for handling and storing equipment and materials before allowing the students to
work with them. Subjects like art and chemistry have elaborate, expensive, and easily broken equipment. In certain
subjects like industrial arts, the students may have to pass a practicum before using a particular piece of machinery.
Included with these procedures are the appropriate times for wearing safety glasses, aprons, and other items of protective
 clothing as well as the location of the safety shower, eyewash, and fire extinguisher. A lack of rules or enforcement of rules
can lead to a student and/or teacher injury and resultant lawsuits. An ounce of precaution is better than a pound of your
flesh.

Define a clear policy for late assignments. Late assignments, whether from class work or homework, require exquisite
record-keeping by the teacher. Late assignments will happen. Students get sick or leave on vacation and miss school;
students daydream in class and forget to turn in their assignment; students don’t start on the assignment until after it is
past due. Most teachers develop a plan for easy access and entry into their record keeping system. Some teachers code late
assignments to note the reason, whether excused or unexcused. Other teachers allow a grace period for turning in late work
while other teachers do not accept late assignments. Given evidence that demonstrates a legitimate reason for late work,
most teachers will accept such an assignment without imposing a penalty.

TEACHER TIP
Check with your school before deciding your late assignment policy method. Most schools
have a procedure for accepting late work.

Seize opportune moments to instruct students how to “play fair.” Whether it involves a classroom situation or an
outside recess activity, specific instruction concerning how to pick teams, how to line up, how to pass in single file,
and how to handle disagreements, when reinforced at the teachable moment, are e ective in preventing future
problems.

Employ all of the above strategies in a judicious, timely manner, and in a sequence most effective for the given
situation. The ability to make complex judgments based on the seriousness of a behavioral o ense, the atmosphere
of the classroom, and the previous history of a student comes with experience and forethought.

The clarity of communication between a teacher and his students is commensurate with his potential success in the
classroom. After all, one cannot enforce rules that aren’t first understood by all parties involved.

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T W O R K SHO P

Techniques for Addressing Student Discipline

Problems Part II
Objective
In this lesson, we will discuss:

Subtle Disciplinary Strategies

Moderately Aggressive Disciplinary Strategies

Implementing a Structured Discipline Plan

Progressive Discipline Scenarios

The Consequences of a Referral

Ten Things to Remember About Student Discipline

Subtle Disciplinary Strategies

The best way to control improper student behavior is to prevent it from happening. Experienced teachers employ a
number of techniques that prevent or minimize student disruptions so that students remain focused on instruction. The
following examples are a normal and regularly-occurring element in most teachers’ “behavioral toolbox.” They are
designed to prevent student misbehavior or minimize it when disruptive situations arise, thereby keeping students out of
trouble while encouraging learning. These tactics are, for the most part, non-intrusive and allow for the continued flow of
the lesson.

Teachers may choose to use a number of subtle ways to handle discipline problems when an overt, aggressive approach
is not mandated by the situation, such as:
 Employ the “evil eye.” Maintain obvious, non-blinking eye contact with the o ending student until the desired outcome
occurs. If this isn’t enough of a warning, often an accompanying audible sigh of exasperation and a momentary cessation of
class is enough. This technique also alerts the rest of the class that the targeted student is on thin ice. The o ending
student continues to receive glances from the teacher to prevent a recurrence of the troublesome behavior.

Ask the student to stop misbehaving. This is a mild rebuke, a casual directive, and should not be extended beyond a
simple remark with accompanying eye contact. This act should also be followed at a later time with a positive comment
when the student cooperates. In some cases it may be as simple as asking a student to stop talking so the class may
continue. Following student cooperation, the teacher should continue to monitor this student’s behavior in an obvious
manner in order to discourage further problems.

Move to or stand in close proximity to the troublesome student. Often students will get the message from this subtle
change in location. Close proximity to a student has a quieting e ect on most students. This technique is e ective and has
the least disruptive e ect on the flow of the lesson. It also alerts the surrounding students. The teacher should move away
from the student once the behavior is under control. Continued surveillance is needed as a preventative measure.

Ask the troubling student to recite, read, or respond. This action directs the class’ attention to the problem. The
o ending student gets the message and relents. Requiring the student to respond vocally has another benefit: it may help
the o ending student to realize that by not paying attention, she is failing to understand the lesson. At the very least, the
recitation may take the student’s mind o of the misbehavior so class can proceed. It also sends a message to the student
that the teacher is aware of the situation.

Tell the student to remain once class is dismissed. Once the other members of class have left, the student should be
again told that the o ending behavior is unacceptable. Outside of class, if time permits, the teacher may also ask the
student if there is something wrong that may be a ecting the classroom behavior. In a closed, one-on-one situation, often
students will open up and provide a solution to their own problem. For instance, they may explain that they are seated in a
distracting area, perhaps around friends and would like to be moved.

TEACHER TIP
Avoid being alone with a student. Confidential conversations may be held in a room with
the door open and with other teachers within visual range of the situation.

Move the student’s seat. This is a more aggressive strategy, best accompanied by a verbal warning, and is often the final
step a teacher takes before implementing a more structured and severe disciplinary plan. Examine the floor plan and array
of student seats to make sure there is an island, or semi-isolated location, for o ending students. Teachers sometimes move
disruptive students to a location in front of the class where they are in continual proximity and line of sight. Though it does
disrupt the lesson, sometimes breaking the flow of class is a positive move as it demonstrates the seriousness of the issue.

Call parents. This strategy is very e ective. Contacting the parents serves as a deterrent when the parents are involved
early and therefore have an opportunity to intervene and persuade their child to behave themselves in a better manner.
Open and continued communication with parents presents a coordinated e ort to improve student behavior.

Plan lessons that last for the entire class period. Most students will not politely wait until the end of class once the
lesson is completed. Given free time due to a lesson that ends early, students will create their own diversions and
 entertainment to while away the empty minutes. Begin each lesson with a structured activity. If the lesson plan ends before
the time allotment allows, the teacher can continue the lesson in a variety of ways, such as providing a unit summary in
preparation for a quiz or test, giving the students a chance to display what they know on an impromptu formative quiz, or
allowing the students extra time to practice solving sample problems.

Use humor to wade through tense situations and to put students at ease. Humor is especially e ective for
misdemeanor items such as talking in class. Some of the most e ective types of humor involve a positive aspect about a
student. For instance the teacher may have prior knowledge about a student who won an award at a cheerleading
competition the previous weekend and can use that information to say to a student, “After that cheering competition you
guys won last weekend, I didn’t think you’d have the vocal chords left to talk over me during class this week.” Demeaning or
sarcastic humor should be avoided, as should using humor as a behavior control technique before the teacher has
established control of the class. Never try to be funny in the face of serious misconduct.

Interestingly, humor is often successful with tough-minded students. Through bad treatment, some students are
hardened beyond their years and are considerably tougher than their teachers. For tough students who come from a
tough background, the teacher may be the only friendly face and soft-spoken adult they see on a daily basis. Most tough
students have an emotional callus that deflects all incoming insults and mean treatment. They may also react with the
anger and violence that has been modeled for them through their environment. Surprisingly, they are often defenseless
against someone in authority who is nice to them. The standard warning goes with this technique: Do not let the student
take advantage of the situation and receive preferential treatment after the reprimand is complete.

TEACHER TIP
Inserting humor into a tense situation allows the student(s) to get out of a situation
without losing face.

Love thy neighbor. Students first sense and later know whether a teacher likes or even cares about them. A loving
teacher is one who looks for ways to help students; a statue teacher is more interested in delivering content
regardless of whether the students learn it or not. A loving teacher meets students on their academic and social level
and di erentiates instruction accordingly to improve the academic standing of all students. Rigid teachers often
think their students are too ignorant or lazy even to be in their classes. The loving teacher is disappointed when their
students do not perform well; a frozen teacher blames the students for their failure or states that the students got
what they deserved.

TEACHER TIP
Do not be judgmental. Students are in their formative years and change daily. They
have the youthful capacity to reinvent themselves like a Phoenix if they have the right
support and opportunity.
 Loving teachers teach students, and everyone else teaches curriculum. As you probably realize, students prefer a
loving teacher. Because of this, students often go out of their way to be kind and pleasant to that teacher. They are
usually the students’ choice for Teacher of the Year. Discipline problems are minimal and the loving teacher seldom
has the occasion to employ extreme disciplinary measures or send a student to the administrator. Conversely,
normal students can also be monsters to a teacher that they do not like. People who like students may become great
teachers, but teachers who do not like students will never receive the satisfaction of being a great teacher.

The vast majority of your disciplinary strategies should be subtle in nature. Although you must learn to use them
appropriately, they quickly become instinctual.

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Moderately Aggressive Disciplinary Strategies
Sometimes non-threatening disciplinary strategies fail to work. What should you do if that happens? First of all, realize
that no discipline tactic works for all students all of the time. The following approaches are common in the teaching
profession, but your mileage will vary depending upon your students, your personality, your school, and an infinitely large
collection of other variables. When to use the correct preventative response is a function of teacher experience. You will
make mistakes, but as long as you learn from them, the mistakes are worthwhile.

These moderately aggressive strategies are less subtle than the preceding list and are best applied only when subtle
strategies have failed or are unlikely to resolve the issue at hand.

Delivering Verbal Reprimands

A verbal reprimand is a direct, in-class address to a particular student that contains the following elements: student
name, description of the rule violated, corrective actions needed by the student, and the consequences imposed by the
teacher if the student does not comply. The reprimand should not be a crazed shout, but rather delivered in a calm
manner while maintaining direct eye contact. The purpose is to confront the student, identify the problem, provide a
means to correct it, and lay the groundwork for possible escalation of consequences if the misbehavior continues. A
verbal reprimand is intended to send a clear message to the student to correct poor behavior or face additional
consequences.

If you find that you are verbally reprimanding students repeatedly, then it may be a sign of something else. It may simply
be that the students are not impressed by a verbal reprimand. Unfortunately, some children come from dysfunctional
families where the child may be screamed at on a regular basis. If that is the case, your verbal reprimand may not be seen
as a big deal.

Your reprimand may be ine ective; consider your technique. Be conscious of the tone of your voice, your position in the
room, your posture, and your eye contact. There is a delicate balance that must be maintained. On one hand, you do not
want to verbally (or literally) back a student in a corner. A cornered student may react out of fear and adrenalin, like a
cornered animal, which bodes poorly for his responses to the teacher. On the other hand, the teacher must present a
position of power and authority at all times, especially when reprimanding a student. It is a good idea to arrange the
classroom so that the teacher can easily move throughout the room and gain proximity to all students.

THE BIG PICTURE

One teacher I know developed a special tone of voice to use when verbally reprimanding a student. It was not a
yell or scream, but an unusually high-pitched note that was reserved for this occasion. He also asked the
reprimand in the form of a question, such as, “Do you think I should allow you to sit there and disrupt the class
with your incessant noise-making?” Like a rattlesnake uses a distinctive sound to warn of a venomous strike, so
too this teacher used a unique tone of voice to warn of unpleasantness.

Keep the following precautions in mind when using verbal reprimands:

Don’t walk away from the student as you deliver your warning. It will be interpreted as weakness. Literally stand
your ground as you metaphorically do the same.

Do not scream at a student. Yelling at members of your class severely limits the way they can respond to you.
Basically, it gives them two options: stand their ground and get in worse trouble or submit and lose face with their
peers. If you don’t want the student to yell and be disrespectful to you, then act in kind.

Do not invade a child’s personal space during a reprimand. Doing so belittles the student and may stimulate a
knee-jerk reaction by the student that makes things worse. Select a position in the classroom where you can deliver
your verbal warning shot so that everyone (especially the o ending student) can see and hear you clearly. If, even for
a moment, a child feels you are a physical threat, your actions become indefensible to parents and the
administration.

Reprimand the student immediately and by name. Do not wait until the end of class and say, “I saw some people
copying o each other’s work, and I want you to know that’s against the rules.” Stop what you are doing, look directly
into the eyes of the o ending student, describe the disruptive behavior, describe acceptable behavior, refer to the
class rules, and announce this event as a verbal warning. For instance, you could say “John, stop copying o of
Megan’s paper. You know that’s unacceptable behavior. This is not a group project, so you have no business looking
at anyone’s paper but your own. I don’t want to see you, or anyone else in this room, with eyes pointed anywhere but
straight at your own desks. Understood?”

Verbal warnings are very e ective if handled correctly. They are one of the lowest and least obtrusive forms of
intermediate student discipline. Be careful to read the situation: the student’s demeanor, causative agents, and then
deliver a reprimand that corrects the student behavior without belittling the student.

Writing Names on the Board

 TEACHER TIP
You can write the student’s name on a sheet of paper at your desk, in your grade book, or
other a non-public location. This removes the glamour from the event and makes it less
desirable for the student.

Writing a student’s name on the board is a good way to reprimand most students. There’s something powerful about
seeing a written record of wrongdoing on the board that constantly and silently reinforces your classroom expectations
and rules. There are some students, however, who like to see their name on the board. It is a form of positive
reinforcement, an advertisement for bad behavior, and they will actively try to maintain their “celebrity status.” In such
cases, choose a di erent disciplinary path.

Assigning Detention
Detention requires the student to remain in a location at an inconvenient time as a form of punishment. Typically
detentions are held before or after school or during lunch. Some detentions are held on Friday after school or Saturday
morning for greater inconvenience. The detention is magnified if the student is also given a meaningful assignment to
complete, such as extra arithmetic problems to solve or a passage to read. Note that detention may require the parents
to provide transportation, which provides the opportunity to confer with the parents and elicit their support to prevent
further discipline problems.

Believe it or not, some students look for creative ways to wind up with detention. There are two common explanations for
this odd type of behavioral pattern:

The student likes, and wishes to spend more time with, the teacher. This is especially true if lunch detention is held
by the teacher in the teacher’s room. In such cases, assign after-school detentions or lunch detentions that are monitored by
an administrator or another teacher.

TEACHER TIP
A student that is very attracted to a teacher is a career-ending catastrophe waiting to
happen. Do not be alone with the student for any reason in any location. This preventive
behavior is in the best interest of both parties. Do not present a private situation in which
the student may feel emboldened to act upon his feelings or to fabricate a tale that no
other witness could dispute. In the case of sexual harassment between a student and a
teacher, “he said/she said” is more accurately described as “he said/she’s fired.”

The student would rather stay after school than go home. As little as older students seem to want to be in school,
they think it is cool to stay at school after hours. The students get to see their teachers in a di erent light, which is
fascinating to them. They can also stay for detention and then afterward go to the after-school dance, athletic event,
or other activity without having to arrange transportation. In fact, it may be easier for them to stay after school rather
 than go home and come back later. Unfortunately, sometimes a student’s home situation is a disaster and they
would rather be anywhere but at home.

Calling Parents
Parent phone calls are probably the most overlooked and e ective technique that teachers possess. An e ective parent
phone call is made on the day of the classroom disturbance, clearly describes the events that precipitated the call,
identifies any previous incidents and the consequences meted out, and suggests a course of action to address the
behavioral problem that is based upon a parent-teacher partnership. Use Form C, the Student Cumulative Discipline
Record Form, and Form E, the O ce Referral Form, to bring the parent up to speed on any prior history between you and
the student very quickly.

If your students filled out a personal information card at the beginning of the school year, you’ll have phone numbers at
which the parent can be reached and the hours you should call. When in doubt, call at dinner time and ask for a parent.
Be prepared! Most parents do not want to hear anything bad about their child, so keep the following things in mind
during the call:

Stick to the facts. Honestly and accurately explain the situation, your resolution thus far, and cooperative plans
for the future.

Keep your parenting advice to yourself. Do not tell the parent how to raise their child.

Don’t assume the child has been honest to her parents. Don’t be surprised if the parent does not believe you, or if
the child lies to further the problem. Again, simply state the facts. Be a “broken record” until the reality of the
situation sinks into the parent and the student; the truth tends to come out eventually.

Call parents as soon as you have exhausted your ability to handle the student by subtle or moderate means within
the classroom. Most parents, after an initial period of anger, are very glad that the teacher has called—it shows that
the teacher cares and it allows the parents to get involved. Conversely, one of the worst things a teacher or
administrator can do is fail to inform the parents of a serious or repeated misbehavior and then call to inform the
parents that their child has been disciplined or suspended from school. In such cases, the parent will always blame
the teacher and, appropriately, wonder why they were not informed when they could have intervened and helped
their child. Whenever possible, call parents before you involve school administrators. Go to parents when you feel
you’re in over your head, and then go to administrators once you and the student’s parents need further guidance.

Remember that your class may not be the only problem that child is facing. The parent may also be working with
that child on similar or other discipline matters within the family or with other teachers.

Do not attempt to solve an issue that is beyond your realm of expertise and authority. Parents may be angry at you
and label you a lousy, stupid, and bad teacher. You’ll probably hear a familiar refrain: “Megan doesn’t have any
problems with her other teachers.” If a parent phone call degenerates into an argument or a series of accusations,
invite that parent into the school for a meeting. When the parent arrives, make sure that you are part of a school
 team and do not meet with an angry parent alone. Tell the principal (or other school o cial participating) everything
she needs to know about the situation, so that she is not blindsided or surprised by anything the parent may say.

TEACHER TIP
You are not required to listen to parent profanity, nor are you required to be the parent’s
punching bag. Refer the abusive parent to the administration or guidance counselor for
future actions.

When talking to a parent, keep everything positive, productive, and purposeful. Your job is not to determine whose fault
it is that the student is misbehaving, but to determine what everyone’s going to do about it as a team.

Generating Rules with Student Assistance

Sometimes teachers allow the class to generate their own rules and consequences. It identifies students as individual
stakeholders in the success of the class and promotes adherence to the class rules. The students often consider past
incidents in previous classrooms that interrupted learning, and are able to address those potential distractions
preemptively. Beware that student-generated rules are generally very specific and are accompanied by an abnormally
harsh penalty; therefore, the teacher should help to generalize the rules and the consequences.

TEACHER TIP
Abnormally harsh or unrealistic rules and consequences create an unworkable classroom
environment and cannot be justified to parents.

In order to jump start the brainstorming session, the teacher may present scenarios and ask the students to propose a
rule and a consequence. The scenarios should reflect incidents that are likely to happen during the year. The teacher
then asks leading questions like, “What rule should we make for waiting in line for a drink of water?” or “What type of
behavior is expected when the teacher is talking?” A series of follow-up questions defines the consequence for violation
of the rules. It is usually better to list the consequence for a violation of the rule as the rule is created. The class may wish
to “balance” the consequences upon completion so that the consequence for a minor violation is not more unpleasant
than the violation of a more important rule. Contact a peer or mentor teacher to generate a list of likely scenarios to use
in this activity.

When students construct their own rules and consequences, it provides invaluable insight into the students’ collective
psyche. You learn what is important in their lives and what aspects of class are foremost in their minds. It also minimizes
the needs for an extensive explanation of the class rules and penalties. However, the downside is the initial investment of
time required to create the list. Because the rules should be generated early in the year, the students may be less willing
to speak freely in class, and participation may be agonizingly slow.
 TEACHER TIP
Make sure your class rules are consistent with school policies regarding student discipline.
Share your rules with the building administrators.

Back to Top
Implementing a Structured Discipline Plan
When individual students do not respond well to subtle and moderate disciplinary measures, a more sophisticated
strategy is necessary. At its core, a progressive discipline model (PDM) is a sequence of events designed to address the
habitual rule-breaker. As the number of violations increase, the severity of the consequences increases progressively. So,
if the teacher is confronted with a student who continues to break the rules, the discipline ladder can be enforced in a
fair, predictable, and equitable manner.

The Progressive Discipline Model

The progressive discipline model has several benefits. First, it allows the students to see that the teacher has a
mechanism in place for dealing with student misbehavior. This knowledge helps a good student to resist temptations to
break the rules. Second, a PDM benefits the teacher, because the other students can see that justice is swift and
impartial. In other words, if you commit this particular o ense, then this particular consequence will happen. The action-
reaction, violation-consequence chain is clearly communicated. When the presence of a PDM, itself, fails to deter
inappropriate student behavior, then the components of the PDM are activated by the teacher. Consider the generic
progressive discipline model below:

First o ense Insert consequence

Second o ense Insert consequence

Third o ense Insert consequence

Fourth o ense Insert consequence

Fifth o ense Insert consequence

Serious o ense Insert consequence

The number of o enses that pair with the resultant consequence are created at the discretion of the teacher—some
teachers consider three o enses, rather than five, to be too many. Any more than five o enses usually means that either
the consequences are not severe enough or the student’s habitual rule-breaking cannot be addressed in the classroom
alone; in such cases, the child should probably be referred to an administrator.
The following sample PDMs present several appropriate consequences to choose from as student behavior gets
progressively more disruptive.

Table 1: Elementary School Progressive Discipline Model

First or
second Verbal reprimand; name on board; yellow or red card used as visual warning; time out
o ense

Third or
Sitting away from peers in a chair that identifies rule-breakers; lose portions of free/recess time; call
fourth
home to parents
o ense

Fifth o ense Arrange for parents to shadow student; arrange parent conference; referral to administrator

Severe Immediate referral to administrator; immediate advancement along the PDM (i.e., a single serious
misconduct o ense may constitute two or more typical o enses)

Table 2: Middle School Progressive Discipline Model

First or
second Verbal reprimand; name on board; write the rule 25 times on paper and turn in
o ense

Third or
Call parents; lose free time; write the rule 25 times during lunch detention; write the rule 50 times at
fourth
home and have parents sign it
o ense

Fifth o ense Arrange for parents to shadow student; arrange parent conference; referral to administrator

Severe Immediate referral to administrator; immediate advancement along the PDM (i.e., a single serious
misconduct o ense may constitute two or more typical o enses)

Table 3: High School Progressive Discipline Model

First or Verbal reprimand; after-school or lunch detention; lengthy or repeated detentions; call parents
second
 o ense

Third or
Arrange for parents to shadow student; send note home to parent to be signed; loss of after-school
fourth
privileges (to be coordinated with parent or sponsor of student’s extracurricular activity)
o ense

Fifth
Arrange parent conference; referral to administrator
o ense

Severe Immediate referral to administrator; immediate advancement along the PDM (i.e., a single serious
misconduct o ense may constitute two or more typical o enses)

These sample PDMs are intended to spark your imagination and to help you design your own PDM. Make sure to choose
consequences that you are able to enforce and are allowed to enforce—you can’t assign consequences that would violate
school policy. Remember, the entire purpose of a progressive discipline model is rehabilitating students who are
continually disruptive. When used properly, they reestablish the productivity and deportment of a student, not hassle
and nag the child to the point that restitution and a smooth return to class are impossible.

Notice that the PDM does not directly a ect the student’s grade. For instance, the student does not receive a 5% grade
reduction as a result of poor behavior. It is true that student behavior influences student learning, but you cannot alter a
student’s grade as a result of her ability to conform to the rules of your classroom. Academic prowess and student
behavior are certainly related, but it is legally indefensible to lower a student’s score because of bad behavior.

THE BIG PICTURE

Do not implement grading policies that assesses student behavior. For instance, some teachers build a
“classroom participation” component into student grades, usually 10% of the overall grade, which is too often
abused. Rather than keep careful records of student participation, the system degenerates into a popularity
score. Students the teacher likes are graded generously and students the teacher doesn’t get along with get
penalized. This method inflates the grades of “good” students and creates a hopeless situation for “bad”
students and leaves the teacher unnecessarily susceptible to indefensible criticisms.

Progressive discipline works by advancing a student through increasingly invasive levels of consequences. At some point
most students realize that the consequence is too great and will forego bad behavior. Post your PDM on the wall in a
readable location until everyone understands how it works. For emphasis, use the chart during an actual disciplinary
event to demonstrate how it works.
Progressive models require teachers to keep track of discipline on a daily basis to prevent future problems and to
document past problems. Keep careful records of daily bad behavior when it occurs, especially if the behavior is habitual.
You may want to use Form B, the Student Daily Discipline Form, to record a series of behavioral infractions observed
during a single class period, and Form C, a cumulative student discipline form that tracks and documents instances of a
student’s misconduct over a longer period of time. Feel free to modify the forms so that they better suit your PDM. For
instance, you may want to include a spot for parents to sign the form and thereby communicate to them, in detail, how
the student has violated your class rules and over what span of time it has occurred.

Addressing Serious Misconduct

Once the components of your progressive disciplinary model are in place, it is time to think about refining some of the
scenarios and consequences. Are all of the rule infractions treated the same? Are some infractions more serious than
others? Do some infractions require a stronger consequence than others? For instance, consider the scenario where a
student blurts out an answer in class without being recognized by the teacher. What is the consequence? Consider a
more disruptive example such as a student who is continually talking to a neighbor thereby preventing that student from
being attentive to the lesson. Are the infractions of equal value? Will the consequences be the same in both cases?
Interesting question.

In general, most teachers weigh some infractions more heavily than others. A fight in the hallway or in your class is more
serious than a student who forgets his pencil. Because of this, the wise teacher always prepares for a serious misconduct
event and creates a rule that circumvents the step-wise approach described in the PDM. Examples of serious misconduct
include: fighting, bullying, sexual harassment, threats to the teacher or other students, and possession of a weapon or
controlled substance. When these events occur, the teacher immediately moves to the serious misconduct plan and
bypasses the normal procedure. Notify the school administration, usually by means of the classroom call box, intercom,
or phone system. You may also send a trusted student to carry the same message to the front o ce in person.

Note that a “severe misconduct” category is a component of each of the sample progressive discipline models. This
specialized category serves several important functions. First, it allows the teacher to send a student directly to the
administration for a serious o ense without working through the progressive discipline ladder. Second, the teacher has
the o ense-advancement option, when the behavioral issue does not warrant a trip to the administration but is
significant enough to require a more severe penalty. In both cases, this allows the teacher to skip one or more levels on
the PDM to reach a consequence consistent with the o ense.

It provides the teacher with the authority and opportunity to define what is considered an action requiring the severe
misconduct designation, and also prevents students from using your own discipline system against you. Not all first
o enses are created equal. A first o ense of talking at an inappropriate time is not equivalent to a first o ense of
physically fighting in the classroom, and those infractions require di erent consequences.

TEACHER TIP
 The serious misconduct option allows the teacher a great deal of freedom in applying the
proper corrective measures for a variety of situations.

Back to Top
Progressive Discipline Scenarios
Although the progressive discipline ladder is not perfect, it does an excellent job of addressing most situations. The tool,
in and of itself, is useless—the teacher must use it appropriately and not allow students to take advantage of the system.
As you read the following scenarios and try to diagnose the problems, consider how to best apply the disciplinary
strategies you have learned in this workshop.

Scenario 1: The teacher implements a progressive discipline sequence and her students are still unruly.
Solution 1: The consequence may not be unpleasant enough. In other words, the penalty is not persuasive enough to
prevent the students from correcting their behavior. If this is the case, either strengthen the progressive discipline model
or utilize the “severe misconduct” option and move them through the sequence more rapidly. Solution 2: Sometimes
students are unruly because they do not understand the rules, or the teacher has not enforced them fairly and
consistently throughout the year. In that case, the teacher needs to rethink the class rules and enforce them in an even,
impartial, and consistent manner. Teachers who need to reinvent the class rules may find it more productive to time the
change so that it coincides with a major break in the school year, such as holiday vacation. In so doing, the students
return fresh and the new rules and procedures can be implemented without the veil of recent history confounding the
issue. Solution 3: You may be the problem. Maybe your lessons are boring the students into civil disrespect. This
misbehavior might be their way of telling you that something is wrong. Consider changing your methodology. Are you
involving the students or do you lecture all or most of the time? Do you think of the students’ reactions when you
prepare your lesson plans? Are you creating an environment that fosters active learning? Is the level of student
achievement below expectations? Consider incorporating new techniques that favor a student-centered classroom that
make students active learners.

Scenario 2: One or more students are disruptive enough to reach the “verbal reprimand” or “name on the board” stage
every day.
Solution 1: This is a common situation. The students know how far they can go before they get into real trouble so they
abuse the system. To remedy this behavior, use the serious misconduct rule to advance the targeted students on the
progressive discipline sequence because of their pattern of misbehavior. Make it clear that repeat o enders will be
promoted up the discipline ladder more quickly, as repetitively breaking a rule is an infraction of its own. As a result, the
other students in your class are reminded of this option and, equally as important, feel the o ending students have been
duly warned. You don’t want to give your class any reason to defend the o ending student, and thereby undermine your
discipline policy, by interpreting your actions as violations of your own policy. Solution 2: The teacher may not maintain
cumulative records for class discipline. Each teacher will have to decide if the progressive discipline sequence begins new
each day or if previous o enses remain active as a cumulative record. A wise teacher records o enses in a cumulative
manner so troublemakers do not start at the bottom of the PDM ladder each morning. This begs one question: What are
the statutes of limitation, the length of time that an o ense remains active? Most teachers are willing to drop or forgive
minor o enses in a relatively short period of time if the student changes behavior patterns to an acceptable level.
Removing previous o enses may also be a sign of forgiveness and an outward expression of reward for improved student
behavior. If you are going to expunge a student’s record, make the announcement during class so that the rest of the
students feel the warmth generated by this act, a kindness toward the teacher, and a better understanding of how the
progressive discipline sequence works. Consider using Form C, the Student Cumulative Discipline Record Form, to keep
careful records. Solution 3: Introduce a student behavioral contract between you and the student, as illustrated by Form
D. This document explains the problem in detail, outlines the behaviors expected of the student, and describes the
consequences for compliance and noncompliance with the terms of the contract. It should contain the signatures of the
teacher, student, parent, and administrator, if practical. In this way, all parties are aware of the situation and have made
gainful e orts to cooperate on a winning plan.

Scenario 3: After one or more trips to the administrator’s office, a student repeats the same behavioral offenses.
Solution 1: The administrator may be ine ective, for any number of reasons. Several of the reasons are beyond the
control of the classroom teacher. For instance, the classroom misbehavior may not be an isolated incident. The student
may be in trouble in all of the classes. In this case, the student is likely reacting to something outside of the school, such
as an awful situation at home or trouble in the neighborhood. The administrator may be trying to bring balance to the
student’s life by giving her another chance. Strong administrators will often try to work with a student before
implementing the administrative progressive discipline model (APDM). In these situations, the administrator is focusing
on changing the student’s situation as a means of changing behavior. As an example, an administrator may interview
another student who may be bullying the troubled child to relieve the pressure on that student and apply it to the bully
instead. Normally the administrator would secure a promise of good behavior from the student before allowing him to
return to class, a promise reinforced by threatened consequences along the administrative discipline ladder. Within the
same time frame, an e ective administrator should communicate details of this plan without giving away confidential
details. However, if the child continues to be a disruption in class, then the teacher may have to create a new discipline
sequence, or send the child back to the administrator, or both.

TEACHER TIP
Sometimes sending a student to an administrator is in the best interest of the child.
Remember that administrative actions may be based on information that the teacher does
not (or cannot) know. Avoid complaining about an administrator’s decision, especially to
other teachers in the faculty lounge. Complaints, once aired in a public location, have a
tendency to find their way to the people you’re complaining about, and the results are
rarely uplifting.

Solution 2: There are two other reasons that an administrator’s actions may not prove helpful. One possibility is the
APDM ladder—either the administrator’s discipline sequence is too weak or the student was started too low on the
ladder. Both examples are easily addressed. The other possibility is that the teacher did not fully describe the nature of
the o ense and the actions already taken by the teacher before the referral to the administrator. The worst possible
scenario for an administrator is a student that just shows up at her o ce. The administrator does not have the teacher’s
side of their story, the background history, or the charges that are levied against the student. The student’s version of the
events leading up to the referral will invariably di er from the teacher’s version. When no accompanying paperwork
arrives, the administrator may not understand the gravity of the situation and return the student to class with only a
warning. Contrast that situation with a student who arrives at the administrator’s o ce with a complete written summary
report that details the actions of the teacher prior to the student’s cataclysmic incident, prior consequences imposed by
the teacher and served by the student, and a clear description of the o ending event that forced the teacher to send the
student to the administrator. Armed with quality information, most administrators will provide appropriate corrective
action. If the school or school system does not have a standardized form for referring students to the o ce, it is in your
interest to develop your own, like Form E, the O ce Referral Form. With a referral form in hand, the teacher and
administrator are able to communicate even when the teacher cannot leave his classroom. Furthermore, the student
knows that the administrator and teacher are aware of the teacher’s documentation and the administrative
consequences, and cannot play one against the other. Note that the referral form should contain the same elements that
are found in the teacher’s progressive discipline model. The congruence between the forms is important. The checklist
clearly shows the administrator that the teacher has attempted a sequence of corrective actions before sending the
student to the o ce, not as a first, knee-jerk reaction. Often the teacher is harried when completing this section of the
form because the troublemaking student may still be in class. However, the “reason for referral” section is important and
may be hurriedly scribbled by the teacher or sent to the administrator at the next earliest convenience. Either way, it
must contain the reason for referring the student on that date. Describe the figurative straw that broke the camel’s back.

TEACHER TIP
Except in the case of a serious misconduct o ense, do not send students to the
administrator before completing all of the steps in the progressive discipline model.

For a particularly troublesome student or a unique situation, the administrator may wish to have a follow-up conversation
with the teacher to plan for the return of the student to class. Usually these sessions are designed to create an
environment so that the child and teacher can once again work together successfully. The administrator or parents may
have constructive suggestions about how to deal with this particular student or may inform the teacher about outside
circumstances that may be a ecting the student’s behavior. Be prepared to accept the student back in class. When you
send a student to an administrator, call the front o ce to let them know that (insert student’s name) is on the way and an
administrative referral form will follow at your earliest convenience. If the action is severe enough, the teacher may send a
trustworthy student as an escort to the administrator. If you feel the situation is out of control, call for an administrator to
come to your room to escort the student from class. Do not leave the rest of your class unsupervised to walk the student
to the o ce yourself. The way you implement your progressive discipline model is just as important as the model itself.
Ensure that you are consistently implementing it so that it operates e ectively.

Back to Top
Consequences of a Referral
When a teacher sends a student to the administrator, the administrator assumes that the teacher can no longer control
the behavior of that student and makes the following assumptions:

The teacher has admitted that his inventory of discipline tactics is ineffective for the referred student. If an
unusually high number of students end up in the administrator’s o ce, it reflects teacher weakness or a lack of
experience in handling students.

The teacher abdicates any right to complain about the actions taken by the administrator. Complaining about how
an administrator handled a problem is one of the worst breeches of professionalism a teacher can commit.
Remember, there may be items or circumstances that a ect the situation that you don’t fully understand. If you feel
that an administrator is undermining your authority or not supporting you, go to the administrator in private and
present your side of the story in a professional manner.

This may be a good time to ask for help. You are expected to discipline and manage your classroom. This
expectation originates not only from the administration but also your peers, parents, and even your students
themselves. A class must be disciplined before meaningful instruction and active learning can take place.

THE BIG PICTURE

An administrator cannot always fully disclose the details surrounding certain student actions, especially if that
knowledge may have a detrimental e ect on the student or further investigation into an on-going situation. A
teacher once forgot this fact and whined in the faculty lounge about the ineptness and incompetence of the
school administration. Word got back to the administrative team of this negative outburst within minutes. It
created a rift between the teacher and administration that was only resolved after the entire student case was
closed and the administrator was able to release the facts. The teacher was mortified and ashamed.

While no teacher can handle every single discipline issue without involving the administration at all, you can reduce your
number of administrative referrals by removing the temptation or opportunity for misbehavior. Enforce a system of class
rules in a fair and consistent manner that models justice and promotes peace. There are a number of subtle discipline
strategies that work almost all of the time. When those strategies fail, a progressive discipline plan brings structure to
more aggressive discipline solutions. Prevent problems if at all possible; be ready with a rapid response for all other
situations.

Ten Things to Remember About Student Discipline

1. Students are human. Treat them that way.

2. “Bad” students do not necessarily move away from your city or town once they’ve graduated. Don’t treat a student
in such a way that you’d regret meeting them later in life.
 3. Some students are tougher than their teacher. Do not try to overpower them. You are not lord over a barbarian
society—there are methods other than brute force and intimidation at your disposal.

4. Well-planned lessons that utilize the entire time period prevent discipline problems.

5. Student-centered lessons require less student control e orts than teacher-centered lessons.

6. Learn your students’ names today. They already know yours.

7. Adjust the configuration of the room to maximize instruction and teacher movement and to minimize social and
physical limitation problems.

8. Measure the situation before you react. A quick but terrible response is worse than a slow but correct response.
Speed will come with experience.

9. Be prepared. Have rules and consequence set on the first day of school.

10. If things are already bad, don’t let them get worse.

Video Review: Classroom Management (13:50)

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PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T W O R K SHO P

Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of classroom management.
 1. Archer, A. and Gleason, M. Advanced Skills for School Success, Module 1 : School Behavior and Organization
Skills. Curriculum Associates, 2003. Available from Curriculum Associates, Inc.

2. Blackham, G. and Silberman, A. Modification of Child Behavior. Wadsworth Publishing Co., 1971. Currently out of
print. Check local library.

3. Brophy, J. Motivating Students to Learn. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2004. Available from Amazon.com.

4. Brophy, J. Teaching Problem Students. The Guilford Press, 2003. Available from Amazon.com.

5. Burden, P. Powerful Classroom Management Strategies: Motivating Students to Learn. Corwin Press, 2000.
Available from Amazon.com.

6. Canter, L and Canter, M. Assertive Discipline: Positive Behavior Management for Today’s Classroom. National
Educational Service, 2001. Available from Amazon.com.

7. Charles, C. Building Classroom Discipline. Allyn & Bacon, 2007. Available from Amazon.com.

8. Cotton, K. “Schoolwide and Classroom Discipline.” Northwest Regional Educational Laboratory, 2001. Available
online at http://www.nwrel.org/scpd/sirs/5/cu9.html.

9. Darch, C. and Kame’enui, E. Instructional Classroom Management: A proactive approach to behavior

management. Prentice Hall, 2003. Available from Amazon.com.

10. Evertson, C., Emmer E. and Worsham M. Classroom Management for Elementary Teachers. Allyn & Bacon,
2005. Available from Amazon.com.

11. Furtwengler, W. and Konnert, W. Improving School Discipline: An Administrator’s Guide. Boston, Mass.: Allyn
and Bacon, 1982. Currently out of print. Check local library.

12. Gnagey, W. Maintaining Discipline in Classroom Instruction. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1975.
Currently out of print. Check local library.

13. Gootman, M. The Caring Teacher’s Guide to Discipline: Helping Young Students Learn Self-Control,
Responsibility, and Respect. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, 2000. Available from Corwin Press.

14. Kelley, W. Rookie Teaching for Dummies. For Dummies, 2003. Available from Amazon.com.

15. Klein, R., Hapkiewicz, W and Roden, A. Behavioral Modification in Educational Settings. Springfield, Ill.: Thomas,
1973. Currently out of print. Check local library.

16. Mole, O. Student Discipline: Research and Practice. State University of New York Press, 1990. Currently out of
print. Check local library.

17. Moody, C. “Student Rights and Discipline: Policies, Programs, and Procedures.” Ann Arbor, Michigan: School of
Education, The University of Michigan, 1978. ERIC Document Reproduction Service ED160926. Available through the
ERIC microfiche collection.
 18. O’Leary, D. and O’Leary, S. Classroom Management: the successful use of behavior modification. Pergamon,
1977. Currently out of print. Check local library.

19. Sarkar, S. Student Unrest: a socio-psychological study. India Book Exchange, 1974. Currently out of print.

20. Sandoval, J. Handbook of Crisis Counseling, Intervention and Prevention in the Schools, Second Edition.
Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2001. Available from Amazon.com.

21. Sprague, J. and Golly, A. Best Behavior: Building Positive Behavior Support in Schools. Sopris West, 2004.
Available from Sopris West Educational Services.

22. Sprick, R., Garrison, M. and Howard, L. CHAMPS: A proactive and positive approach to classroom management.
Sopris West, 1998. Available from Pacific Northwest Publishing.

23. Weinstein, C. and Mignano, A. Elementary Classroom Management: Lessons from Research and Practice.
McGraw-Hill Humanities, 2002. Available from Amazon.com.

24. Wong, H. and Wong, R. The First Days of School: How to be an E ective Teacher. Harry K. Wong Publications,
2004. Available from Amazon.com.

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Effective Communication with Parents

Objective
This workshop o ers strategies that teachers can use to facilitate positive communication with parents and enlist them
as partners in their student’s education. This workshop also discusses the relationship between schools and their
communities and the role of the teacher within communities and schools.

This lesson will specifically address:

How to Professionally Inform Parents

Parent Conferencing

Explaining the Curriculum to Parents

Explaining Your Teaching Style to Parents

Explaining Your Assessment Plan to Parents

Explaining Your Grading Plan to Parents

Introduction
Since schools reflect the culture of their community, strong communities that value education will yield quality schools
that provide a high caliber of education. The marriage between school and community unites residents in a common
goal: doing what is best for the children/students. Teachers play a vital role in maintaining and promoting this
relationship.

In this unit, various strategies are presented that enable the beginning teacher to become established in the school and
community. Being accepted as a functional unit in the community provides a major source of strength for teachers.
Accordingly, it is imperative to become a part of the community and learn to recognize the strongly-held values that may
a ect the school. In this unit we will examine strategies that new teachers can use to become participants in local events,
and address whether teachers can still have private lives if they live in the community.

It is no secret that parents who are involved in their child’s education produce educated children. Consequently, parents
who involve themselves with the school help to create schools that are well-funded with few community issues. Next to
the students, the parents are the best consumer of educational services. They directly influence the tone of the school
and help provide for its well-being. Keeping parents involved and happy is a goal for all educators. So, how do you get to
know the parents? Once you become acquainted with parents, you will need to be able to accurately describe your style
of teaching, and determine how parents can help their child to be successful in your class. In this unit, additional
strategies are presented that describe how to professionally communicate with parents, including how to make parent
conferences productive.

Most parents will take the time to help their child with his or her education. It may mean that they are helping a child who
is struggling, but it may also mean that the child is capable of high productivity and needs additional challenges beyond
the school curriculum. This unit will address what parents can do to help their child, and what strategies the parents can
harness to extend the child’s learning beyond the classroom. Read on to discover how the classroom teacher can
successfully enlist the support of the parents in meeting these goals.

Schools are both the centerpiece and lifeblood of most communities. Schools carry on the culture, tradition, and
memories of the communities that they serve. Locals will fondly recount noteworthy events that occurred at the school.
Communities are also quick to talk about famous or important people who graduated from their schools. The community
brags about its schools and their history. The bond between a community and the schools that serve it is similar to a
marriage where one part supports and reports to the other. Contained within this unit are ideas that will help the
beginning teacher to become a productive member of the local community, and therefore able to harness the energy of
the community for the benefit of the school and its students.

Effective Communication with Parents

From the perspective of the school administration, teachers are the glue that binds a school to the greater community.

When administrators interview teachers, we emphasize that the PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT

school community is very supportive of its teachers. Schools It is important for new teachers to become
and teachers are highly valued by the community, and strong established in the community and develop good
community support is generally to be expected. In fact, many working relationships with the parents of all of
communities routinely come together for a Friday night football the students. Keep in mind that a number of

game or weekend theatrical production at the local high school. students do not live in 2-parent homes. Some
live with relatives and guardians.
We also alert prospective teachers that parent involvement can
be a double-edged sword. Whereas most parents are extremely grateful for the e orts of good teachers and go out of
their way to be kind to them, the same parents can also be fiercely critical of teachers who they perceive as substandard.
The bond between students, teachers, schools, and the community is an emotional one. Level 5 teachers know the value
of this bond in harnessing the cooperative nature and awesome power of parents.

How to Professionally Inform Parents

Most parents want to know how well their child is doing in your class. Translated, this means they want to hear that their
child is doing well in your class. It is a sound practice to regularly inform parents of their child’s progress, including
students whose performance level is acceptable or exceptional. Such happy news creates an air of achievement and
prompts the students to continue performing well. Parents may brag about their child and teacher in the community.

On the other hand, keep in mind that a less than favorable report presents a stressful and embarrassing situation for
parents. It is important to keep the parents informed regarding their child’s progress for as long as they are in your class,
regardless of their achievement level or family background. When the school year draws to a close, be prepared to advise
the parents as to possible educational interventions and into which class or program they should guide their children in
the future.

TEACHER TIP
Attend every Back-to-School night or Meet-the-Teachers night, and make every attempt to
participate in the school’s Parent-Teacher-Student-Association (PTSA) even if it is not
required by the administration. These professional contacts will help new teachers
connect more quickly with the community.

One of the worst things a teacher can do to a parent is to not inform the parent if their child is struggling in your class. A
teacher who neglects to inform parents of their child’s poor performance should prepare for well-deserved parent anger,
and quite a lot of it. Worse, the relationship may deteriorate to the point where the teacher can never recover the trust or
cooperation of the parents in the future. Uninformed parents are not able to help their children, and often they will hold
the teacher responsible for the failure of their child. This type of bad news may cycle through the community at the
teacher’s expense.

TEACHER TIP
Schools typically ask teachers to communicate regularly with parents, especially if their
child is struggling or is in trouble for disciplinary reasons. In some schools, teachers are
not allowed to fail a student unless the parents have been duly informed with enough time
to provide assistance. Be aware of the policy associated with failing students in your
school. Teachers who fail to communicate e ectively with parents run the risk of upsetting
the administration and endangering their good standing in the community.
When it comes to informing parents, you must consider the best way to present yourself and your information regarding
their child. First impressions can last a long time, and a bad one can lead to a short lifetime in the teaching profession.
Parents are often quick to point out that they pay the salary of educators and they expect to get more than their money’s
worth in the classroom every day, every time. A wise teacher knows this in advance and prepares accordingly, especially if
the purpose of the communication is to convey bad news to the parent. In every exchange a teacher has with a parent or
the community, there are two essential items at hand: you and the quality of the information you bring to the meeting.

THE BIG PICTURE

A teacher with whom I once co-taught became the mayor of a major metropolitan area after retirement.
Another teacher who was also a close friend was elected to the local Board of Education. They both attribute
their political success to learning and utilizing e ective communication techniques with parents and
community leaders while they were teachers.

Whether conferencing with parents in person, by phone, email, PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT

or another communicative forum, the parents expect and First impressions with a parent or community
deserve to communicate with a professional in a professional group are critical. Never underestimate the
manner. It is imperative, especially for new teachers, to look and value of how you look, act, and respond. It can,
to act like a professional. Basic professionalism requires proper and will, be held for you or against you for a very

dress, appropriate personal hygiene, and an overall pleasing long time.

appearance. It also calls for the correct use of language and avoiding educational lingo that the parents may not
understand. Parents are easily angered if a teacher’s tone of voice, eye contact, body language, intent, or attitude
expresses anything other than complete cooperation and an investment in the well-being and advancement of their child.

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Parent Conferencing
A teacher can influence the path a parent conference takes based on the sort of information he or she provides. If the
report that the teacher provides for the child is positive and specific, then the parents will look for generalities to be
presented in the conference. If the report is vague, then the parents will be seeking bona fide, iron-clad evidence in the
conference to supplement the report. The Student Achievement Form (SAF) contains information pertinent to
conferencing with parents and serves to give the teacher a professional, well-prepared, and purposeful appearance.

The SAF contains the elements of most interest to parents. It is designed to be amended so as to fit the individual
teacher’s class. It is not necessary to include any element that does not have a student score associated with it. Likewise,
additional categories may be added to accommodate other non-traditional assessments. The teacher ought to bring
copies for everyone in attendance at the conference — especially for the parents.

TEACHER TIP
 Speak directly from the data presented. Do not feel free to append, modify, or editorialize
the information. Present the data in a caring yet factual manner and then listen intently to
the parent’s response and build collaboration at that point.

Note that the parents will always want to know how their child is PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
performing in relation to the rest of the class. For this reason it It is illegal for you to inform parents regarding
is important to include their score in comparison to the overall how well a non-family student performed in
class average. The teacher should never break strict your class. Parents do not have the right to know
confidentiality by sharing an individual student’s scores with how a student other than their own child is

someone other than the parent of that child. performing in your class. It would be a breach of
confidentiality to provide information about
another child either directly or indirectly.
The teacher should also be prepared to explain specifics about
each assessment, assignment, disciplinary action, and class participation item listed on the form. Parents will want to
know about the content or skills that were assessed and accordingly why their child scored so poorly. A good response is
specific and gives the parents additional insights. For instance, the first exam covered addition of two-digit numbers.
Likewise, for the project description section, a solid response should include the purpose of the project, how it fits into
the curriculum, the overall score value in reference to the semester grade, the date assigned, the date the project was
actually handed in by the student, and a comparison to the overall class score.

The Parent Conference Data Form is a more abbreviated form that is useful for telephone conferences and face-to-face
meetings.

The Parent Conference Data Form is designed to identify the problem area(s) in a student’s performance and define a
plan of action. The form is also intended to determine the who, what, when, and where for implementation of the plan;
establish acceptable student goals and the method for determining if the goals have been met. The form allows for team-
building between the parents, teacher, and student while serving as a platform for continual interaction. Once again, the
teacher should make copies for everyone at the meeting and send copies to the parents if the meeting transpires by
phone. Mindful teachers are well-prepared to discuss any of the topics on this form in a manner that establishes
collaborative opportunities with the parents, so as to positively impact the performance of their child.

TEACHER TIP
Do not lower the level of the conversation into a condemning discussion of student
behavior. If the parents request information regarding behavior or if behavior is a major
problem, then frame the commentary in a positive manner while still expressing the truth
in a caring way.

Be sure to stay within the confines of the form—this is not a good time to tell the parents about how awful their child is in
class. Construct behavioral commentary in an uplifting manner so that the students and parent understand the situation
and have a plan to correct it. For instance:

“(Insert student’s name) talks continually to his/her neighbor during class while instructions and the lesson
are being presented. This behavior may have an e ect on (insert student’s name)’s ability to complete the
class work and perform at an acceptable level on quizzes and tests. I am confident that if (insert student’s
name) would pay more attention and follow directions, his/her scores will increase.”

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Explaining the Curriculum to Parents
The parent conference provides a good opportunity to educate parents regarding elements of the curriculum and how
they are represented in class. It is helpful for the parents to understand the overall progression of the curriculum,
including the scope and sequence, timelines, and assessment opportunities. Once the parents understand the flow of the
curriculum, they are better able to explain it to their children and assist in educating them. Conversely, eager parents who
do not fully understand the curriculum can cause a lot of damage, since they may become frustrated and then blame the
teacher for their child’s underperformance. The Curriculum Expository Form may be modified to assist teachers in
presenting curricular highlights to the parents. It is designed to be tailored to fit any curricular circumstance.

TEACHER TIP
The Curriculum Expository Form is also an e ective tool to share with your substitute
teacher, home-school teacher, alternative education teacher, or tutor. It is easily modified
to suit many purposes.

When speaking about curriculum, it is advisable to know the derivation of the document. For instance, is the curriculum
based on national, state, or local standards? If the curriculum is based on one of these sets of standards, make sure to
reference the original source that applies to the curriculum. The source from which the curriculum is drawn is useful in
answering parent and student questions like: why is this concept taught at this time; or, why do we have to learn this
material? When a curriculum is aligned to national standards, the various national committees that created and
approved it have considered matters such as developmental stages of the student, progression of the curriculum, bias
and sensitivity, and links to the real world. Most curriculum supervisors are delighted to align their program of study with
national standards for that reason.

If the curriculum is solely the enterprise of the teacher, then this safety net is not available and the teacher will have to
make a good case for teaching that curriculum in terms of its appropriateness to student development and achievement
level.

The parents should know that the curriculum for your subject is well-defined: while the teacher is expected to teach it,
the students are expected to learn it. If the curriculum is not well-defined, it is not really a curriculum but more like a
table of contents. An unclear curriculum leaves the teacher in a tough position if the parents choose to question its
validity.

Parents that want to help their child need to be given a sense of how they can help. The more they know about the intent
of the curriculum and what the students are expected to know, the more valuable they become in providing additional
support for the student. Teachers must know the curriculum and be prepared to discuss parent involvement strategies.

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Explaining Your Teaching Style to Parents
Parents like to know how a teacher goes about teaching. What is the style of the teacher? Does the teacher lecture for the
entire period? Does the teacher provide a variety of modalities? It is essential to consider what the parents should know
about your teaching style that can help them with their children.

Parents are seeking the answer to two questions. The first one can take many forms such as: What are the components of
the teacher’s class, and, is there anything similar that a parent can do to help their child at home? For instance, if the
teacher requires a lot of writing, the parent can insist that the child focus more on writing at home. Parents will often
want to know if the teacher teaches in a style that may be di cult for their child to understand, and they will want to
know what they can do to help. The second question parents pose is more future-based: What is the next curricular
topic, and how can the parents keep up with any changes to help their child prevent problems in the future?

Students sometimes have problems because they either haven’t adjusted to the teacher’s style of teaching, they are not
sure what the teacher is trying to do, or the teacher’s expectations for the students are not clear. Early in the school year,
students often struggle until they can grasp the teacher’s manner of teaching.

For instance, consider a scenario wherein the teacher provides no direct instruction but assigns a chapter to be read by
the students, with questions to be answered at the end, and then bases their score on the quality of the answers.
Students learn quickly that they will not receive much in the way of teacher assistance, and in order to do well they will
have to correctly answer the questions. In working backwards, students realize they have to first read and then
understand the chapter on their own to be able to answer the questions correctly. Contrast that scenario with a teacher
who never uses the text but works closely with the students, and then scores the students based on their group
participation on teacher-assigned projects. These students are facing two very di erent sets of teacher expectations. Be
prepared to describe your style to the students and their parents.

TEACHER TIP
Write your philosophy of teaching in 25 words or less. From that, create a description of
your teaching style that a layperson could comprehend.
It is helpful to clearly define your style of teaching so both the parents and the students can understand what you
consider important and how you plan to structure the learning environment to accomplish your goals. You should be
able to describe a typical class and what is expected from the students. This description may be as regimented as: 35% of
the time is spent in lecture, 20% in application of lecture principles or laboratory work, 20% in cooperative groups, 15%
completing assessments, 10% working on individual projects. The description may also be more explanatory: Students
are expected to take notes regarding the objectives for that lesson and be able to apply them in a variety of situations
with class time allocated for that purpose. No matter what method you choose, the parents and students must
understand your approach to teaching before they will be able to use it to their benefit.

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Explaining Your Assessment Plan to Parents
The assessment plan for a class is often the focus of initial questioning by parents at a conference. Parents and students
want to know how often tests and quizzes occur, what is going to be on the test, what the test looks like, if the test counts,
and how the teacher is going to score it. The answers to these questions are actually quite simple.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT The frequency at which quizzing and testing occur is the
Formative assessments alert the teacher to teacher’s choice, unless specific guidelines are provided by the
student success and reflect lesson delivery. school or system. Normally assessments are used to determine
Summative assessments are used to score the how well the students are progressing toward mastery of the
students. curriculum. The teacher should use formative assessments to
keep the students motivated to learn. These assessments also serve to measure their retention of class objectives.

When the students have mastered the objectives as demonstrated on the formative assessments, then administer a
summative assessment to score the students. Teachers are advised to quiz often by breaking the content into small units.
Using quizzes as a formative assessment allows the teacher to gain quality insights into the e ectiveness of the
instruction. If the teacher has a specific plan, such as administering an assessment on a weekly basis, then the parents
need to be informed. It is a good idea to construct the assessments as the unit lesson plans are created. The teacher
should also have a concrete assessment plan that can be explained to the parents and students in terms they can easily
understand.

The content of a test must be derived solely from the objective(s) that were visually displayed and practiced during each
lesson. Well written objectives define the assessments and make the learning process easier for the students and for
parents trying to help their child. Assessments are created only from the objectives and do not contain any surprise
material that the students have not been properly prepared to engage. If the students are writing down their lesson
objectives for each lesson, they should essentially have a rough map of the assessment. Parents wishing to help their
children can focus their e orts on mastering these objectives

TEACHER TIP
 Have the students fall into the habit of writing the objective(s) for each lesson in a location
where they can easily refer to them, such as their notebook. In so doing, they can be
located and used as an e ective guideline to study for any and all assessments.

The format of the test depends upon the content of the test. The teacher should write the test or quiz before beginning
that unit of study. One reason to adhere to this practice is so the students will know how they are going to be assessed.
For instance, will this unit be assessed by a constructed response or selected response type exam? Will they have to read
a technical passage or interpret political cartoons? Students and parents can adjust their thinking and preparation if they
know the nature of the assessment in advance of the event. When discussing the assessment with parents, be sure to
indicate how the students will be tested.

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Explaining Your Grading Plan to Parents
A prominent question that a parent will ask is how the students are graded. This question may take many forms such as:
how many points were possible; what was the passing score; how much were the quizzes worth? These questions provide
the ideal opportunity to explain how the students were graded and present the parents with an itemized list of
assessments and how well their child performed on them.

TEACHER TIP
Prepare an itemized list of assessments in advance to share with the parents. Make sure it
includes all assessments, their child’s score, and a comparison with the remainder of the
class. It is also a good idea to explain area(s) of strength and weakness and discuss how the
parent can help.

Teachers are advised to have a solid grading plan. Consider whether the students will be graded on a percentage basis,
how the grades will be recorded (i.e., numerically or by a letter grade) and if the students will have an option to retake the
test. When discussing grades with parents, it is advantageous to have a form like the Student Progress Report on hand to
review with them.

The Student Progress Report form can be quickly completed by the teacher for those last minute parent conferences. It
contains items that are of fundamental interest to the parents and serves as a launch pad for further discussion. The
format can be easily modified to include additional items or to delete non-existent items.

It is vital for the teacher to be well prepared for all teacher conferences. Conferences should be scheduled at a time that
is mutually agreeable to the parent and the teacher and also allows the teacher time to collect and format the data for
discussion and distribution to the parents.
 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Opening and Maintaining Lines of

Communication
Objective
In this lesson, we will discuss:

Collaborative Strategies that Boost Student Achievement

Strategies Parents Can Implement at Home to Improve Student Achievement

Collaborative Strategies that Boost Student Achievement

When meeting with parents, teachers should have a prepared list of strategies that parents may utilize to help their
children. Most parents will meticulously follow the course of action that the teacher recommends. Therefore it is
important to give them the best advice possible. The following strategies are useful and easily implemented by most
parents.

Review Daily Homework Assignments and Classwork

This is an easy measure that all parents should be able to accomplish with only a modicum of e ort. If the student and
parents develop the habit of spending some time every evening reviewing class work from that day, it is di cult for the
student to avoid doing the work or not to complete it to the best of their ability. Either way, the parent can identify areas
that may need work and begin assisting their child at that time. It is best for this to become an established daily event as
opposed to occurring once a week.

THE BIG PICTURE

 Parents are ultimately responsible for the education of their children. Some parents are quite willing to abdicate
that responsibility. When parents pay taxes, they are hiring professional educators to assist them in educating
their children.

Students routinely have homework. Parents who are available and help their children give them an advantage over
children whose parents choose not to implement this strategy. Parents who work with their children constitute the ideal
form of education. In some circumstances the teacher may want to provide the parent with a daily form that indicates
class work, homework, and student deportment. The following sample Student Daily Progress Form may be helpful. It can
be modified to meet the needs of any teacher’s class.

TEACHER TIP
Encourage the parents to arrange time daily to review class work and help with homework.
Waiting until the end of the week compounds existing problems and may allow the child to
postpone doing the work. An every-other-day or alternating day model does not establish
the seamless intent of the curriculum. Students may feel that the concepts are isolated
and not see the relation between them.

Analyze Class Objectives

The lesson objectives are what the teacher expects the student to learn as a result of the instruction. If the students and
their parents review these objectives and use them to study, their e orts are more focused. Each lesson should be
governed by the contents of the objective(s) for that lesson, so that no assessment item will include materials not covered
by an objective.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT When helping their child prepare for an exam or prepare for the
Do not place an item on an assessment that has next day’s class, parents are well advised to keep the objective
not been covered in class by an objective and sequence in mind. Sometimes it is helpful to organize students’
appropriate instruction. It is virtually impossible notebooks so they have a location dedicated to their lesson
to defend this action in the presence of a parent objectives. It is usually best to keep the objectives on the same
and administrator. page as the lesson notes or activity. The objectives can be
recopied as a review activity so that all of the unit objectives for a given assessment are copied onto a single page,
allowing the student a complete list for study purposes. This tactic benefits students and parents because it allows them
to see the smooth flow of the curriculum and the timeline as detailed by the lesson objectives. It may be helpful to
require the students to keep their objectives in the following format.

Date:
Class/Subject:
Lesson Objective(s):
In this format, the objectives are easy to read and study. They can also be reconstituted onto a single page without too
much trouble.

Understand the Child’s Situation and Needs in Context of the Class

Parents are often clueless about what their child is doing or how well their child is doing in school. Teachers often have to
educate the parents before they can move forward with having the parents help to educate their child. A teacher must be
able to describe the child’s situation in the class. For instance, is the child in real danger of failing or did they just miss
one word on a 25 word spelling quiz? It is imperative to accurately convey the gravity of the situation. Teachers must be
transparent, open, and honest at this point. If the student is in real trouble, the parent response is likely to be di erent
than if the child simply needs to invest more e ort in study.

TEACHER TIP
Do not confuse parents. They are looking to you for the latest data and as a provider of
possible solutions. Keep it simple. If possible, share everything in writing with the parents.

Hire a Tutor
This is an expensive alternative for parents; however, a good tutor is worth the money. In most cases the tutor’s
knowledge of the content and ability to recognize the child’s level and developmental status allows them to diagnose the
situation and then move forward more rapidly and with greater e ciency.

An experienced tutor already knows the scope and sequence of the subject and probably knows the timeline established
by the classroom teacher. The experienced tutor may also be familiar with the format of the exams, and can get the dates
of the assessments from the student. When recommending and then working with a tutor, it is beneficial to provide the
tutor with as much information as possible regarding the curriculum, how it is taught, and how it will be assessed in the
classroom environment. In this way, the tutor can more accurately focus the preparation.

Find a Peer Tutor

If expense or access is a problem, the teacher could help the parents find a peer tutor. This is a nice option for students
because it allows them to work with a student in the school, and the fact that the service is free appeals to parents. The
downside is that the students may spend their time talking about what they did last weekend instead of preparing for the
lesson.

Most schools have a peer-teaching program in place. These programs usually consist of a child from an upper grade
helping a child in a lower grade as part of a volunteer activity. It may also be a student within the same class who has
mastered the material. In high schools, the National Honor Society normally provides peer tutors as a component of their
charter. Other clubs and after-school programs that arrange peer tutors or mentors are common, so make sure to ask
around your school.
Students can make great tutors because they are able to break the subject matter into student-sized pieces and present
it in student vernacular. Also, certain students are more receptive to a peer tutor because they can move at a slower pace
and are more comfortable asking questions. Furthermore, there is no classroom pressure when working with a peer.
However, first make sure that the student doesn’t feel embarrassed about needing help. In that case, it may be better to
hire a professional.

Locate or Create a Student Study Circle

A number of students agreeing to work together on a regular basis form the fundamentals for organizing a study circle.
Involved teachers help create these functional groups to assist students who may be struggling as well as those who wish
to work ahead.

The teacher may select the students within the groups or they may form naturally. Time may be provided in class for the
groups to meet. Students can further discuss problems and projects via phone, email, or after-school meetings at a time
that is convenient for them. Parents can be alerted as to these educational activities so they can add their child to one of
the groups. The simplest study circle uses the study-buddy method of pairing two students who work together and hold
each other accountable for good results.

TEACHER TIP
Functional study circles or help groups are often a very valuable resource for teachers.
When properly functioning, the individuals in these groups interpret instruction and
provide examples on their own level, serve as tutors, challenge each other, and extend the
instruction and learning beyond the teacher and the classroom.

Make Remedial Resources Available

Teachers generally have a file cabinet or a storage room full of useful resources intended for struggling students.
Common examples of such resources may include practice tests, worksheets, reading assignments, projects, and copies
of the teacher’s notes. It may be helpful to provide parents with a primer on how to use each of the resources that are
provided for them. Make sure that the resources presented to the parents are in line with the curriculum, instruction, and
assessment material. It may prove beneficial to provide a timeline or a scope and sequence for the parents to reference.

TEACHER TIP
Start collecting, borrowing, buying, and developing resources as soon as you decide to
become a teacher. File them in such a way that you can get to them quickly and easily.

Monitor Play and Learning

Some parents fail to set boundaries or priorities for their children. When this happens, students often do what they want
to do, like play, before they begin any work. Whereas it is a good thing to play and have fun, it becomes a problem when
the student never has the time or energy to complete homework assignments or study for a test. Vigilant parents help
their children maintain a healthy balance between work and play—it is essential to do both. It is also helpful if the parents
arrange for “quiet time” (6:00 to 8:00 pm) at home so their children have a pre-set time to complete their studies.
Distractions like television should be kept to a minimum during quiet time.

Check with the Professionals

Parents may overlook the other professionals involved with the education of their child. In some cases, the parents may
not even know their child’s other teachers or guidance counselor(s). As the parents take stock of their child’s
achievement, they should conference with each teacher and counselor involved with their child. They may find that a
similar scenario exists between all the classes/subjects.

Guidance counselors are always useful to have at a conference, since they bring a di erent perspective and the parents
see them as non-threatening. In certain instances, it may prove beneficial to also invite the appropriate administrator,
especially if behavior problems are a ecting the child’s achievement. The more information that the parent can receive,
the better their ability to make judgments regarding the educational direction and support of their child, thereby working
to produce a healthy, happy scholar.

Examine the Class Schedule

Make sure that students are in the appropriate class and that prerequisites have been met. Furthermore, ascertain the
next subject that the student should take and determine if there is a sequence that must be followed. Parents typically
are not well-versed in the program of study. In some cases it might be easy, as in the second grade student who will next
progress into third grade. In other cases it may be more di cult. For instance, if the child takes health instead of physical
education during the odd days of a block schedule in fifth grade, you may have to consider whether it will prevent them
from being able to schedule a foreign language for the full year in the sixth grade.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Teachers must gain a perspective beyond their classroom. Most
Learn the sequence of courses for students parents will appreciate a model that they can use to complete
most likely to be in your classes. Teachers can the long term planning projection for their child so that they can
serve as some of the best student advisors. select courses from certain subjects and ensure that graduation
Parents often look to teachers for assistance and requirements are fulfilled. Generally, the number of credits
professional advice. required for graduation is greater than the total required for
particular subjects to allow students to select subjects that they like and still receive credit towards graduation. However,
when in doubt, refer the parent to someone who is very familiar with the system.

Teachers and parents can use all of these strategies in a collaborative way. Select from among them the ones that best
suit a given situation. Having parents as educational allies is infinitely better than having them as educational foes.
Teacher-parent collaboration is an e ective tool that may be used for students at all ages, academic levels, and
developmental stages.
 TEACHER TIP
Support systems are typically intended for struggling students. It is also imperative to
construct them for academically gifted students as well. Students who are strong
academically may acquiesce to the mean and lose their academic advantage without a
supportive infrastructure.

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Strategies Parents Can Implement at Home to Improve Student
Achievement
Collaboration between parents and teachers is positive and should be cultivated. However, there are also strategies that
parents can employ on their own. These strategies work for all subjects and are under the direct control of the parent and
are independent of the teacher. They are also quite helpful in implementing a holistic plan to foster student growth. You
may wish to share some of the following tips with parents.

Create a study area. Sometimes students do not have a location in their residence to do their homework or to study.
Parents are advised to create a semi-permanent location where their child can complete their work as comfortably as
possible. The student should be able to store items such as calculators, reference books, crayons, and mathematical
manipulatives in the same area so they do not have to be transported, and perhaps lost, among various study locations. If a
separate location is not practical, an understanding may be established that the kitchen table will be cleared for use by
students after the evening meal.

Establish quiet time. Being exposed to the noise of the television or DVD player is distracting for students. In order to
maximize student work time, parents ought to establish specific times on a daily basis that their residence will be a “quiet
zone.” This zone rules out use of the television, telephone, radio, DVD player, amplified ipod, etc., by all other members of
the family, including the parents. Typical quiet times occur after the evening meal and may last from ½ hour to several
hours depending upon the age of the student and the amount of work to be completed. This is also an opportune time for
parents to model reading, writing, and the e cient and productive use of their time as well.

Maintain a regular sleep cycle. Being a student and going to school every day requires a lot of energy. The physical and
mental demand on students is tremendous. It is not unusual for students to be tired during the day and to take a nap as
soon as they get home after school or go to bed abnormally early. However, there is a limit as to how much a child is capable
of accomplishing in a day. A child’s ability to be productive is not the same as an adult’s. Children need more rest. Whereas
it is a good idea for students to be involved in extra-curricular activities such as marching band, chess club, environmental
club, church activities, and sports, there is also a time when students need to rest and relax.
Some students are physically capable of doing a lot of di erent activities and also have interests in a wide variety of areas;
they tend to over-schedule their time. These students are in danger of work overload and sleep deprivation. Achievement
may su er if the students are so busy that they do not have time to concentrate on a finite number of items, with one of
them being sleep. Parents may have to limit after-school activities for their children or manage them in such a way that they
do not create an overload and allow for proper rest.

Institute a balanced diet. A national study indicated that the majority of students in school today are overweight.
Improper diet may lead to health problems or lethargy-both of which a ect active student learning. In a country where it is
 typical for both parents to work, students are sometimes left to prepare their own meals. For some, it is much easier to rely
on items that are quick and easy, but not necessarily nourishing. Malnourishment leads to weight gain and a stress on the
heart and other organs. Again, all of these a ect student performance.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Be a vigilant observer. Parents have more contact with their
Teachers are required to report signs of abuse. children than teachers. They are more likely to first identify a
change in the child’s routine. Sometimes a change in routine is
the temporary result of a growth spurt or social interaction. In other cases, it may be more prolonged and severe.
Anything unusual that the teacher notices should be reported to the parents, as well as the guidance
counselors/administrators.

Parents who seek help with educating their child are among the greatest assets that a teacher can have at his or her
disposal. Communicating e ectively with them is a requirement for successful teaching.

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Building Support in the Community

Objective
In this lesson, we will discuss:

Developing Community Support

Increasing Community Visibility

Supporting Local Events

Contributing to the Community

Developing Community Support

Schools and teachers draw strength and students from the surrounding community. School bonds are easily fostered in
areas where the schools are embraced and respected. Likewise, members of the school board or other governing body
are regarded as respected leaders who are in touch with the community.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT However, both of these aforementioned statements can become

Teachers that earn the respect of the hotly contested in areas where the schools have a history of
community are supported and welcomed neglecting the community. Communities invest their time and
anywhere in the community. Positive money in schools that reflect their trust and care. They
community relations are an expectation, not a withdraw support from schools that do not reflect their values
promise. and do not provide a proper education for their children. In
most areas, the schools are the center of neighborhood life and often do double duty as community centers and Parks
and Recreation facilities. Schools knit communities together by bringing people from all walks of life together for a
common cause. If you want to measure how well a community supports the school, count the number of people that
show up for a theatrical performance or an athletic contest even though they do not have any children in the event.
Schools are more than an educational institution; they garner an emotional investment in the community.
One of the very first items of business for a new teacher is to become established in the local community. There are a
number of ways to accomplish this task, but they all stem from three primary sources: visibility and attendance; support
for local issues and events; and finally membership and participation.

Visibility and Attendance

The easiest way to become part of the community is to relocate into it. Establishing a residence by its very nature makes
the teacher a part of the community. Once settled, the teacher can become a thriving and flourishing “local.” Living in a
community also allows easy access to community news, interests, and concerns. Access to this type of information is a
sign of integration and acceptance into the community, and is invaluable in predicting and identifying educational storms
on the horizon.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT If relocation is not an immediate option, do the next best thing
Having community insight is a great way to —visit. Parents love to see teachers out and about in the
dispel rumors and serve as a conduit to prevent community. The visit can take place anywhere, like a local
problems; however, community members restaurant, civic event, or market place. One of the best ways to
assume that when a teacher talks about other become part of the local community is to be seen in it, be
teachers, the school or school system, that the involved with it, and attend functions sponsored by it. Teachers
teacher has special insights and therefore they
who have a high level of visibility and approachability in the
trustingly believe them. Be careful not to speak
local community will become well known. Through their
without weighing the ramifications—this is how
contacts and recognition, they open the door for collaborative
rumors and gossip start. Teachers should always
opportunities. Conversely, an unknown teacher is an easy target
keep their comments positive when speaking,
and cannot expect much help or support from the community.
even casual comments and especially “o the
record” conversations in the community.
Parents accept the words of a teacher without There are many ways for a new teacher to become more visible.

doubt. Negative comments spread like wildfire Listen to what the veteran teachers are saying about local
and always have the name of the sponsoring events in the community and pick the one(s) that are of interest
teacher attached. This is a good way to become to attend. Also, check the local newspaper and search for local
extremely unpopular, distrusted, and disliked community events, such as festivals and celebrations that are
quickly. popular in the area. Sometimes a community celebrates a local
historic event, such as the Repulse of the British, or Lewis and
Clark Day. Community festivals are fun and are located around harvest days in agricultural areas, fishing or hunting
season in rural areas, and recreational events in tourist areas such as hot air balloon days or ski season. Often there are
ethnic celebrations that provide a glimpse into the local culture, such as Cinco de Mayo, or Greek Week festivities. Go
play and have fun. Even if you do not interact with parents of students in your class, they will know you were there.
Although these events are great at building community support, teachers should not discredit themselves by
drunkenness, lewd behavior, and other acts that disparage the image of a teacher in the community. Bad news travels
fast. Note that attending these events does not oblige a new teacher to join a club or organization.

Support for Local Issues and Events

Teachers become a part of the community when they begin to have the same interests and issues as the locals. This is
not necessarily intended as a political statement, but rather support for non-partisan issues like a new community
swimming pool or library. Once a teacher connects with a community, the community’s interests and concerns are also
the teacher’s interests and concerns. This is not a contrived situation, but a measure of how well the teacher is
established and understands the community. Non-educational community needs are shared by the teacher.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT By law, teachers may enter the political field at any time. It is a
Weigh carefully the ramifications of becoming constitutional right to exercise first amendment rights. In fact, a
politically active. fair number of elected o cials spent quality time in the
classroom first. It has often been said that all elections are local.
How does that a ect teachers? Local elections are notorious for temporarily dividing a community. Sometimes the
emotions generated by a hotly contested election spill over onto the candidates themselves and their supporters. Left
unchecked, strained emotions may increase to become something worse. The bottom line is simple: elections can be
nasty. Be careful.

Membership and Participation

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT Local religious centers, clubs, and organizations are always
To the extent possible, connect with a local looking for new members. This is a great way to integrate quickly
religious community, club, or organization to into the community. Clubs and organizations are also
provide a non-educational outlet as a life welcoming agencies that network the local community. They are
balance technique, a civic opportunity, and to open and inviting because they have a built-in clientele that
increase community acceptance. gathers for a common purpose or theme. Teachers who
participate become more like family than neighbors.

Participation occurs as the teacher becomes more immersed in the culture or rules of the religion, club, or organization.
Supporting local good causes is a civic opportunity as well as a strong promoter of community acceptance. This is also an
opportunity for high visibility in a socially accepted venue: a win-win for the teacher and community. Working and long-
term participation within a locally accepted and respected association is the best way to become accepted and respected
within the community.

Ten Things to Remember About Parents and Communities

1. Parents are humans and should be treated as such.

2. Parents will usually help if they know what to do.

3. Parents are more likely to continue to help if they receive feedback from the teacher and detect progress in their
child.

4. Parents don’t just send their best children to school.

5. Communities are aggregates of parents, their relatives, and friends.

 6. Bad news spreads quickly through a community and can mobilize neighbors.

7. Good news is expected.

8. Local religious communities, clubs, and organizations network the community.

9. A teacher in the audience prevents problems.

10. Everyone is moving toward a common goal.

Video Review: Avoiding Parent Conference Pitfalls (12:28)

0:00 / 12:28

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supports HTML5 video

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Resources and References Back to Top

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of successful teachers.

1. Amundson, K. 106 Ways Parents Can Help Students Achieve. Scarecrow Education, 1999. Available from
Amazon.com.

2. Boult, B. 176 Ways to Involve Parents. Corwin Press, 1999. Available from Amazon.com.

3. Chappuis, J. and Chappuis S. Understanding School Assessment: A Parent and Community Guide to Helping
Students Learn. Educational Testing Service, 2002. Available from Solution-tree.com.
 4. Cohen, D. The Learning Child. Random House, 1988. Available from Amazon.com.

5. Hassel, B. Picky Parent Guide: Choose Your Child’s School With Confidence, the Elementary Years, K-6. Armchair
Press, 2004. Available from Amazon.com.

6. Kessler, R. The Soul of Education: Helping Students Find Connection, Compassion, and Character at School.
Association for Supervision & Curriculum Development, 2000. Available from Amazon.com.

7. Lasse, L. and Clemmons, J. Helping Students Write the Best Research Reports Ever. Scholastic Teaching
Resources, 2000. Currently out of print. Check local library.

8. Parrott, L. Helping the Struggling Adolescent: A Guide to Thirty-Six Common Problems for Counselors, Pastors,
and Youth Workers. Zondervan, 1993. Available from Amazon.com.

9. Peterson, S. Guided Writing Instruction: Strategies to Help Students Become Better Writers. Portage and Maine
Press, 2004. Currently out of print. Check local library.

10. Rabin, S. Helping Students to Write a Prompt: Interactive Lessons with Reproducible Student Models and a
Master Rubric That Help Students Learn the Elements of Good Writing – for the Tests and More! Teaching Resources,
2002. Available from Amazon.com.

11. Rath, L., and Kennedy, L. The Between the Lions Book for Parents: Everything You Need to Know to Help Your
Children Learn to Read. Collins, 2005. Available from Amazon.com.

12. Shore, K. Parents’ Public School Handbook: How to Make the Most Out of Your Child’s Education, from
Kindergarten Through Middle School. Fireside, 1994. Available from Amazon.com.
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Understanding the Curriculum

Objective
In this workshop you will develop an understanding of how successful teachers plan for instruction. A lot of this work can
be accomplished before your students take their first steps into your classroom or as part of your long term planning,
knowing that this will likely be revised as the school year progresses.

This lesson will provide guidance on how you can use the curriculum in preparation for developing your instruction.
Specifically, we will look at:

What Do I Teach?

National, State, and Local Curricula

Translating Curriculum

The Daily Lesson Plan

The video case study at the end of this lesson will focus on the logistics of setting up your classroom.

Introduction
Knowing what, when, and how to teach are primary concerns for beginning teachers. In order to prepare for the school
year, it is important that new teachers understand not only what subjects they will teach, but what topics comprise those
subjects. This information is usually communicated via a set of curricular standards that are the centerpiece for
instruction. From this source document, teachers are expected to design and deliver lessons so that each student meets
or exceeds the standards. It is expected that teachers will reference the standards in every lesson plan and design lessons
that present the curriculum in a manner that is accessible to, and memorable for, all students. Therein lies the essence of
successful teaching.
The daily lesson plan is the most important educational document that the teacher will use during the school year.
Lesson plans serve as an instructional road map that guides the teacher through the curriculum. Although the format for
the actual lesson plan may vary by teacher, all should contain the same key elements: what the students are supposed to
learn (objectives), the best way to teach the objectives, and methods of determining the e ectiveness of the lessons
(assessments). E ective lesson plans clearly indicate the procedures that will be undertaken during the lesson, identify
the necessary materials and resources, and outline the specific activities that will be completed during the classes.

To create a lesson plan the teacher will need to have thorough knowledge of the content and the curriculum. The teacher
will then weave those elements into an educational tapestry that will result in students’ mastery of the curriculum
standards.

What Do I Teach?
Schools look to hire teachers that have a historical record of success with students or can show an aptitude toward that
end. The ability to communicate information to students, however, is but one piece of the puzzle. Classes must not be
viewed as individual experiences in a student’s educational career, but closely connected and carefully aligned series of
educational progressions. In other words, each teacher must pick up where a student’s previous teacher left o and
provide enough information to prepare them for their next teacher.

This tall order might leave a new teacher with daunting questions, such as:

How much mathematics is taught in third grade and how does that prepare them for the fourth grade? In what order are the
concepts taught?

Does the teacher begin with the American Revolution and provide a chronological treatment of American history or does the
teacher select from content themes such as the economy, civil rights, or political perspectives?

Where does instruction begin and end? How much has to be taught and learned this school year? What has to be taught
before the end of the rst marking period, or by midterm?

How much can be taught in a single time period?

Fortunately, teachers are not left to their own devices to determine the topics to teach each year and the order in which
they should be taught. Since the advent of No Child Left Behind (NCLB) and now with the Every Student Succeeds Act
(ESSA), most school systems have a standardized curriculum for each subject area. In some cases this may be as simple
as a directive to “follow the table of contents for the textbook,” or as elaborate as a day-by-day description of what the
teacher is supposed to teach and how it is to be taught every day of the school year. Most schools fall in a range
somewhere between the two extremes.
Before writing a single lesson plan, you should locate the approved curriculum for your grade, content, and school and
review it carefully to get an understanding of what has to be accomplished. If the school system requires system-wide
exams, get a copy of previous exams to determine the depth to which topics are covered and the style of questions that
are asked. The curriculum and the subsequent assessment, together with a firm knowledge of your students, form the
foundation for all instruction.

Do not try to re-invent the wheel. Look for existing curricula and assessments and use them to plan lessons.

National, State, and Local Curricula

In the broadest sense, curricula define what the students are supposed to learn as a result of a specific educational
sequence of events. More practically, a curriculum is a three-ring binder that contains the source documents detailing
what the students are supposed to learn, sample lessons for each objective, special activities such as laboratory
enrichments, approved school-wide assessments, a list of equipment and material resources available to teachers, and
samples of student work to be used as anchor papers. The depth and breadth of the curriculum guide varies from school
to school, from subject to subject, and even from teacher to teacher. Someone who has taught a subject for years has, in
a sense, developed his own addendum to the approved curriculum that contains activities, assessments, and strategies
that proved successful.

TEACHER TIP
When interviewing for a teaching position, remember to ask the interviewers to describe
the nature of their curriculum for the subject you may be teaching. A school that provides
a complete and teacher-friendly set of curricular materials is most likely a school that
supports its teachers and is interested in seeing them succeed. This information could be
useful when choosing a place of future employment.

Most content areas have a curriculum that has been developed by national blue ribbon committees over the last several
years in response to Common Core and ESSA. These curricula represent the best focused e orts of a broad range of
educators, including classroom teachers, school administrators, and university experts. In most cases, these national
curricula indicate the approximate grade level that certain curricular concepts are intended to be taught and mastered
before moving to the next level.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT By defining a linear continuum of what the students are to learn
Unless you are prepared to fight with the results in a given course or subject before proceeding to the next level,
of the national curriculum committees, consider these national committees have created a very useful tool.
their findings as final. However, national curricula tend to be very generic. In several
cases, the wording within these curricula leaves room for a
variety of interpretations. For instance, does “Understand the underlying reasons for the American Revolution” mean
that the students are supposed to understand the economic, political, or social reasons for the American Revolution? Or,
on the other hand, are the crafters of the objective intending something else entirely? Even given this minor drawback,
the national curricula serve as an overall standard and new teachers should use it to review the subjects that they are
expected to teach.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT By capitalizing on the existence of national curricula, most

States are required to develop and administer states have created individual curricula that align with national
assessments in specified subject areas to standards but emphasize state priorities. The state level
measure student growth. These statewide curricula are typically developed with greater assistance by
assessments are based on the state curricula. It classroom teachers, school administrators, and curriculum
is important for every teacher to be well versed specialists—with less emphasis on university experts—to
on the contents of these curricula.
maximize local teacher involvement and minimize teacher
resistance. State level curricula tend to be more specific than national curricula, making it easier for the teacher to
accurately identify what the students are supposed to learn. However, even with increased specificity, the state curricula
still are not always specific enough to use as daily lesson objectives.

Most school systems have taken advantage of state level curricula to develop a local version. Again, the local curricula
align with that state’s curricula, which align with the national curricula, so the national umbrella provides direction for the
locals. Local curricula are often developed by teachers with the assistance of curriculum specialists. This type of
development presents district by district, system by system, and school by school di erences upon how the state
educational system is organized. Therefore, what may be important in one school may be of lesser importance in a
school across a district line. When moving from school to school, teachers need to be aware of curricular di erences
within the same subject. Likewise, students that join your class may have transferred from a school that o ered a
di erent interpretation of, or assigned a di erent priority to, certain curricular areas than your school.

TEACHER TIP
In the absence of a local or school curriculum for your subject, rely on the state curriculum
for structure. This provides authenticity and accountability and justifies the basis for your
lesson planning.

Because statewide assessments are based on statewide curricula, local curriculum developers are very careful to copy
the intent, if not the actual wording, of the state level document for use in the local schools. Individual schools may
reorganize components of the state curriculum to allow for unique features such as resource availability, but for the most
part, the local curricula follow the state document very closely. Linking to nationally established and recognized curricula
provides a measure of content validity to local curricula.

Statewide assessments determine success for students and schools as part of ESSA. For certain subjects, Annual Yearly
Progress (AYP) is a measure of how well a school is accomplishing the intent of ESSA. This is a very important rating for
the school and community. Quite often the rating and related commentary are prominent features in the local news.
Check to see if your subject is used as a measure for AYP. These subjects tend to have an elevated position of visibility
and therefore generally have more and better resources available for teacher use.

In some cases, AYP subjects have locally developed assessments that measure student progress during the year with
intervention and remediation activities built into the model for struggling students. Learn as much about this procedure
as possible, including a review of the actual assessment and review materials that mirror the assessments. It is the
teacher’s responsibility to align instruction to meet the goals established by the school or school system.

TEACHER TIP
Make absolutely sure that you understand the curriculum, so spend time studying it before
school begins. In fact, you should not write a single lesson plan until you understand how
your curriculum is structured and assessed.

Translating Curriculum
PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT The curriculum guides for most schools contain valuable
School-based administrators and content information for the teacher. Typically they indicate the
specialists are usually willing to discuss appropriate content, instructional timeline, and often contain
curriculum with new teachers and to assist them sample lessons or resources for the teacher to use as needed. A
with instructional planning, both as a careful review of the entire curriculum guide should give the
professional courtesy and to prevent larger teacher the school’s perspective on what has to be taught, to
problems later. Keep in mind that secondary
whom, by what deadline, and at what proficiency level. If your
principals rely heavily on subject specialists,
school does not have curricula at this level of sophistication,
department chairs, and content supervisors for
you may have to clarify the goals of instruction with a school
specific content expertise; elementary
administrator before beginning any lesson planning.
principals may rely on other professionals as
well, but usually to a lesser extent.
Once you have reviewed existing curriculum guides and
assessments for a given unit and have a clear understanding of the parameters of instruction, your focus turns to
instruction. The entirety of the curriculum needs to be mastered by your class, and accomplishing that goal is easier if
you follow this sequence:

Identify the length of time required to teach a unit.

Write the assessment for that unit of study.

Teach the skills and content required for the standards involved.

Review for the assessment.

 Give the assessment.

Evaluate the e ectiveness of your instruction based on the assessment.

Redesign for instruction and repeat as needed.

The ability to translate a printed document, like the curriculum, into an e ective lesson is one of the miracles that
teachers perform on a daily basis. The skill of translation is developed over time but may initially prove to be very
di cult. It requires the teacher to consider the curriculum, the students, student progress, classroom limitations, and
time constraints all at the same time. Though the task seems daunting, it’s accomplished successfully many times a day
in every classroom.

TEACHER TIP
Sometimes schools provide teachers with a combination grade book/lesson plan book at
the start of every year that features empty blocks in which teachers can list their daily
lesson plans. This form of lesson plan notebook is a holdover from a textbook driven
approach to teaching when teachers simply recorded the pages to be covered in the text. In
most cases, the blocks are too small to write anything other than the basic elements of a
lesson plan and are therefore not very valuable as a classroom resource for the teachers.
You may wish to create your own binder to hold your lesson plans in curricular order.

The remainder of this lesson is dedicated to methods, tips, and advice that will help you su ciently plan and prepare for
teaching your students. The following workshop, Pedagogy and Instructional Design, will focus on specific teaching
strategies that you can use to communicate your lessons to your class. Together, these workshops will put you on the
path to becoming an educational alchemist who can change paper standards into classroom strategies and successful
students.

Translating Curriculum: Objectives

Ideally, your curriculum contains objectives that are specific enough to be used in class. If not, then you must analyze the
intent of the curriculum and create classroom-level specificity in the daily lesson objectives. For instance, if the
curriculum guide contains general objectives like, “Students will be able to write a complete sentence,” the teacher may
have to develop more specific objectives. The gap between students’ prior knowledge and the curricular intent may be
too large for this objective to be e ective. A sample lesson objective from this theme might be “Students will be able to
write a sentence that contains a noun and a verb.” This subset of the curricular objective is more specific–if the students
can write a sentence with a noun and accompanying verb, then they are ready for subsequent objectives that can lead
them toward writing a complete sentence.

This technique of utilizing sequential developmental objectives provides a framework for student understanding,
“ramping them up” to reach the standards rather than requiring them to take large leaps of mastery that may be called
for in the curriculum. Pre-testing the students and monitoring student progress with frequent quizzing and formative
testing are necessary to determine whether the class needs additional intermediate developmental steps in order to
reach the final desired curricular outcome of a standard.

TEACHER TIP
Lesson objectives are vitally important, because they ensure that your lessons are aligned
with the curriculum and accompanying assessments each and every day. They are equally
beneficial for your students—they understand what they are supposed to learn as a result
of the instruction. Well written objectives are of great value to teachers.

The primary purpose of an objective is to link the curriculum to daily lesson plans. To determine whether your objectives
for a unit of study are written so that they can be e ectively used in your class, ask yourself this question: Can the
objectives be used as exam questions? If so, the daily lesson objective is well crafted; if not, reword the objective so that
it is more focused on instructional intent. Specifically, you should make sure the objective is not too general. The
objective “Students will be able to add basic integers” is not nearly as useful as the objective “Students will be able to
add two-digit integers.” The latter translates more directly into exam questions.

Often, new teachers will confuse objectives with agenda items. A good objective explains what the students will be able
to accomplish by the end of the lesson; an agenda item explains what the class will do during the class period.

For example, “Students will discuss the process of mitosis” is an agenda item—during the class period, this
topic will be discussed. Notice that this agenda item does not translate well into an exam item: “Can you
discuss mitosis?”

A better objective would be “Students will be able to identify the stages of mitosis and the characteristics of
each stage.” The new objective presents itself as a viable essay question for an exam at the end of the
chapter and clearly communicates what the students should know before they leave the room.

Translating Curriculum: Pacing

One major concern for new teachers is the proper pacing of their lessons—how much of the curriculum can be covered in
a particular time period? Can you teach the entire alphabet in a single week? How many sentences can the class diagram
in one period? Is there a limit to the number of arithmetic problems that you should plan to cover?

The answer is simple: The amount of curriculum that can be covered in one time period is equal to the amount of
curriculum that the students can learn during that same time period on that day. This depends on a number of variables
including:

The nature of the students

 The degree of di culty of the material

The goals the teacher is trying to accomplish

Your ongoing task is to identify a discrete unit of content that can be reasonably covered in the time provided while
maintaining maximum student retention of the material. It doesn’t do any good to teach elements of the curriculum if
the students either don’t understand or are unable to remember what is taught. Keep in mind that the number of
concepts students can process may vary from day to day. If the collective student body is concerned about an important
after school event, just completed a lengthy exam in the previous class, or they know the next day is the start of a long
holiday vacation, they may be less apt to concentrate and less willing to be productive.

TEACHER TIP
Frequent quizzing and in-class assignments are helpful for monitoring student progress.

An easy way to begin translating curriculum into a lesson plan is to look for units within the existing curriculum. Typically
they appear as natural breaks in the sequence of the curriculum. A single curricular unit represents a single major theme,
skill set, or concept and is easily subdivided into smaller instructional units. Multiple units compose an entire school year
of study. These units can then be broken down into monthly, weekly, and daily lesson plans depending on the size of the
unit. The idea is to take large units and systematically subdivide them until the teacher is working with lesson-sized
pieces without violating curriculum intent or the seamless flow of the curriculum.

So, what constitutes a unit of study? Each unit is bookended by assessments, beginning when the preceding unit is
assessed and ending when a summary quiz or test is given for the unit itself.

Don’t forget the larger issue of pacing—you should stay as close as possible to the pace set by other teachers of the same
content. This requires constant communication between you and established teachers, who (in many cases) have taught
the same class multiple times and have a better sense of how long each unit should last. Asking colleagues for help in
this matter is not a sign of weakness, nor a sign of poor preparation. Rather, it demonstrates that you have the best
interest of your students at heart and you want them to learn the same volume of material that they would if their teacher
weren’t new to the school or profession.

Translating Curriculum: Assessment

Deciding what to teach and how to assess that instruction are two sides of the same coin, and you must answer both
questions at the same time. Assessments are periodic measuring devices that indicate student growth and verify
successful lessons. They are an integral part of instruction. The feedback from student quizzes, tests, and other
assessments arms the teacher with important information. From this data, the teacher can make informed, educational
decisions, such as:
 Does this concept have to be re-taught?

Are student scores high enough to justify advancing to the next objective?

Is there a student or subset of students that must receive di erentiated instruction before moving forward?

Teaching calculus is very di erent than teaching baseball. Math is based on a set of skills, each of which build upon
previously-taught skills. A good teacher would break calculus instruction into small, discrete, easy-to-understand units
with their own set of lesson objectives. Each of these units may require an assessment to determine if the students
understand the material well enough to continue. Small assessments may then be followed by a cumulative assessment
to determine if the students remembered, and are able to apply, previous instruction as well as more recent lessons.

Teachers of skill-oriented subjects like art (or baseball) usually prefer to clump instruction into performance units, units
that contain similar skills or require similar proficiencies. Di erent types of instruction require di erent assessment
schedules.

One extremely successful math teacher explained to me that her success was based on remanufacturing di cult
concepts into bite sized pieces for her students.
Scheduling assessment can be tricky. As you plan a series of daily lesson plans to reflect instruction for a curricular unit,
you need to integrate regular and periodic assessment windows to measure how well the students are retaining the
instruction. Problems arise when teachers rigidly lock in a particular day for the assessment before the actual instruction
begins.

For instance, you could announce that the quiz on a curricular concept will be next Wednesday and then as you begin to
teach the daily lesson plans, you may notice that the students are struggling with a concept and need an extra day to
really understand it. Similarly, a rigidly-planned assessment schedule can be ruined by a fire drill, an impromptu school
assembly, a hazardous weather day, and even a mild outbreak of the flu. Giving the exam before the students have been
taught or had the opportunity to master the material is a mistake.

TEACHER TIP
Flexibility is a virtue.

Experienced teachers remain flexible in their planning. It is acceptable to announce that the quiz is likely to be next
Wednesday with the understanding that it will not occur before next Wednesday, but may be later depending upon the
progress of the class. Students seldom complain if the test date is postponed. On the other hand, students may mutiny if
a test day is moved forward without su cient notice. Students need time to prepare for exams, so be sensitive to their
schedules as well as your own need to move swiftly through the curriculum.
The Daily Lesson Plan
We have looked at the relationships between the curriculia, objectives, and assessments. Developing a thorough
understanding of curricular intent, including the scope, sequence, and timeline of the curriculum, is an essential part of
each teacher’s planning and preparation. Once the objectives for the lesson have been established, the teacher knows
what the students are expected to learn and how their understanding of that material will be assessed.

Then the hard part begins and the teacher must plan the agenda for that lesson. In planning the agenda, the teacher
must mesh curricular intent, available resources, room configuration, assessment of progress, and the nature of the
students. Di erent classes require di erent approaches to instruction. It is not likely that a first grade student will gain
much from a lengthy lecture on the quadratic equation—both the content and the methodology are inappropriate.
Therefore, it is best to learn as much about the students as possible before school begins.

Administrators are typically the best source of data because PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
they have access to better information and, having been Networking with colleagues about the students
teachers themselves, understand what you’ll need to know. They provides useful information and also helps to
can also provide some insight into what will and will not work in establish a new teacher as a member of the
a lesson. For instance, the administrator might discourage small school community.

group project work until after the teacher has explained the class rules and gained control of student conduct. Other
good sources of information are guidance counselors (who often look at students with a di erent perspective) and
experienced teachers (who have stood in your shoes and understand the task ahead).

Lesson plans should allow for maximum exposure of the important aspects of the lesson, as much repetition as possible,
and the opportunity for the students to practice. It is the teacher’s di cult task to determine the best methodology to
present the content in a manner that the students will understand and remember. In the next workshop, Pedagogy and
Instructional Design, we will look into how students learn and discuss specific strategies for communicating curricular
concepts to your students.

Ten Things to Remember About Organizing for Instruction

1. The local curriculum guide is required reading for all new teachers.

2. Review previous versions of required system-wide exams to look at the topics covered and the type of questions
asked.

3. Assessments inform instruction.

4. Curriculum objectives should be broken down to specific lesson objectives that can be translated into exam
questions

5. The pace of instruction depends on the nature of the students, the di culty of the material, and the curricular
goals.
 6. Many subjects are best taught using small units with their own set of lesson objectives which are followed by unit
and cumulative assessments to measure understanding.

7. Learn as much about your students as possible before school begins.

8. Good lessons begin with good lesson plans.

9. Experienced teachers remain flexible in their planning.

10. Your admistrators and fellow teachers are excellent resources that should be utilized.

Review Questions
1. What is the value of aligning your lesson plans to the local, state, and national curriculum?

2. Why is it important to plan assessments into your unit lesson plan?

3. Why is it helpful to gather information about your students before planning lessons?

Video Review: Organizing for Instruction (10:18)

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Resources and References Back to Top

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of successful teachers.

1. Ellis, E. S. and Worthington, L. A. Research synthesis on e ective teaching principles and the design of quality
tools for educators. University of Oregon: Technical Report No. 5 National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators.,
1994. http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech05.pdf

2. Kincheloe, Joe. Unauthorized Methods: Strategies for Critical Teaching. Routledge, 1998. Available from
Amazon.com.

3. Leamnson, Robert. Thinking About Teaching and Learning: Developing Habits of Learning with First Year College
and University Students. Stylus Publishing, 1999. Available from Amazon.com.

4. Loughran, John. Researching Teaching: Methodologies and Practices for Understanding Pedagogy. Routledge,
1999. Available from Amazon.com.

5. Loughran, John. Teaching about Teaching: Purpose, Passion, and Pedagogy in Teacher Education. Taylor and
Francis, 2007. Available from Amazon.com.

6. Martin, Renee J. Practicing What We Teach: Confronting Diversity in Teacher Education. State University of New
York Press, 1995. Available from Amazon.

7. Monroe, Walter Scott, et al. An Introduction to the Theory of Educational Measurements. Houghton Mi in
Company, 1923. Currently out of print. Check local library.

8. Ruch, Giles M. The Objective or New Type Examination: An Introduction to Educational Measurement. Scott,
Foresman and Co., 1929. Currently out of print. Check local library.

9. Smith, Henry Lester. Tests and Measurements. Silver, Burdett and Co., 1928. Currently out of print. Check local
library.

10. Tiegs, Ernest Walter. The Management of Learning in the Elementary Schools. Longmans, Green and Co., 1937.
Currently out of print. Check local library.
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Professional Learning
Objectives:

In this workshop you will familiarize yourself with:

Professional Learning Communities

Professional Learning Plans

Professional Development Plans

The Continuous Improvement Cycle and Four Types of Data

The School Improvement Process

Teacher preparation programs lay the foundation for professional teaching knowledge. Teachers are expected to
participate in ongoing professional development as a part of their practice. The term “professional learning” covers all
types of learning experiences related to teaching, whether it is a brief “sit and get” session, a weeklong conference, or a
series of lectures. While there are many di erent delivery models for professional development, there are just as many
content areas for teachers to develop their knowledge and skills. While some professional development is appropriate for
any faculty, professional development is most e ective when it meets a specific need of a particular group.

Selecting Learning Experiences

School administrators are often faced with the task of reviewing and processing large amounts of data in order to
identify needs and select appropriate professional development activities for a sta . Yet more and more systems are
moving toward teacher evaluation systems which place a priority on teachers participating in professional learning
or growth plans, professional learning based on goals developed for the individual teacher by the individual teacher
and his or her supervising administrator. With this trend toward more teacher involvement in identifying
professional development needs, teachers need to be familiar with the process of how to select learning experiences
 that align with the school community needs. Many systems utilize a continuous improvement cycle in order to
ensure that their school community focuses on systematic problem solving.

Continuous Improvement Cycle

1. Identify Needs:
In this phase of the continuous improvement cycle, educators review data from a variety of sources in order to look for
gaps. Needs are identified by analyzing the data and prioritizing the needs of the school. Schools may select needs based
on:

Student needs

Teacher needs (identified by colleague, supervisor, and reflective feedback)

Local and district school improvement initiatives

Engaging students in activities aligned with State and local standards

Data is often disaggregated into appropriate subgroups and graphed or visualized other ways to help educators identify
the degree of disparity between groups. School primarily examine four types of data: achievement, demographic,
process, and perception. Educators need to look at all types of data to gain an understanding of the whole picture of
school performance.

Types of data:
Achievement data is the data that tells you how well students have performed on an assessment. Achievement
data can be looked at individually, student by student, or can be looked at in various groupings so teachers can
identify populations of students who need more support. Common groupings, or sub-groupings include by teacher,
gender, ethnicity, ELL status, Special Education status, and race. This sub group data allows teachers to see the
e ectiveness of current strategies within di erent populations. Examples of achievement data are standardized test
scores, classroom grades, formative assessment scores, and Lexile scores.
Above are two representations of achievement data. The graph on the left is a line graph that represents student
growth scores over three years in eight di erent subject areas. The bar graph on the right follows three years of
performance data on common district assessments in four di erent English Language Arts classes. The graph on the
left gives us a quick representation on how much progress teachers are making with students in each subject. The
bar graph on the right gives us similar information and can be helpful when there aren’t the same number of data
points for all areas being examined. Both of these types of representations can be useful in helping educators find
gaps in performance and predict trends.

Demographic data describes a population of people. Some examples of demographic data include the
percentage of students by race, gender, disability status, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and ELL status.
Demographic data lets you know the makeup of the population of students you are working with and is helpful in
interpreting some of your other data. It is often helpful to view demographic data in pie chart to visualize the
segments of a whole school population. Demographic data can also be helpful in looking at trends and making
predictions.

Process data tells you about the processes and programs of the school. Some examples of process data are:
student participation in clubs, sports, afterschool programs, counseling programs, student support programs, and
peer mediation. It also includes data related to lesson planning and instructional framework implementation.
Process data often comes from walk through and observation reports, sign in sheets at events, counting the number
of lunches sold, or the number of tickets sold to di erent events. Teachers may find it helpful to review process data
in their PLC’s when trying to determine supports for students. For instance, if a teacher knows that parents and
students attend activities after school on Tuesday more than any other day of the week, they can capitalize on this
information to schedule their classroom activities on a day when they have an increased chance for good
 participation. Also if a teacher sees walk through data that indicates the use of higher order thinking skills are lower
in their department than in the rest of their school, they can consider how that might be impacting student
achievement and make a change to instruction if needed. Process data can also help teachers understand the types
of school activities that engage the community. Looking for trends in the process data can help a PLC leverage
school resources and optimize participation to meet their goals.

The bar graph below depicts process data on the use of instructional technology in a moderately sized high school. This
particular data was collected over time to monitor the use of instructional technology after a professional development.

Perception data is the data that describes peoples’ opinions, or what they think they know. Perception data often
comes from surveys. Many schools and districts conduct surveys several times a year in order to review perception
data. Perception data is often used when evaluating school climate. Perception data is often collected based on the
strength of agreement with a particular statement, such as “My teachers assign challenging work” and the student
responds with rating of strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, or strongly agree. Perception data is
often collected at the end of a professional learning activity.

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Neutral Agree
Disagree Agree

My child’s school is clean 5% 15% 10% 45% 25%

My student is safe at school 2% 5% 18% 25% 50%

My child is happy at school 2% 13% 5% 25% 55%

My child’s teacher communicates important

2% 5% 5% 63% 25%
information

Teachers at school are accessible to parents 5% 25% 30% 35% 5%

The perception data table above shows a summary of responses from a parent survey. The benefit of perception data is
that you can collect data with any questions you like. This particular survey was conducted using a Likert scale for
responses. Perception can also be collected using a rubric style response.

Collecting Data
In our everyday life data is being collect on our behaviors all the time! When we watch a video online, we add to the
view count. When we “like” an image on social media, we provide perception data. When we pay with our credit
card, we are providing data to retailers, manufacturers, and financial companies. Data is a part of our culture, and it
drives so much of what our culture is exposed to. Data is how companies know what people like and don’t like, how
much to produce, what to charge, who to advertise to, and how they know what works for them. As educators we
need to know what’s working for us, how much of it to use, and when. Data on our e ectiveness is just as important
as everyone else’s!

It is critical for educators to seek out technology solutions to make data analysis as e cient a process as possible,
and to make the data accessible to the larger school community. As you can imagine, most schools have an
abundance of data. In a school of 1000 students, each student will have at least five demographic factors and five
achievement factors. At the minimum, that is 10,000 raw data points. It is unreasonable to imagine that schools are
collecting, aggregating, disaggregating and calculating statistics by hand. Several di erent tools may be necessary
for schools to interpret and analyze data. Computers to perform calculations, spreadsheets to sort information and
create visual representations of data, databases to student information system databases that house and extract
demographic and achievement data, software that specializes in collecting survey responses, and even software to
track tardiness to school. Educators rely on seeking out and using available technology solutions to make the data
accessible and meaningful.

TEACHER TIP
Connect with your media specialist and instructional technology specialist to get support
in finding technology solutions to manage data.

2. Creating a Plan
Once you’ve crunched the numbers, it’s time to set a goal and develop an action plan. Educators must
collaborate and prioritize their needs and develop a plan that supports attaining a specific goal.

Set Goals

Goal setting is a practice that sounds easy but takes some skill. When we are working to set goals for a school
community, it is important that we are setting goals that are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time
 bound (SMART goals). SMART goals allow a school community to have a clear understanding of what goal they
are trying to reach, when they need to reach it by, to be able to measure progress along the way, and to feel that
it is something worth working for. As a teacher you will spend time each year participating in goal setting for the
school in your school improvement process, for your PLC in your small group learning community, for yourself,
and for your students. The goal setting is the foundation for many plans throughout the school and district.
SMART goals drive district improvement plans, IEPs, student support team plans, and in some districts teacher
bonuses.

Choose a Strategy

Once the goal is set, it’s time to review research in that area and choose a best practice that is e ective in
improving the area of need. Choosing research-based strategies allows schools to be able to anticipate a certain
degree of success in attainment of their goal.

3. Implement the Plan

Once the plan has been formalized it’s time to take action! Implementing the plan is simply following the steps
and the timeline.

4. Monitor
Once the plan has been launched, monitoring will begin. Monitoring includes periodic checks on the progress
on the steps of the plan, and on the attainment of the goal. Monitoring can be informal assessment, checklists,
or formal reporting.

Begin again
As the formative and summative data about goal attainment comes in, it’s time to revisit the cycle by analyzing the data
and identifying needs.

The continuous improvement cycle is a common theme throughout educational practice. As you develop and attain
more knowledge and skills in educational practice you will begin to notice the continuous improvement cycle utilized
again and again.

Individual Plans
Professional Learning Plans

Professional Learning Plans (PLP) begin with the teacher reviewing and reflecting on school and/or classroom
data and selecting and creating goal. PLP is usually developed by the teacher in consultation with the
 administrator. Goals can target an individual teacher’s needs, and / or school or district wide initiatives. These
professional learning goals drive the professional learning plan, which outlines the teacher’s and school’s part
in meeting the professional learning goal. Professional learning plans di er from remediation plans in that they
are not a corrective measure for struggling teachers, but they are instead a required plan for all educators to
ensure that teachers remain life-long learners and that they have the opportunities to develop their areas of
strength, weakness, and preference.

Professional Insight
Develop weaknesses but develop strengths too!
Nothing builds confidence like being an expert!
SAMPLE Professional Learning Plan

Tara Teacher Professional Learning Plan for the 2017-2018 School Year

Data sources reviewed: Previous standardized test scores, Lexile scores, walkthrough data

Professional Learning Goal:

In order to increase my standardized test scores by 5% I will add the use of “clickers” in my classroom to increase
student opportunity to respond to questions and collect formative student data. My goal is to collect formative
assessment data with clickers once a week.

Professional learning activity:

Fall: I will attend a training with the media specialist on the use and maintenance of the multiple response clicker
system and I will observe the use of these clickers in another teacher’s classroom.

Fall / Winter: I will research the use of clickers for formative assessments in the area of Mathematics. I will read and
reflect on at least three professional articles about teachers who have implemented this practice.

Winter: I will work with a member of my team to covert our weekly formative assessments to clicker-based
assessments.

I will begin collecting data with the clickers weekly.

Resources and Supports:

I will need access to the clicker system at least once per week. I will need to meet with the media specialist for at least
one training session on the clickers and have access to him for support periodically.
 Professional Development Plan

Professional Development Plan (PDP) is a plan developed by an administrator for a teacher whose practice
reflects that they are struggling in a particular area or areas. The Professional development plan di ers from
the professional learning plan in that it is an administrator developed plan that is intended to correct
something in the teacher’s practice that is negatively impacting their evaluation. A professional development
plan is part of the evaluation process and intended to do set clear expectations and supports for a teacher who
is having di culty. Professional development plans are often required by teacher evaluation systems for
teachers who score below a certain total or below a certain score in a specific area. For instance, if the teacher
evaluation platform designates total scores between 15-20 are proficient teachers, any teacher at 14 or below
may be required to have a development plan. Also, if an evaluation system uses a scoring system of 1-4 for each
area, and a teacher scores a 1 in a particular area (though their overall rating may be proficient) a professional
development plan may also be required. While professional development plans are corrective, and considered
remediation, they are intended to provide support and clear expectations, so a teacher can grow.

TEACHER TIP
If an administrator puts you on a remediation plan, don’t be shy! Be clear in asking for the
supports that you need to be successful. Consider asking for resources, training classes,
professional coaching, or other a.

SAMPLE Professional Development Plan

Tony Teacher Professional Development Plan for School Year 2017-2018

Start Date: October 2017

End Date: January 2018

Area(s) for improvement: Classroom management

Educator actions: Mr. Teacher will take a classroom management course of at least 20 seat hours. Mr. Teacher will
observe two other teachers’ classrooms (identified by administration) and submit a written reflection of both
observations to his supervising administrator. Mr. Teacher will keep a journal of the di erent classroom management
strategies he uses in class each day and write weekly reflections on their e ectives. Mr. Teacher will consult with the
behavior specialist every two weeks and make his journal available for behavior specialist review. Mr. Teacher will
schedule monthly conferences with his administrator to debrief her on his progress. At each meeting Mr. Teacher will
submit his journal for review.
Resources provided by the system: Classroom management class at the county o ce, behavior specialist consultation,
access to two other teachers’ classrooms for observation, monthly conferences with administrator.

Timeline for implementation: Mr. Teacher will complete the classroom management class by the end of November. He
will begin daily entries in his journal during week two of his classroom management course. Mr. Teacher will begin
conferences with his supervising administrator in October. Mr. Teacher will consult with the behavior specialist
beginning upon completion of the classroom management course (expected in mid-November).

Documentation and Deliverables: Journal, Documentation of course completion, record of conferences with behavior
specialist, record of conferences with administrator

Collaborative Learning
Professional Learning Communities

The Professional Learning Community, or PLC, is a group of people that meet regularly and examine data with
the purpose of making changes to improving student outcomes. PLCs can be content area groups, grade level
groups, or any combination of people from the school community that come together on a regular basis to
review data and inform practices that should lead to better outcomes for students.

PLCs have a goal. Common goals for PLCs include determining what to teach when, creating lesson plans, or
developing common assessments, or improving behavior management. All PLCs share a common purpose of
improving student learning experiences and performance. An example of one school’s PLC process is described
below:

Content Alignment: Review and unpack standards and curriculum to ensure that all members have a clear
understand of the content and the depth of knowledge required.

Teaching Practices: Plan lessons for the unit.

 Student Work: Using a protocol review students work.

Data Analysis: Using a protocol review data collected from common formative and/or summative assessments.

Reflection: Review strengths and challenges of the past unit and determine changes that need to make for
upcoming unit.

The PLC structure described above is designed to be used by the school’s common course teacher PLCs at least
once per week.

Grade level and content area PLCs often focus on examining student and work and achievement data, discussing
best practices and unexpected outcomes. Teachers participating in PLCs will practice skills of analyzing data,
reflective practice, and school improvement.

PLCs should be large enough for people to o er one another feedback, support, and to collaborate on problem
solving, and be small enough that everyone’s needs and concerns can be routinely addressed. PLCs function best
when there is a structure to the meetings, so that PLCs can stay focused on completing their work and meeting their
purpose.

It is not unusual for PLCs to produce work such as common lesson plans, common assessments, remediation plans,
acceleration plans, and intervention plans. PLCs may have the responsibility of reviewing RTI data and moving
students through the school’s tiers of support.

PLCs should meet regularly, with the frequency appropriate to their purpose. If the PLCs task is to examine student
work and develop lesson plans, the PLC may meet once or twice a week.

Participating in PLCs
Analyzing Student Work

One of the most critical endeavors that a teacher PLC embarks upon is the analysis of student work.
Examination and analysis of student work is critical to making e ective instructional decisions. Performing this
task as a group helps teams to build interrater reliability and build consensus in standards alignment and
analysis of rigor. Using protocols can be helpful in keep a group focused on generating specific information
when examining student work. There are several protocols available for examining student work as an individual
or with a group. Some protocols are for extensive and deep thinking and analysis, and others take a short
amount of time and yield a small amount of information. Examining student work is often the primary task of
the PLC, analysis of the work provides formal formative data that is critical to designing the next lessons so that
all learners have chance to succeed.

Some guiding questions for student work analysis:

 Which students’ work is good enough?

What does good enough mean in the context of this work?

For the students that didn’t meet the standard, what do they need to do to meet it?

Was my teaching strategy e ective?

For whom was my teaching strategy ine ective?

Feedback to Colleagues
Giving and receiving feedback is critical skills for PLCs. Over the course of their practice teachers will participate in
giving and receiving feedback with their peers in several areas. Teachers should be prepared to participate in
feedback sessions regarding their professional practice, student and teacher data, identifying needs, professional
learning, planning lessons, and when analyzing student work.

The feedback process can be intimidating at first. People giving feedback may be afraid of hurting someone’s
feelings or exposing their own insecurities during this process. The person receiving feedback can feel insecure,
uncomfortable, and judged. In order to engage in professional feedback with peers, and develop and maintain
collegial relationships, it is important that the feedback process have some clear expectations and processes. This
allows the presenter and receiver to be clear about their roles, and the limits of that roles. Structured processes or
protocols can be helpful in creating clear expectations and supporting a safe space for feedback sessions. Protocols
can be found in literature and on the internet, or you can structure your own. A good protocol will:

Have the participants choose a specific area of examination

Set a time limit for observation / analysis

Include a time for clarifying questions or response

Include “cool” (areas of improvement) and “warm” (behaviors to repeat) feedback

Inspire reflection

School Improvement Process

The School Improvement committee is another type of PLC that you will find in most schools. The School
Improvement Plan (SIP) aligns goals with the vision and mission of the school, and the needs of the school. Schools
assemble diverse teams of school community members to apply the continuous improvement cycle to the school
program as a whole. Teachers are an integral part of the School Improvement PLC. Teachers are needed to help
identify and develop goals for the plan, and they are immensely critical in determining what resources, training, and
supports are needed in order to meet these goals. Teachers have great influence over the school improvement plan,
and great influence over the outcomes. Teachers will participate in every part of the SIP including goal setting, plan
development, implementation and monitoring.
Review Questions
How do you apply the continuous improvement cycle in your PLC?

What is the common purpose of all PLCs?

What types of data should be considered when developing goals for professional learning?

What are the di erences in a PDP and a PLP?

What are the important factors in making peer feedback comfortable?

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Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of Professional Development

Banks, F. and Mayes, A. Early Professional Development for Teachers. David Fulton Publishers, 2001. Available from
Amazon.com

Dufor, R. and Eaker, R., Professional Learning Communities at Work: Best Practices for Enhancing Student
Achievement. Solution Tree Press, 1998. Available from Amazon.com

Dufor, R. and Dufor, R. Learning by Doing: A Handbook for Professional Communities at Work – A Practical Guide
for PLC Teams and Leadership. Solution Tree Press, 2016. Available from Amazon.com

Joyce, B, and Calhoun, E. Models of Professional Development: A Celebration of Educators. Corwin Associates, 2010.
Available from Amazon.com

Lieberman, A. and Miller, L. Professional Development that Matters. Teachers College Press, 2001. Available from
Amazon.com
Martin, L. and Kragler, S. Handbook of Professional Development in Education: Successful Models and Practices,
PreK-12. The Guilford Press, 2014. Available from Amazon.com

McLaughlin, C. Teachers Learning Professional Development and Education. Cambridge, 2013. Available from
Amazon.com

Reeves, D. Transforming Professional Development into Student Results. ASCD, 2010. Available from Amazon.com
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How Students Learn

Objective
In this workshop you will examine the fundamentals of preparing to teach a lesson and review numerous instructional
strategies that can be used as-is or modified to fit the style of a particular student or teacher.

This lesson will provide guidance on how you can use the curriculum in preparation for developing your instruction.
Specifically, we will look at:

The Learning Cycle

Building on Prior Knowledge

Providing Context for Learning

Active Learning

Additional Strategies

Special Considerations When Planning a Lesson

Introduction
There are two incidents from when I first began my career in teaching that helped me make important changes to the way
I think about teaching and, therefore, the way I prepare my lesson plans.

Incident #1
I was proud, even boastful of the fact that I was a chemistry teacher. In my mind, I was paid to teach a very
di cult subject that only a few mortals were able to understand in a meaningful way. One day at a social
event, another teacher asked me what I taught in the local high school. I responded, “chemistry” with such a
 feeling of superiority that Caesar would have been jealous. Out of courtesy, I asked the other teacher what
she taught. She responded, “students.” I later realized that she had the better answer.

Incident #2
On the first day of class, after my introductory speech and o cial welcome to the students, I presented an
excellent lecture on the finer points of chemistry. On days two and three, I picked up from day one and
presented two more excellent lectures. If only my college professors could have seen how well my lecture
outlines were organized and heard my polished oratory! They would have been so proud! On day four, which
happened to be a Friday of a shortened week, I gave the students a quiz to show them how much they had
learned during the first week of class. While grading the quizzes, however, I realized that the students did not
perform well. In fact, the scores were awful. Knowing that I had presented three excellent lectures, I reasoned
that the problem must be the students.

The following Monday morning I found myself whining to a veteran teacher about how poorly my students
had done on their first quiz. I stated that it was obvious that most of the students were misplaced and the
remaining students were too lazy to do the work since I had given them everything that they needed to get a
perfect score on the quiz! She listened patiently to a lengthy bout of my complaining, then removed her
glasses, turned to me and with a pleasant smile said, “Have you tried teaching them?”

“What a stupid question,” I thought to myself. “Of course I had been teaching them. I gave them three
excellent lectures. That teacher doesn’t know anything about teaching.” Only later did I learn three
important rules which showed me the hint behind the teacher’s question.

Rule #1: Teachers teach children of every age, ethnicity, and social status. The better teachers meet the students where
they are academically, socially, and emotionally and begin to construct lessons from a starting point that meets the needs
of the students.

Rule #2: It isn’t how much you teach that counts; it is how much the students remember.

Rule #3: What the students will learn and remember will depend upon the teacher’s ability to prepare appropriate
lessons.

TEACHER TIP
It is important for teachers to become proficient with a number of di erent teaching
strategies and be able to use them to construct unforgettable lessons.

No matter how good you are as a teacher, no one teaching tactic will work for all of the students for the entire year. It isn’t
about the teacher, it is about the students. Lessons are intended for the benefit of the audience, not for the convenience
of the teacher. Beginning teachers sometimes confuse presenting curriculum to the students with good teaching.
Obviously that is how I started my teaching career.

TEACHER TIP
To provide the best lesson for students, match the intent of the lesson with the learning
styles of the students and then determine the best strategy(ies) to employ to maximize the
learning. This capacity for e ective teaching is polished over time, often after making many
mistakes.

There are many teaching strategies available to teachers. Using the correct strategy may mean teaching the same
curricular content di erently for one student or for one class than for another student or class. It is important for new
teachers to know many di erent strategies, their positive and negative attributes, when to apply them, and how to
measure the subsequent amount of student growth.

A carpenter friend of mine always liked to make fun of me for my lack of practical knowledge. It was di cult for him to
understand that I did not know how a hod was used in constructing a brick building. He also was the first person that I
ever heard say, “you have to be smart enough to know which tool to use for the job!” The same saying applies to teachers
in a classroom. Just as a hammer is not useful in sawing a board in half, no one method of teaching works all of the time.

Thanks to a scientific approach to educational research and practical experience, we now know a lot more about how and
why students learn. Although some of the old sayings still ring true, such as “idle hands are the devil’s workshop,” and
“never put o to tomorrow those things you can do today,” new thinking has brought subtle changes to education.
Research in education has added a few more precepts such as, “if a student doesn’t understand what is being taught,
they are likely to lose interest and stop participating,” and “concepts taught in the wrong sequence confuse students and
cause them to stop thinking.”

The Learning Cycle

It is important to know how students learn before planning the strategies to accomplish a curricular task. What does the
educational research indicate about learning? Is there a common thread that describes how students learn?

The Learning Cycle is a current theory that attempts to explain how students learn and a general formula for how to
teach. It o ers a student-centered model that is based on Piaget’s learning theory and the subsequent constructivist
model. The Learning Cycle theory is universally applicable for use in any grade or subject and can be easily modified for
unique purposes. The Learning Cycle has three stages that typically require several teaching sessions to complete:
exploration, concept introduction, and concept application.
 The three stages of the Learning Cycle

So, as a beginning teacher, you may be wondering how the Learning Cycle actually works in the classroom?

Instruction begins with the exploration stage. Before a teacher presents any formal lessons, students perform
engagement activities that will help provide the context for learning and increase the students’ interest and motivation.
These activities often involve the hands-on manipulation of physical objects and always include student movement and
interaction. Students are encouraged to dialog with peers to provide possible solutions, formulate explanations, make
predictions, or prepare a defense of their responses. Depending on the purpose of the lesson, the activities may be open-
ended but often the activities direct the students to perform a specific task to frame the upcoming lesson.

This model presumes that students confront new phenomenon at the concrete level of reasoning. In the concrete stage,
students are capable of remembering facts and other information, but are incapable of performing operations, as well as
analyzing, applying, or synthesizing this knowledge. To advance beyond the concrete level, students must replace
misconceptions and introduce new learning. One of the best ways to accomplish this task is through the engagement
activities found in the concept introduction stage.

The concept introduction stage is traditionally the “teaching” stage. It connects the interests and questions generated in
the exploration stage to learning. This stage is also known as the “guided discovery” stage because students are
constructing meaning based on the lessons provided by the teacher. At this stage, the teacher plans and implements
lessons that present curricular topics in a manner that is readily consumable by the students. The teacher must know the
nature of the students and use this knowledge to develop lessons that will lead the students from uncertainty to
understanding. Typically students at this stage are capable of using their understanding of the curricular concepts to
perform functions. Later in this chapter there is an extensive listing and description of teaching strategies that can be
used during the concept introduction stage.

The concept application stage is distinguished as an advancement beyond the concept introduction stage. Once the
students are familiar and comfortable with the curricular topics, the teacher advances the students’ thinking by
introducing those concepts in new situations. The students are then required to apply what they have learned to
formulate a new idea or understanding. For instance, adding a single column of numbers as a concept introduction may
be advanced to become a concept application when the students are asked to complete a word problem that requires
them to add a single column of numbers. Further, students may be required to apply the curricular concept to make new
predictions, generate novel solutions, and raise thoughtful questions. In a well-constructed lesson series, the concept
application stage leads directly into the exploration stage of the next curricular concept, and the cycle repeats.

The Learning Cycle is a guide to how teachers should approach the learning process of their students. It is provided as a
starting point for the beginning teacher to modify as needed for use in the classroom. The fundamental process of
engaging the students, introducing the topic, and then extending learning is well accepted in the educational community.

Building on Prior Knowledge

E ective lesson planning connects the students’ prior knowledge to new concepts. Establishing the linkage between
existing knowledge and new information is critical. A teacher planning a lesson without accounting for the students’ prior
knowledge is like a contractor constructing a building without being certain of the foundation. When students build their
understanding without the proper foundation this can lead to confusion, frustration, and a waste of valuable classtime. It
is essential for the teacher to know what the students know before beginning any lesson planning. The best way to
develop a lesson is to o er the students an opportunity to learn new material in a sequential, developmentally
appropriate pattern that is based on prior knowledge.

So how does a teacher determine the level of the students’ prior knowledge? One of the easiest ways is to o er a pre-test
on the material. Pre-tests are extremely useful if they reflect the curricular priorities and provide data on each student
that indicates the student’s strengths and weaknesses on those curricular priorities. Pretests that identify where each
student is achieving on a curricular progression are even more e ective. For instance, does the pre-test indicate whether
a particular student can add a column of single-digit numbers? If so, can the student add a column of double-digit
numbers, and so on?

Another technique is to organize a group discussion in which the teacher gleans a level of understanding from the
students on a particular topic and then writes it on the board. These topics are then organized in a sequential pattern for
thoughtful interpretation by the students and teacher. The teacher can amplify the use of this type of data by
categorizing the students’ entry level understanding on a graphic organizer. Teachers can also use data provided by
student interviews, classroom participation, and student interpretation of a demonstration or event to help categorize
students’ prior knowledge.

No matter what the strategy, the teacher is looking for a solid starting point upon which to begin instruction. Assessing
prior knowledge may also identify gaps in knowledge, misunderstandings based on misinformation, or non-cohesive
thinking.

Providing Context for Learning

Successful teachers introduce new material to the students in such a way that the new concepts are easily assimilated
into prior knowledge. Framing instruction in this manner creates bridges for the students to use as they access their
previous knowledge to help reach an understanding of the new concepts. Students require time and structure to
integrate and apply the new concepts. Teachers promote student learning by providing the appropriate context for
learning.

There are many strategies that a teacher can employ to frame a lesson. One of the best ways is to begin each lesson by
asking the students to summarize previous lessons. The teacher can then draw the students’ attention to the link
between the previous lessons and today’s instruction. For more advanced groups, the teacher might ask the students to
predict the content of tomorrow’s lesson. The e ects of this strategy are magnified when the students are challenged to
relate the instruction to their lives.

One of the worst ways to frame a lesson is to plunge the students into an activity with no introductory explanation,
especially if the lesson is not related to previous learning.

Active Learning
Lessons that allow students to be active learners are preferred for instructional and disciplinary reasons. Depending on
the objectives, the teacher can employ many techniques to actively involve the students. Even if the teacher decides to
give the majority of the lesson in lecture form, ancillary materials such as computer simulations, worksheets, or other
types of print and non-print resources can be used to create a more active learning environment.

Additional Strategies
It is the responsibility of the classroom teacher to create a series of learning activities in such a way that the students will
remember the content presented. Consider the following list of research-based techniques that make learning personal
and memorable:

Create lessons that focus on the most important concepts or skills and minimize unnecessary information or
distractions.

Utilize su cient relevant examples, facts, stories, or situations to help explain, reinforce, or enhance important
and hard-to-grasp concepts. Use these examples in a variety of ways so the students gain a network of knowledge
rather than a linear view of the topic. This will enable them to apply and discriminate information in various future
scenarios.

Organize and present curricular material around a central theme, theory, model, timeline, or idea to emphasize
the importance of the topic.
 Require review, repetition, memorization, the creation of mnemonic devices, and the application of curricular
concepts as normal student functions.

Prepare student study and memory aides in advance of the lesson. Help students organize their thought patterns
and study time to allow them to become more independent of the teacher and better able to guide their own
learning processes.

Special Considerations When Planning a Lesson

Ensuring an interactive classroom that values student involvement.

Understanding and planning for the nature and diversity of the audience.

Developing techniques for motivating students who don’t regularly participate.

Integrating subject-specific vocabulary at appropriate times with su cient repetition.

Looking for opportunities to model citizenship and teach respect.

Identifying a combination of modalities that can be employed to produce the best results for a given student
population.

Identifying resources and/or materials that are needed for the lesson.

Determining how the students’ learning will be evaluated.

Making sure the lesson can be accomplished within the time allotment.

Questioning the lesson plan: Is this the best way to teach this topic? Is there a better way?

This lesson included research-based practices, strategies, and considerations that you can use to help your students
learn and ensure success for all your students. As you begin teaching, you will surely generate your own ideas about how
to best communicate the curriculum in multiple ways via di erent modalities. To get you started, in the next lessons we
will introduce instructional techniques for the whole class, small groups and individual students.

Review Questions
Think about a classroom that you have observed or taught in. How would you describe that classroom environment? How
might this environment a ect the types of lessons and activities that you used in this classroom?
 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Whole Group Strategies Part I

Objective
In this workshop you will examine the fundamentals of preparing to teach a lesson and review numerous instructional
strategies that can be used as-is or modified to fit the style of a particular student or teacher.

This lesson will focus on whole group instruction and will detail the use of the following strategies:

Warm-up

Lecture

Demonstrations

Worksheets

Gallery walk

Technology

WebQuest

Graphic Organizers

Concept Attainment

Concept Mapping

KWL

Questioning

Wait Time

Instructional Responses

Recitation

Piggyback

Round Robin Responses

Whole Group Instruction
The following teaching techniques are designed for use with the PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
entire class. However, the teacher may also make modifications It is di cult for a teacher to defend ending a
to use these strategies with small groups and individual lesson early, especially on a recurring basis. Plan
students. All of the techniques may be amended to personalize more than you think you’ll be able to cover
a lesson for a particular classroom. There are advantages and during a single class period in case things go

disadvantages to each of these methods; like a surgeon or a more quickly than you plan.

carpenter, the teacher must decide which tool is best.

All too often, teachers embrace a “my way or the highway” approach, and if students can’t learn using the modality
preferred by the teacher, they are left out in the cold. Teachers should not commit themselves to only one or two
instructional delivery methods to such an extent that they can’t adjust to meet the needs of their students. After all, they
are the consumers, and it is important that they learn. This matters more than being able to reuse lesson plans in order
to spend less time preparing for class.

Warm-Up
When teachers use warm-ups (also called bell-ringers or short shots), class begins as the students enter the room, not
when the bell rings or the teacher “o cially” begins instruction. The warm-up is designed for several purposes. It focuses
the students’ attention on a meaningful task, quickly engages the students in learning, increases instructional time, and
decreases disciplinary problems. While the students are completing the warm-up, the teacher has enough time to take
attendance, talk with an individual student, or complete other clerical duties that are often required of teachers.

Whereas there is no specific format for a warm-up, the most e ective introductory activities ask the students to recall a
skill or concept from a previous lesson. Other warm-ups ask the students to transition a previous lesson into the current
lesson. Warm-ups do not constitute the lesson, but prepare the students for learning. Most warm-ups are completed
within minutes, although the teacher can adjust the duration if extra time is needed to complete a task. Warm-ups are
most e ective when they occur every time the class meets. Usually the students fall into a routine where they enter the
room and look for the warm-up.

TEACHER TIP
Warm-ups minimize student discipline problems because they increase structured
instructional time.

Lecture
Lecturing to students is the most common form of teaching. It is also the most e cient way to give students information,
directions, and data and should be a strategy in your repertoire. In its simplest form, a lecture is simply the teacher
talking to the students. In reality, the lecture can take many forms. The stereotypical college professor is represented as
one extreme form of lecture. In this case, the professor simply reads prepared notes to the class for the allotted amount
of time and then leaves. Some professors may use a chalkboard, overhead projector, or PowerPoint for notes, but the net
e ect is the same. However, lecturing students does not necessarily indicate that they have received, understood, or
responded to the lecture. Because of this, lecture alone is not an e ective tool for teaching a variety of students. Teachers
who rely only on this type of modality will miss a substantial part of their audience, whatever the subject, whatever the
grade level.

Most school teachers use a slightly di erent form of the lecture that is combined with other interactive strategies. For
instance, interspersing activities, questions, and demonstrations at opportune times allows students to refresh their
thinking by interacting with a di erent modality. Further, adding a di erent stimulus requires the students to remain
active and think during the lecture as opposed to passive listening. This makes daydreaming di cult and avoids
disruptive displays.

The most common strategy is lecture-question. In this strategy, the teacher presents the material in lecture fashion and
then asks recall and probing questions to determine the extent of students’ understanding. This format works to keep
students on task. Adding a demonstration or an activity to a lecture moves student involvement to a higher level.
Although this technique adds time to the lesson, it improves student understanding and motivation. Providing students
with time for guided practice and/or class discussions regarding the curricular content of a lecture further improves
students’ retention of the material. Whereas lecture alone is an e cient method to dispense information and directions,
meshing other strategies increases the instructional value of the technique.

THE BIG PICTURE

I once observed a teacher’s class that was so boring that the only thing keeping me awake was observing the
innovative and disruptive techniques the students used to entertain themselves.

Teachers can also make the most of their lectures by keeping the following strategies in mind:

Keep it short. The amount of time that most students are willing to actively listen and remain engaged to the greatest
lecturer varies on a daily basis, but is seldom more than 15–20 minutes. Beyond that, students assume a more passive role,
attention dissipates, and disruptions increase. It is better to construct several small lectures and intersperse them with
di erent activities than trying to deliver one large lecture. The students will thank you.

Keep if colorful. If someone sat you down and made you take notes as they read the dictionary, how long would you be
able to stand it? My guess is probably not very long. The same is true for students in the classroom. The most skilled
lecturers know when to insert an insightful story, enhance their presentation, or tell a related joke. You’re not a nightclub
 performer or a stand-up comedian, but elements of humor or general interest tend to keep an audience at a higher level of
readiness to learn.

TEACHER TIP
Current news events, historical interconnections, and projections related to life in the
future o er several avenues to embroider a lesson to generate more student interest.

Keep it exciting. Punctuate the lecture with the same emphasis, energy, and enrichment that you feel for the subject
area. Few things are as deadly as a monotone teacher describing a dull topic. Inject enthusiasm into the lectures and infect
the students with the same love and respect that you have for the subject. Teachers with a strong content background can
also provide insight into why certain things happened or the reason for a particular event. Students perform better in a
subject that captures their interest because they are more willing to spend time learning about it.

THE BIG PICTURE

A friend of mine with an advanced degree in electrical engineering recently told me that her best college
professors were part-time faculty that also worked as electrical engineers during the remainder of their time.
She indicated that they provided better examples and a more realistic view of the work and opportunities that
awaited in the future.

Keep it personal. This gets them every time. Conversely, failure to personalize a topic means the student is
learning it because the teacher told them to do so. If the lecturer can connect the lesson objectives directly to
students’ needs or interests, the students are more likely to pay attention. This is another reason why it is good to
know the nature of the students in your class. Always be prepared for the question, “why do we have to learn this?”

Keep it theatrical. Stage celebrities know how to inflect their voice, body position, and expressions to get the most
out of their script. Teachers have a similar venue. One way to keep students interested is to be interesting. This does
not call for extensive acting talent, but rather an awareness that saying or doing something in a particular or unusual
way will hold the attention of the students. Acting out the drama of a short story is more interesting than just
passively reading it to the class.

THE BIG PICTURE

One of my favorite teachers was a drama minor in college. This person had the ability to make every day
interesting without the use of props or other enhancements.

Demonstrations
One of the best ways to get the attention of every student in class is for the teacher to perform a demonstration.
Demonstrations add a level of excitement and curiosity to the classroom. They are also a great way to frame a new
concept. A demonstration can be almost anything, but it usually requires the teacher to perform some instructional act
that is di erent from the normal classroom procedure. The demonstration does not have to be long or complex. In fact,
some of the best demonstrations are simple and easy.

THE BIG PICTURE

I once observed a middle school teacher conducting a demonstration where she poured water from one beaker
into another smaller beaker. All she did was pour water, and the entire class was hypnotized.

There is another type of demonstration that teachers do on a regular basis. The directed teaching demonstration occurs
when the teacher is showing the students a technique, process, or procedure. For instance, teachers demonstrate how to
write the letters of the alphabet before they allow the students to practice creating the same letters. When teachers
model a technique, it allows the students to see the final product before attempting it on their own. Demonstrations of
this type increase the likelihood that the students will be able to perform that function with minimal assistance.

Teachers can capitalize on demonstrations by having the students complete a follow-up activity such as a brief summary
of the event, a prediction of the results if di erent variables were employed, or a discussion of the pros and cons of the
event. There are also a plethora of videos and computer programs that recreate demonstrations that are also e ective.

Worksheets
Historically, worksheets, the textbook, and everyday lecture was the sum total of most teaching strategies. Those students
who learned to adapt to this type of teaching performed well; the remainder struggled. Today, worksheets, whether
electronic or paper-based, still have a place in good teaching. However, if they are not careful, even veteran teachers can
begin to rely too heavily on worksheets as the primary source of learning in the classroom. This is beyond the intended
use of worksheets. Worksheets should be used in support of other types of classroom learning and should not take the
place of the teacher or a well constructed lesson plan. Even with this background, there are several reasons why
worksheets remain popular with teachers of all subject areas. They are useful for a variety of needs.

TEACHER TIP
Worksheets are helpful resources, but the teacher is the most valuable resource available
to the students.

First, worksheets have a real advantage in that they are easy to use. In fact, most textbooks publishers send them as
ancillary materials to accompany their text and teachers can simply duplicate the ones provided or create their own.
Worksheets are flexible in that students work on them individually or in groups. They also engage the students and may
minimize discipline problems. Plus, they are easy to score.

TEACHER TIP
Students are generally quiet as they complete a worksheet assignment.

There are two major types of worksheets and each has a specific purpose. One type of worksheet is simply the
knowledge-level, re-working of textual or lecture objectives. The best uses for this type of worksheet are to build
repetition into a lesson, provide students with additional practice (such as a sheet of math problems) or serve as a guide
for a review lesson. They can augment recent instruction by having the students complete various manifestations of the
curriculum in a di erent format to refresh their memories. In these cases worksheets take the form of a game, such as a
jigsaw puzzle using spelling words.

Another type of worksheet is designed to promote higher level thinking. Worksheets of this nature are almost exclusively
constructed by the teacher and capitalize on the dynamics and direction of the class in such a way as to appear to be a
natural outgrowth of the lesson. Rather than providing repetition, these worksheets require the students to synthesize
information, ideas, opinions, or data to construct and defend a new thought or solution.

As an interactive extension, the students may be grouped together upon completion of their worksheet to compare and
synthesize answers. Engagement activities increase student motivation, but also create classroom noise as the students
collaborate to construct a response.

THE BIG PICTURE

Schools often set a limit to the number of copies that can be made because of the expense of paper, the
durability of the school copying machine, and the often questionable instructional value of worksheets. I
remember a frantic new teacher who was informed by the school secretary that she had already exhausted her
quarterly allowance of copies during the first few weeks of school. The teacher had turned her class into a
worksheet world because she did not know any other teaching strategies.

Gallery Walk or Learner’s Walk

The purpose of the gallery walk is to allow the students to learn in a non-traditional format. In the simplest form, the
gallery walk allows the students to move about the room in an ordered fashion to observe and to think about
instructional items that have been judiciously placed around the room. This technique is based on the strategy where art
students would walk around a gallery observing works from a particular artist. They would note and remember
representative pieces that displayed a characteristic style to further develop an understanding of that artist or style. This
technique has expanded to include di erent types of instructional items. For instance, the teacher may place maps,
pictures, or notes relating to a single topic on chart paper and hang them around the class for the students to review. The
students then record notes as they proceed in small groups around the classroom in a “gallery walk.”

The gallery walk can be modified to increase the level of student interaction. During the gallery walk, the students can
address the instructional item by writing their impressions, ideas, suggestions, or solutions on the corresponding chart
paper. As the groups rotate from one site to another, subsequent groups can then add their comments to the chart paper
with a di erent colored marker. The teacher should allow each group to rotate around the gallery at least twice so that
the groups can see what the other groups have added to their suggestions. Once the groups have completed the walk, the
students or the teacher should summarize the event as a form of debriefing.

To keep the activity more focused, the teacher can pose several questions or topics and invite the students to work in
groups to answer one of the questions or collect information on one of the topics. The students can collaborate to
complete the task and then display it as an item for a gallery walk. When the groups are finished with the task, the
teacher allows the groups to walk around the classroom in an organized fashion to observe and make notes on the results
of the other groups. Then, the teacher leads a summary to build in repetition and to guarantee that all students have the
correct answers in their notes. This strategy works well in combination with the jigsaw technique which will be explained
later.

Technology
Our society is developing and marketing new technologies at an exponential rate and this provides teachers and students
with tools to enhance learning beyond traditional methods. Students readily embrace these emerging technologies as
their own. In fact, the number of smartphones and laptops currently in use by school-aged children is at an all-time high.
Yet, it can take time to adjust to these new tools and sometimes a generation gap occurs between students who are
accustomed to using new technology in their everyday life and their teachers who may still experience di culty
programming (and still own) their VCR.

TEACHER TIP
Most young students have a better understanding of computers, the Internet, and other
emerging technologies than they are given credit for.

Teachers are well-advised to make the e ort to capitalize on innovation and to utilize resources which are already
significant to their students. In the future, instructional technologies are likely to have an increasingly important role in
education, so if you are not comfortable with technology, additional retraining should be part of your professional
development plan. Aside from the initial cost of the equipment, the only thing preventing the greater use of technology in
the classroom is teacher technical literacy.

PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT
 Appropriate use of technology in the classroom The ever increasing role of technological advances in the
increases student learning. The key word here is classroom allows the teacher to personalize learning for
“appropriate.” Learn not only how to use students, di erentiate instruction, provide remedial and
technology in the classroom, but how and when reinforcement lessons, and present advanced concepts to faster
to use it to maximize your instructional delivery.
learners. Technology can assist and increase the productivity of
the teacher.

These new modalities for instruction include:

Computers

The Internet

LCD (liquid crystal display) projectors

SMART Boards

Audio-Visual Equipment

Computers
Computers have extended the possibilities for learning beyond anything that has been developed so far. This includes
the universe of knowledge that the Internet has provided, presentation software such as PowerPoint, computer
simulations, and tutorial lessons to address every objective in every discipline.

Computer assisted instruction (CAI) is a useful tool for the classroom teacher. CAI is a generic term that encompasses
many types of computer-based instructional options ranging from simple drill problems to elaborate simulations that
interact with the learner. Experienced teachers often have an inventory of computer programs to di erentiate interaction
by addressing the concerns of struggling students, providing repetition for the enrichment of all students, and pushing
highly able students to new achievement levels.

The computer is capable of presenting and scoring questions much faster than the average teacher. A class configured
with 30 computers can deliver 30 di erent lessons to 30 di erent students at the same time. Most computer programs
now determine the students’ proficiency and then design customized sets of problems to remediate, reinforce, or extend
the learning of the students. The computer generates these problems for as long as the student is available and does so
without getting tired or frustrated. Student discipline problems are minimized when the students are actively engaged at
their developmental level.

TEACHER TIP
Computers are great at keeping students actively engaged in meaningful learning. This
allows the teacher to work one-on-one with students who need extra help without the fear
 that the rest of the class will misbehave while the teacher isn’t looking.

Drill type programs of this nature have shown to be e ective in providing assistance within their defined area. The
downside? Electronically delivered drill problems do not necessarily allow the students to project their thinking beyond
the intent of the drill and do not promote higher levels of thinking unless complemented by other types of instruction.

Computers can be utilized in many di erent types of lessons. Computer simulations are another student favorite. Most
simulations have quality graphics, movement, and interactive capabilities that parallel video games (at least to some
degree). Textbook publishers and private vendors have been quick to seize upon major textbook themes to create
simulations and tutorials to provide an option for instruction. Computer probeware and other accessories can be used to
allow students to instantaneously measure, monitor, and graph changes in pH, temperature, and other environmental
factors. Of course, one of the original uses for computers was for word processing. The ability for students to compose a
written response is enhanced with word processing. Now students can edit, save, and print their work allowing students
the opportunity to easily correct their work.

The Internet
Internet-based lessons allow the students access to the accumulated knowledge of the world and allow the teacher
greater range in lesson planning. Teachers now have the opportunity to expose students to thoughts and ideas from
di erent cultures, time zones, and geopolitical boundaries. Creative use of internet-based lessons may soon become a
standard in instruction.

The use of the Internet as a research tool has also opened new horizons for teachers. Students are now capable of
accessing better and more information quicker than ever before. Long hours in the library are replaced by minutes on the
laptop. Teachers are able to capitalize on this phenomenon by assigning both in-class and out-of-class problems that
require a concept search. All subjects have themes, topics, or skills that contain a research capability. Teachers can assign
research topics both as individual student or group projects, and even structure the assignment to allow for parental
participation. The next strategy, WebQuest, outlines one specific way that teachers can incorporate the Internet into their
instruction. The dangers of the Internet are well-known, so always monitor your students’ use of technology while they
are under your care.

TEACHER TIP
Consider assigning students to write a blog about a particular issue. Blogging is a popular
means of communicating political views, informing the public of sensitive issues, and
catalyzing action groups.

When arranging computer or Internet activities, one size does not fit all. The e cacy of using a computer to enhance
instruction is compromised if the programming is not personalized to the student. Certain students may not respond
well to the isolationism and de-personalization of the computer. Also, any type of computer usage runs the risk of
alienating members of your class who do not have computer access at home and will be competing against those who
utilize it on a daily basis. Take special care that students are not excluded from participating in assignments that require
out-of-class computer accessibility. Whenever haves and have-nots are mixed in the same class, consider pairing them so
one can learn from the other. Also, consult with the school media center and local library for a schedule of open
computer/Internet time and provide that information to all students, not just the ones who need it.

Remember that these activities are not intended to take the place of the humanistic values provided by the teacher.
Instead they are one more tool that a teacher can use to reach students through a di erent modality.

LCD Projectors
Connecting a computer to an LCD projector gives the teacher an even greater wealth of resource options. Anything that
can be displayed on the computer monitor can be projected onto a wall or screen for whole-class instruction. This opens
a lot of possibilities for classroom teachers and is especially helpful if the classroom is limited to only one computer.

A wide variety of instructional materials exist that can be projected with the computer-LCD combination. Teachers can
connect their computer to favorite websites, simulations, and tutorials. Additionally, purchased or teacher-made
PowerPoint presentations multiply the di erentiation strategies available to the teacher. Most LCD projectors include a
remote control, which allows the teacher to circulate throughout the room during the presentation. The downside of an
LCD projection is the light quality. Cheaper models do not have the power to display bright colors authentically nor can
they be seen well in brightly lit areas. One teacher I know is unable to use a projector in his room because one of his walls
is comprised entirely of windows without shades; it is simply never dark enough to see anything projected in his room.

TEACHER TIP
Computer specialists and media center specialists are usually well trained in the use of
computers and other emerging technologies. They are a useful resource when planning a
technology-assisted lesson.

SMART Boards
A recent addition to the classroom toolbox is the SMART Board™. A SMART Board is to a whiteboard like algebra is to
arithmetic. Whereas both serve a whole-class function, SMART Boards are able to do considerably more than a
whiteboard. SMART Boards are like an electronic whiteboard with a built-in computer. They are able to do virtually
anything that a computer can do; in fact, they are typically connected to computers for that purpose. They are touch-
sensitive so the teacher can select, manipulate, and move items with great ease. Remote keyboards allow the student to
interact in real time with the lesson that the teacher is providing. Students can enter their response on their keyboard
with an instantaneous display on the SMART Board. This allows the teacher to construct lessons that are highly
interactive.

Audio-Visual Equipment
Audio-video resources are an intermediate step between the textbook and computer assisted instruction. They include a
wide array of resources including records, film, DVDs, and podcasts. Audio-visual resources are generally a whole class
event. In other words, everybody gets to watch the DVD at the same time. The advantage is a guarantee that all of the
students have experienced it. The disadvantage occurs when some students need to experience parts of it again…and
again…and again before they completely understand. Audio-visual resources are considerably cheaper than resources for
computer assisted instruction (because less equipment is required to present to more students simultaneously), so
schools are likely to have a wide variety of equipment from which to choose.

THE BIG PICTURE

Use audio-visual equipment to supplement instruction, not to subvert or replace the role of the teacher. I once
knew a teacher that arranged to show a video everyday. Before long, he became known derisively as the Video
King and CineMax.

Technology in the classroom develops exponentially. There are new hardware and software applications available on the
market on a regular basis. It is important for all teachers to remain current with new technology and its adaptation to the
classroom.

WebQuest
A WebQuest is a teacher-created activity that utilizes the power of the internet to guide students through various
instructional websites. These websites may include simulations, tutorials, and other innovative ways of learning. To
implement this technique, the teacher identifies appropriate websites and activities for the students to complete.
Teachers often create a worksheet to guide the students to the completion of their “quest.” The students then review
these websites and complete the instructional activities found on the website and/or those provided by the teacher.
WebQuests have curricular objectives, measurable outcomes, and may include visits to many websites. They can be a
valuable tool when the teacher wants to bring the most recent information into the classroom and personalize the
instruction for each student. In advanced cases, the teacher may permit the students to discover their own sites in the
WebQuest activity.

Graphic Organizers
A graphic organizer is a useful way for a teacher to show the connectedness of various topics, such as previous lessons to
today’s lesson, the components of a story, or the actions of a feedback loop. The graphic organizer can be a series of
pictures, illustrations, or textual material. Students benefit from visualizing the big picture and how the component parts
fit together to create the final product.

When teaching students to use a graphic organizer, it is important to familiarize the students with the purpose of graphic
organizers as an organizational tool. The simplest graphic organizers consist of boxes surrounding pictures, illustrations,
or textual materials. The teacher may embellish the boxes with arrows to show the direction or flow of the organizer to
help students understand interrelationships between the multiple parts of a whole. Most teachers create a simple
graphic organizer with information and examples that are familiar to the students based on topics from their life. As the
students become proficient in the use of graphic organizers, the teacher can use them with curricular topics for practice
and for learning.

Venn diagrams, quadrants, and Frayer Models are specific types of graphic organizers that have a particular function.
They are commonly used in classrooms to channel student thinking.

A Venn diagram consists of overlapping circles that represent a relationship between two or more items, with one
circle representing each item. Areas where the circles overlap describe common characteristics or relationships.
Areas where the circles do not overlap indicate di erences. The students annotate the circles by adding either
similar or di erent characteristics in the appropriate circles.

The quadrant technique is a type of graphic organizer that is especially useful in defining new concepts and
vocabulary terms. The teacher draws four boxes with a space in the middle for the new term. The four quadrants
may be modified depending upon the lesson purpose, but normally they are: text definition, student definition,
illustration, and how to use it. Next, the teacher requires the students to generate ideas that shape four responses,
one for each quadrant. The students place their response in the appropriate quadrant. For instance, the teacher
introduces a new vocabulary term by placing it in the middle of a quadrant. The students research to find the
correct definition, description, or explanation for that term and place it in the appropriate quadrant. The next step
requires the students to utilize their definition in a personal way. They are required to write their definition for that
term in their own words. The next quadrant asks the students to illustrate, draw, or otherwise represent this term.
This quadrant links the new term to a memorable illustration so as to improve memory and retention. In the final
quadrant, the students have to apply their understanding to generate possible uses or the function of this term. This
quadrant elevates the level of understanding. If the students are able to complete all four quadrants, they are likely
to remember and be able to utilize the concept at a level beyond simple recall.

The Frayer Model is a specialized graphic organizer that focuses on vocabulary categorization or concept
attainment and is similar to the Quadrant Model. You will learn more about the Frayer Model in the next strategy.

Other types of graphic organizers include: line diagram, comparison table, cause and e ect flow chart, before
and after, concept map, cycle diagram, and W’s chart. There are many other graphic organizers that are also
available for teachers to modify for use in their particular classroom.

TEACHER TIP
Certain students benefit greatly by seeing the whole picture before they begin to study the
component parts. Further, students may need to refer to a graphic organizer as they move
from one concept to another to maintain the connection between concepts.
Concept Attainment
Concept attainment has students use critical thinking to determine examples and non-examples as they relate to a
certain group or category. It is a useful method for teaching vocabulary and clarifying new concepts. One method to
implement this strategy is when the teacher gives a series of clues that describe “it.” The teacher then gives another set
of characteristics that describe what “it” is not. The teacher can then have the students deduce the correct answer that
explains or describes “it.” To add more complexity, the teacher can add another characteristic and have the students
determine if the new characteristic represents “it” or not. When su cient clues have been unfolded, the teacher can ask
the students to synthesize the information into a definition or an explanation to identify the nature of “it.” This type of
strategy promotes the students’ involvement and their problem-solving abilities. Teachers should be aware that some
students may get to the answer quicker than others.

A similar concept attainment strategy is the Frayer Model. The Frayer Model (see the image below or the printable PDF
version) is a type of graphic organizer that guides students through a concept attainment activity. The Frayer Model uses
a quadrant of connected empty boxes that are arranged in a square with an central box located at the junction of the four
boxes. The upper left box contains the essential characteristics, “what it is.” The upper right box contains the non-
characteristics, “what it is not.” The lower left box is used to list examples; while the right lower box contains a listing of
non-examples.

The Frayer Model

One way to use this graphic organizer is to provide students with a word, topic, or concept and have them work together
as a class to fill in each box with relevant information for each heading. Another option is to give the students “evidence”
to list in each box along the perimeter and have the students use this evidence to identify the mystery item in the center
box. With either method, the students will begin to construct a larger meaning of the word, topic, or concept leading to
greater understanding and a greater tendency for remembering it later.

TEACHER TIP
Concept attainment is fun for most students. Since it requires a di erent type of mental
dexterity, some students will be more prepared than others. The best students at concept
attainment may not be the best students in factual recall.

Concept Mapping
Developing understanding of a new concept is built by understanding its relationship to other known concepts.
Individual concepts do not exist in isolation, but rather as a network of inter-related concepts. Overall understanding is
thereby increased by creating links across concepts. Increasing linkages also increases retention and retrieval in the long-
term memory of students.

Concept maps are graphic representations that provide insight into relationships among di erent concepts. They are
two-dimensional displays that can be used to represent and organize information or new understanding. Teachers find
the use of concept maps helpful in a number of ways. Concept maps are useful in informing the students of the past,
present, and future of instruction. They guide students as they learn new material because the map establishes the
linkage to other concepts and the direction of instruction. Concept maps also allow the students to recursively establish
linkages that increase their overall understanding of the connectedness of the topics.

Concept maps can be used to assess higher order thinking by measuring a student’s knowledge about a concept and how
it relates to other concepts. For instance, the teacher might ask the students to create a concept map of the most recent
instructional topics as a measure of memory. Another option is to require the students to add a new concept to a concept
map, indicating and explaining the linkages that exist between the new concept and existing concepts.

KWL
KWL is an organizing system that is designed to provide a sense of direction for students as they study curricular topics.
The strategy asks the student to review what they already know, identify items that they would like to know or expect to
know, and then list what they have learned as a result of the instruction.

To implement this strategy, the students must create a KWL chart. The KWL chart has three headings: Know; What they
want to know; Learned as a result of the lesson. Students are then asked to complete the Know and What they want to
know sections before instruction begins. To implement this strategy the teacher must inform the students as to the
curricular topics under investigation and allow time for the students to reflect and provide thoughtful responses.
Following the lesson, the students complete the Learned section. Students can then share their answers with the class. An
extension of the KWL chart is the KWLH chart. The “H” stands for How could I learn more.

Questioning
An informal, non-obtrusive method for determining if a student understands the instruction is to ask him or her a
question. A proper questioning technique is a valuable, everyday strategy for every teacher and will inform the teacher
about the pace of the lesson and the level of student retention. Good questions not only measure student
understanding, they also promote student thinking.

Teachers often use four di erent broad types of question types: recall, open-ended, probing, and guiding. Recall-type
questions are by far the most common and they are factual questions that have one correct answer. Recall questions
require the student to remember and respond by giving the accepted answer. For instance, the teacher may ask, “What is
the value of pi?” The student can either provide a correct answer or not. Recall questions are useful in determining if
students are keeping up with the factual component of the lesson. They are not helpful in predicting if the student can
apply the knowledge they have gained.

Open-ended questions have multiple answers which allows for more student responses and expands student
participation. They usually allow students to be both factual and creative. As an example, a teacher might begin a
discussion with the following open-ended question, “Which is better: education or money?” Open-ended questions are
generally used as a starting point for a group discussion or as an idea-generating activity. They are valued as a means to
create a flow of ideas from a number of di erent students, but they do not necessarily demonstrate students’ attainment
of factual knowledge.

Probing questions contribute to a classroom by promoting thoughtful inquiry. A typical probing question begins with
words or stems that require the student to think deeply, such as: “why,” “can you elaborate,” or “provide evidence to
support your claim.” Teachers often use probing questions to press students to consider diverse data, to re-examine the
validity of their opinion, and to understand the impact of opposing points of view. Answering probing questions forces
the student to extend their understanding beyond recall to a higher level of thinking. Students who are continually asked
probing questions begin to internalize the need for greater understanding, clear thinking, and thoughtful responses.
However, probing questions require more classtime than other question types to allow for student thinking and response
time.

Questioning can guide student thinking by channeling the students’ thought patterns to a desired curricular outcome
and cues the students’ responses. This helps the teacher maintain the momentum of a lesson while also measuring the
achievement level of the students. It is often more e ective to employ a mixture of recall, probing, and open-ended
questions such as the guiding questions stems that are listed below.

Recall or factual – Who, what, when…?

 Compare/contrast – How is __________ similar to/di erent from ___________?

Identifying characteristics – What are the attributes or components of ______? What makes this situation
di erent from previous situations?

Classifying – What characteristic do these items have in common? How might these items be organized into like
categories?

Ordering – Is it possible to arrange the following items into a sequence? Can you organize the following list from
large to small items?

Recognizing patterns – How can the following items be arranged to demonstrate their relationship? Is it possible
to identify a trend from the data?

Illustration – How might the following concepts be characterized in graph form? Is there a way to explain the
concept using a drawing?

Identifying the main idea – How would you summarize the most important facts in your own words? What is the
author trying to represent in this passage?

Recognizing errors – Examine the data, what area appears to be inconsistent? After reading the passage, is there
a source of bias?

Synthesis – Is it possible to link these data points together to formulate a better response? How are the causative
agents related?

Elaborating –How would you describe the main character if he lived in your town? What supporting evidence or
examples can you add to this answer?

Evaluation – How will you know if the answer is correct? What criteria should we use to evaluate the e ectiveness
of this treatment?

The developmental level of the students may determine the type of questions that they are able to understand and
answer. Teachers should consider age appropriateness when planning their questions for classroom use. In general, pre-
school and kindergarten students tend to respond well to recall questions such as, “who, what, and when” type
questions. However, upper elementary and middle school students are generally academically mature enough to create
and respond to a higher level of questioning, such as introductory types of probing or open-ended questions. This higher
level of question is answered through academic research or experimentation rather than a simple recall of factual
information. Introductory level probing and open-ended questions ask the students to explain “how” and “why” instead
of “who” and “when.”
Upper middle and high school students are able to respond to probing and open-ended questions that have a theoretical
or hypothetical nature. Theoretical questions ask the students to synthesize data, predict an outcome, and/or respond to
a hypothetical situation. Questions of this nature require the students to account for the quality of the information,
consider bias and trends, and analyze the value of competing data. Clever teachers use the right type of question to elicit
the desired student response.

TEACHER TIP
It is sometimes helpful to cue, probe, or rephrase a question for certain students to assist
them in generating a correct response or a more thoughtful answer.

Wait Time
Not allowing students the time to think is one of the biggest mistakes that beginning teachers make. Wait time is the
period of silence that follows when a teacher poses a question and when the first student answers the question. New
teachers tend to hate student silence following a question and often either answer their own question or call upon a
student before that student has had time to formulate a thoughtful response. However, extensive research suggests that
the quantity and quality of student responses increase when the students have time to think before responding. A
teacher who uses wait time e ectively promotes student learning.

Consider the following scenario. The teacher asks a thoughtful question during a lesson. When the teacher calls upon a
student to answer that question, the remainder of the class may stop thinking and wait for the student to respond. What
might happen if the teacher extended the amount of thinking time before asking students to respond? Teachers that wait
before calling on a student to respond increase the likelihood that the students are still thinking. Up to a point, the more
time students have to think, the more thoughtful their answers will be. Wait time can be magnified by calling on several
students to respond to the same question. When this technique is used, the students continue to think until the teacher
moves the class to another stimulus. This strategy also provides built-in repetition.

There is research that indicates that it takes at least 5 seconds for new learning to be understood and transferred into
long-term memory. Then again, after 20-30 seconds, the teacher has to make a decision. If the students have not
constructed a response in that amount of time, the teacher may have to reword the stimulus or provide additional cues.
Conversely, if the teacher does not wait long enough, the students will “wait out” the teacher knowing that eventually the
teacher will give in and answer the question.

TEACHER TIP
It can be unnerving to wait on the students to generate a response. A wait time of 20
seconds will seem to be a very long time, but the wait is worth it.
Instructional Responses
When a teacher responds to a student, they can expand the student’s learning by posing thoughtful responses. There are
four major types of instructional responses for teachers to employ that increase the quality of students’ thinking.
Experienced teachers use these thinking cues daily to encourage students to think more deeply and completely. The four
instructional response types are: clarifying, paraphrasing, non-judgmental, and advisory.

Clarifying questions ask the student to reword his thinking to eliminate unnecessary verbiage or incorrect items. Asking a
student to clarify an answer forces the student to summon knowledge and repackage it clearly with a minimum of wasted
words. Teachers may also require that students use specific vocabulary terms. Clarifying questions typically ask the
student to:

1. Collect more or better information, references, supporting detail, or data

2. Discover connections between ideas, theories, or assumptions

3. Understand the intent of the language, symbols, or graphics utilized

4. Provide clarity regarding reasoning or logic from a point of view or focus

There are many types of clarifying questions. The following abridged listing contains examples of clarifying stems that
may be modified for use in a teacher’s class.

Let me see if I understand…

Tell me how that idea is di erent from…

I am curious to know more about…

Are you suggesting that…

To what extent…

Is that similar to…

Is there an easier way to explain how to…

Can you think of an example that illustrates…

Can you describe _____ in your own words…

What is the meaning of…

Paraphrasing is the most common form of instructional response. Both students and the teacher can paraphrase an
important item. Paraphrasing involves either restating or summarizing the response using di erent wording. For instance,
paraphrasing allows the teacher to utilize a student response to provide repetition without repeating the exact verbiage
of the student. It also allows the teacher to promote additional understanding by having a student restate the response in
a clearer or simpler manner. Paraphrasing is an important teacher skill that can also guide a discussion and increase
student engagement and thinking. On a peripheral note, when a teacher paraphrases a student response, it further
connects the teacher with the student. The following listing of sample paraphrasing stems may be modified to use in
class.

In other words…

If I hear you correctly, it sounds like you are saying that…

I am hearing you say many things, let me try to summarize…

Let’s see if I can paraphrase your response…

As I listen to your response, I think I am hearing…

Non-judgmental responses provide a neutral communication tone that promotes the flow of the lesson, continues
thinking, and o ers a non-committal response to the students. Non-judgmental responses are used in a variety of
situations, but they are useful during class discussions to press the students to generate their own answers without
influence or bias by the teacher. In most situations, once the teacher has registered an opinion or presented an answer,
the students feel there is no need to continue thinking. In situations where the teacher avoids expressing an opinion or
agreeing to a correct answer, the students continue thinking.

The use of non-judgmental responses builds trust, develops student autonomy, and fosters risk-taking. The following
non-judgmental stems are useful to continue the momentum of a lesson.

Let’s hear additional answers from other students about…

What are some other possibilities concerning…

I am not sure at this point, what do you think about…

Are there other correct answers for this…

Who else feels this way about…

Advisory responses impart advice to the students. They prompt the students to remember important concepts, prior
learning, and to review directions. Teachers utilize guiding responses any time during the context of a lesson to identify
and add emphasis to main ideas and to remind students of correct procedures. The following listing of common advisory
stems may be modified to fit di erent classroom situations.

Something to keep in mind…

From our lesson, one thing you should remember…

There are several ways to accomplish…

Sometimes it’s helpful if…

Remember to obey the rules concerning…

One of the best ways to respond to a student is to provide e ective feedback. E ective feedback is timely, specific, and
uplifting. There are two types of feedback. One type is based on curriculum knowledge, such as when a teacher confirms
or redirects a student response. Feedback can challenge greater thinking with a follow-up question, build repetition,
provide the opportunity to restate an answer using appropriate vocabulary, and allow the teacher to summarize the
discussion and reference the curricular connection.

The second type of feedback addresses aspects of student deportment. It is an opportunity to praise a child’s e orts and
encourage continued success in an area with comments specific to the answer.

Even when responding to student comments, the teacher can provide opportunities to extend students’ thinking so there
are no wasted moments or e orts.

TEACHER TIP
Feedback can also be displayed by using gestures, body language, and posting student
work.

Recitation
Recitation is the type of discourse where the teacher asks questions, the students respond, and the teacher judges the
quality of the answer. Recitation is used in most traditional classrooms because it is a quick way to determine if the
students understand a topic. It is also a useful method to keep students’ attention focused on the lesson.

During recitation, the teacher asks a recall-type question and then, depending on the quality of the answer, either
accepts the answer or asks for a clarification or enrichment. Teachers often use the recitation strategy during a lesson to
measure the pacing of the lesson in terms of students’ understanding of the topic. Recitation can also be used as a
“lightning round” of fast questions to energize a lesson, keep students focused, and measure the e ectiveness of prior
 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Whole Group Strategies Part II

Objective
In this workshop you will examine the fundamentals of preparing to teach a lesson and review numerous instructional
strategies that can be used as-is or modified to fit the style of a particular student or teacher.

This lesson will focus on additional whole group instructional strategies including:

Inside/Outside or Moving Circles

Mimic or Echo

Role Playing

Brainstorming

Chunking

Guest Speaker

Laboratory Activities

Reciprocal Teaching

SQ3R/SQ4R

Word Wall

Sticky Notes

Reworking on Board

Review Games

Field Trip

Inside/Outside Circle or Moving Circles

Moving circles is a good way to get the students out of their seats and interacting with other students in a productive
educational venue. To implement this strategy, the teacher creates two concentric rings of students that are facing each
other. The teacher then asks a question, allows the students time to think and then determines if the inside ring is going
to explain the answer to the outside ring, or vice-versa. When a student from one ring gives an answer to the
corresponding student in the other ring, the receiving student has two choices. The receiving student can either accept a
correct answer or modify the answer so that it is more correct. Students in the receiving ring are then asked to re-explain
the answer to their partner in the other ring. If the explanations are correct, the teacher allows one or both of the rings to
move a certain number of steps in a clockwise or counterclockwise direction so that the students are now facing a new
partner. The teacher is then free to provide a new stimulus and repeat the process. A variation on this procedure is to
allow an outside partner to serve as a “phone a friend” or “help line” in the event that the original student is unable to
answer the question. Moving circles can also be used during the first days of school to allow the students an opportunity
to get to know each other and for the teacher to establish a student-centered classroom format.

TEACHER TIP
Moving circles is a fun activity that engages the students and is a good ice-breaker, but the
strategy works best if behavioral rules have been put in place.

Mimic or Echo
Another fun way to build student involvement and repetition into a lesson is to employ the mimic or echo strategy. In this
technique, the teacher asks the students to create a response in their own words to a curricular topic or another student’s
comment. In a sense, the students are trying to mimic a thought or concept that was previously presented. By having the
students rework the event in their own words, it requires the students to remain current with the class. It also provides
useful repetition. Likewise, students are required to internalize the learning before they can create a thoughtful mimic
response. Additionally, the teacher can call upon several students to mimic an important concept or summarize a lesson.
In so doing, repetition is built into the lesson in a manner that is fun and may utilize a vernacular that the students
understand and enjoy.

Role Playing
Research and theory about how students learn supports the use of role playing as an instructional strategy. Research
indicates that play and drama contribute to learning and cognitive development in a number of ways. For instance, they
provide safe opportunities for students to practice new skills. As these skills are mastered, students integrate them into
other task-oriented sequences.

Role playing also personalizes instruction and allows students to be creative while learning. Students “become” the role
that they are playing and thereby incorporate that persona into their working psychology. Teachers can utilize this
strategy to place students in roles that allow them to grow. For instance, a student may become a doctor, lawyer, or
engineer in the context of determining a solution to a problem. While role playing, the students can explore and create
topics that extend beyond their real life experiences. Further, role playing provides a setting for students to get to know
each other better and perhaps see another side of someone they have known for a while. It allows students the
opportunity to display hidden talents to their friends and teacher.

Older students may use drama as a means of identifying, understanding, and perhaps solving the social problems that
plague teenagers. Role playing in older students is also beneficial in allowing them to internalize the struggles and
victories of notable historical figures.

To make role playing successful, the teacher must be certain to frame the activity correctly and provide the necessary
boundaries and training.

Brainstorming
Brainstorming is an interactive method of getting the students to generate a lot of ideas about a particular subject.
Brainstorming is especially helpful in creating potential solutions during problem solving activities. In this process,
students are required to develop an idea, an answer, or a critique based on a stimulus provided by the teacher. The type
of student responses may vary according to the lesson. Typically the responses are oral, but they can also be written or
utilize other modalities.

Organizing for a brainstorming activity is very important. There are several thoughts to consider. For example, how long
the activity should continue. Most teachers allow students to provide responses until they cannot think of any new ones.
However, students often generate their most creative and thoughtful answers after the silence that accompanies a
moment of thoughtfulness. The moment of thoughtfulness usually occurs after the students have exhausted their
inventory of quick or funny answers.

Another consideration is whether there is a right or correct response. Generally it is a good idea for the teacher to list all
of the students’ responses regardless of correctness. The degree of correctness or appropriateness can be determined
later so as not to slow down the momentum of the brainstorming activity. Plus, a review of responses can be used to
promote students’ decision-making skills.

What about class control? Sometimes a class needs energizing so the teacher might allow for more raucous student
behavior. However, at other times the desired student decorum may suggest a more conservative approach. It is di cult
for the teacher to record each response if the students are shouting them in random order. It is more e cient to call on
students before they are allowed to respond. This also gives the less aggressive students an opportunity to speak. A
modification of this strategy is to have the students write as many responses as they can think of in two minutes. They
can then use their notes as their answers are given orally.

TEACHER TIP
 Do not close the activity at the first “dry spell” of student answers. Even when students
appear to have run out of answers, allow them extra time to think. Some of the best
responses occur in a flurry after a brief pause.

Chunking
Chunking is a method that teachers use to break assignments into smaller units that are more easily accomplished by the
students. Chunking necessitates adding more specific directions to guide the students through each component of the
assignment. The students should be able to complete a chunked assignment with minimal frustrations. This technique is
one way to build student independence from the teacher. It is also very helpful for students who typically struggle with
completing activities in a reasonable amount of time due to academic constraints. Chunking increases the amount of
time that students will need to complete an activity. It also increases the retention of the students.

Guest Speaker
It is a good idea to tap into the resources of the local community. Inviting local citizens into the school to share their
experiences is motivating and informative for the students. Often guest speakers provide real time information on the
latest trends and even career possibilities.

There are several items that a teacher should account for when inviting a guest speaker into their classroom. Most
importantly, the teacher will need to consider whether the speaker will be able to communicate e ectively on a curricular
topic at the age/developmental level of the students in the class. If there is any uncertainty, then it is probably not the
best option. However, if the guest speaker can rise to the task, then the teacher should be sure to check with the building
administration to seek approval for this speaker. Be prepared to properly welcome the guest, especially if you are
normally with a class during the projected time of the guest’s arrival. This welcoming should at the very least include a
visitors’ pass, co ee or other refreshment, and an escort to their destination. It is best to have a member of the
administrative team welcome the guest to show how much you appreciate their time.

When preparing for the speaker’s arrival, check whether there any special requirements that will be needed by the guest,
such as an overhead projector. Next, think about whether there will need to be any special room arrangements, especially
if two or more classes are teaming together. What about using the assembly area?

The students will need to be prepared as well. Behavioral standards should be reviewed and enforced. This is especially
important if more than one class is involved. The students will also need to be instructionally prepared. For instance, you
can identify the speaker’s topic and its location in the sequence of curricular events. The wise teacher also prepares a
worksheet of questions based on the presentation and instructs the students to take notes during the session. It may also
be helpful to prompt the students ahead of time with sample questions to ask the speaker to clarify or enrich curricular
points.
Finally, think about how you can reward the speaker. Typically speakers will volunteer their time, but you can easily show
your appreciation by sending a note or card of thanks from the class with signatures from all of the students.

TEACHER TIP
Guest speakers are a prized resource and should be treated as royalty. Note that a well
behaved and involved class is valued by the speaker. Speakers tend not to return to an
unruly or unprepared class. They may also discuss this situation in the community.

Laboratory Activities
Laboratory activities meet lesson objectives in a classroom setting with unique or specialized furniture and equipment.
The typical laboratory settings are science facilities, family and consumer science rooms, theaters, gymnasiums, and
computer labs. Laboratory experiences are usually designed to a rm skills and content learned by means not usually
available in a more typical classroom setting. For instance, students may learn how to bake a cake by reading about it in a
textbook and then actually bake a cake in the specially designed kitchen classroom. Students study Newton’s Laws of
Motion and then understand them after experiencing them in a laboratory simulation. The use of laboratory activities is a
valuable tool for teachers that invites hands-on, minds-on active student learning.

However, laboratory activities also pose potential problems. PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT

Special consideration must be given to these precautions before The law is clear: teachers are responsible for the
any teacher attempts a lab activity. The foremost caveat is health and safety of the students while they are
student safety. Laboratory activities, by nature, utilize in their class. Lawsuits claiming teacher
specialized equipment, materials, and even dangerous negligence and incompetence that caused or

chemicals. In all cases, safety must be the first concern for the contributed to a student’s injury while in class
are di cult for a teacher to defend.
teacher. You should create a written safety test that covers each
piece of specialized equipment, the proper use and storage of chemicals, any potentially hazardous procedures, and
describes the consequences of disruptive behavior in the lab. This exercise prepares the students for the laboratory
experience and sets a serious and cautious tone for the activity.

Laboratory activities sometimes require a large amount of teacher preparation and clean-up. The time invested before
and after the activity should be justified by the number of opportunities it presents for learning. Although laboratory
experiences create and a rm student understanding in ways that a normal classroom cannot, they consume precious
class time. It is also important for the teacher to determine the evaluation procedure for the activity. Some questions to
consider include:

Is the experiment simple to complete?

Is there a follow-up series of questions or performances?

 How do you score students working as a team who turn in one project?

What do you do if a student does not complete the project because of an approved absence? What about poor
work ethic?

Given all these considerations, you should not shy away from laboratory activities, but should proceed with precaution
when lesson planning. Laboratory activities are special events. They push student thinking to a new level and should
remain a part of the teacher’s toolkit. In fact, some classes absolutely cannot be taught without laboratory reinforcement.

THE BIG PICTURE

One of my favorite lab posters reads, “LABORATORY: more of the first five letters and less of the last seven.”
The students receive the message loud and clear—the teacher expects more work and less talk when in the lab.

Reciprocal Teaching
Reciprocal teaching is a strategy for teaching reading. It engages students with a variety of backgrounds, talents, and
interests and helps them become independent readers and thinkers. In this technique, the students and teacher discuss
a written passage while employing four comprehension strategies that are characteristic of proficient readers:
summarizing, question generating, clarifying, and predicting. The overall goal is to enable students to become
autonomous learners through the mastery of these strategies.

To implement reciprocal teaching, the teacher must provide instruction and practice time for each strategy.

When students practice summarizing they develop the ability to identify the key factors and most important
information or main idea. Summarizing also promotes the communication of those findings in a clear and
recognizable manner.

Question generation requires students to ponder what they do not know about a reading passage. In this strategy,
students are required to create questions about topics that hinder their understanding. Generating questions cues
the students to look for answers within the reading passage.

Clarifying presses the students to continue the discussion of the topic until they are able to construct meaning
from the reading passage. When students are required to clarify, they become more aware of their thinking and
roadblocks to their understanding.

Predicting asks the students to synthesize the various events in the passage and predict the outcome or what
might happen given a similar situation or in the next lesson. When creating a prediction, the students learn to link
the past and present trends or events in order to imagine the future.
All four strategies create awareness within the reader that prepares the student for active reading.

Teaching the four reading comprehension strategies requires the teacher to transition from leader to facilitator. The
teacher must first describe and model the four strategies and then arrange for the students to engage in a guided
practice. The students can then practice each strategy on a portion of a new passage. This strategy can be modified in
numerous ways as long as the students become proficient in using the four comprehension strategies.

SQ3R/SQ4R
SQ3R is an acronym for a reading technique that requires the students to actively interact with the text. SQ3R represents:
Survey, Question, Read, Recite, and Review.

When students survey a reading passage, they are skimming to develop an overview of the material. Students typically get
meaning from skimming the chapter title, introduction, headings, bold-faced or italicized print, graphics and illustrations,
and summary or conclusion. Students then develop questions that identify what they expect to learn based on their
survey of the passage. During the reading part, the students are taking notes, visualizing the author’s intent, and
analyzing the graphics. After reading, the students recite or discuss the text by recalling specific concepts that were
central to the theme. Discussing the passage allows the students to interact with and learn from each other. In the final
step, students review the passage by using the information in a manner that indicates understanding. This does not mean
simply repeating the text. Rather, students are asked to paraphrase, summarize, and/or create a graphic organizer to
provide evidence of understanding.

SQ4R adds “Relate” between “Read” and “Recite”. When the students relate, they analyze what they read and connect it
with something they already know. A xing this new knowledge to their prior understanding increases the likelihood that
the information will be retained by the students.

Word Wall
One of the best ways to teach vocabulary is to post a word wall of vocabulary words where all of the students can see
them clearly. Word walls are an easy reference point for students. They also help the students to sight-recognize and to
spell important words correctly. The vocabulary words for a unit of study can be generated from the context of the lesson
or presented as a whole at the beginning of the unit. Teachers who generate the vocabulary words from the context of the
lesson build in action and interest as they add words to the wall throughout the unit of study. Furthermore, allowing
students to add words to the wall increases their motivation. Conversely, teachers that post all of the important words for
a given unit at the beginning of the unit give extra time for the students to see and practice all of the words. The e ect of
the word wall is heightened when teachers continually use and reference words from the wall. It is a good idea to use a
large font when creating words for the word wall.

Sticky Notes
Sticky notes have multiple uses in the classroom. They are especially helpful when students want to take notes from a
text, but are not allowed to write in the book. The student can write important facts on the sticky and place it in the
appropriate location in the text for future reference.

Stickies can also be used to spontaneously create a bar graph. Each student is given a sticky and instructed to place it in
the appropriate column as a measure of something. For instance, students can create a whole-class bar graph of their
favorite pet by allowing a sticky to represent their vote. The students can place and align the stickies so that each sticky
increases the length of the bar that represents their choice for favorite pet. Once every student has placed a sticky, the
results will be clear and evident. This is a fun and easy way to promote student engagement.

Further, students can use stickies to write notes or as part of a brainstorming activity where students write their ideas on
a sticky and then arrange them in a concept map. Students can even use a pile of stickies to create a flip chart to add
movement to a process or a cartoon.

Reworking on Board
Allowing students to rework problems or add to curricular concepts while at the front board is a popular event for the
students. In most cases, students are happy to get out of their seat and share their ideas with the other students by
referencing their board work. This is also an easy method for the teacher to use to build student engagement.

There are several ways to implement this strategy. The easiest method is to allow students to go to the board in a
manageable fashion to work problems from the text or worksheet. While selected students are working problems on the
board, the remainder of the class should be working the same problems at their desks. Whenever the students are
finished, they explain their thinking and how they arrived at their answers. This is also a metacognitive extension of the
activity. In another example, the teacher lists several facts or historical dates on the board and asks students to continue,
synthesize, or predict the next step that links the items listed. Other students may be allowed to piggyback on another
student’s response to continue the chain of thinking.

Review Games
Review activities are very popular with students. They can also be very instructionally productive if they are organized
and framed correctly. In the simplest sense, the teacher constructs activities that allow the students to practice and
reinforce what they have learned from previous lessons. Creating modified versions of Jeopardy, Who Wants to be a
Millionaire, Concentration, and Flash Cards are just a few examples of fun review activities. It is important that the
teacher re-establish behavioral boundaries prior to beginning the activities. Also, the teacher should try to refer to them
as “review activities” rather than calling them “games” which gives the wrong impression for some students.

Field Trips
Field trips provide experiences and insights for the students that cannot be duplicated in the classroom and link
classroom instruction with the real world. They also give students an opportunity to investigate career options.

While field trips are often valued very highly by students, they require a lot of planning and preparation for the teacher.
The objective(s) of the trip must align with the curriculum and you should be able to feasibly accomplish them within the
time frame that is available. Also, the timing and frequency of field trips must not disrupt the overall learning
environment of the class or school. The teacher should visit the site prior to any field trip, and prepare instructional
materials specific to that location for the students. The teacher will also need to design an alternate learning experience
for any of the students that are unable to make the trip.

In most schools, teachers are responsible for obtaining written parental permission before allowing a student to
participate in the field trip. It is also a very good idea to find chaperones to accompany the students. Chaperones should
be parents, guardians, or school teachers/administrators. It is generally frowned upon to bring chaperones that do not
already have a relationship with the school or the students. Having one chaperone for every 15 elementary, or 20
secondary students is a good ratio, though, depending upon the nature of the students, more chaperones may be
needed. It is the teacher’s responsibility to set behavioral expectations for the students and chaperones.

For overnight field trips, more chaperones will be needed to provide a safe experience for all students. The goal should be
a ratio of one teacher for every five students of the same sex. Room assignments and acceptable evening activities should
be cleared with the school administration and shared with the students, parents, and chaperones ahead of time.
Teachers and/or chaperones should plan to do room checks at curfew and stay on “roaming duty” until the students are
settled for the night. Taping the door of the students is an old trick that identifies if the door has been opened after
curfew. Teachers will need to be rigorous about checking for any inappropriate activities because the students are their
responsibility and are under their watch.

For all field trips, teachers should provide the school administration with a complete listing of the students and
chaperones, their phone numbers, a complete itinerary, contact information for each location, and a plan to dispense any
medication if needed. It is also important to review school or system-wide emergency procedures before any field trips,
such as what to do if a child becomes separated from the group.

On the day of the field trip, it is best to ride with the students to the site. If possible, a teacher from the school should
ride on each bus that is used. Teachers in your school will usually appreciate it if you send a roster of all the students that
are attending the field trip to them for attendance purposes and if you talk to these teachers about having the students
make up any classwork that they will miss during the trip.

TEACHER TIP
It is very important for teachers to be extremely prepared before going on field trips.
 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Back to Top
 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Small Group Strategies and Individual

Instruction
Objective
In this workshop you will examine the fundamentals of preparing to teach a lesson and review numerous instructional
strategies that can be used as-is or modified to fit the style of a particular student or teacher.

This lesson will focus on small group strategies and individual instruction.

We will take a look at the following small group strategies:

Flexible Grouping

Nominal Brainstorming

Think-Pair-Share

Cooperative Learning Groups

Flash Cards

Interview

Group Discussion

Learning Centers

Jigsaw

Numbered Heads Together

RAFT

We will then discuss these techniques for individual student instruction:

 Individual Work

Directed Silent Reading

Internet Search

Portfolio

Projects

Minute Paper

Double-Entry Notebook

Highlighting

Di erentiation

Tiered Lessons

Small Group Instruction

The following teaching techniques are designed for use with small groups.

Flexible Grouping
Flexible grouping is one method of di erentiating instruction based on the achievement levels of the students. In this
model, students are separated based on their demonstrated achievement and o ered di ering types of instruction. For
instance, within a classroom, the teacher may divide the class into two groups. In one group, the teacher may engage the
students in a remedial activity while in the other group the students may work on an enrichment activity. Both groups are
still responsible for understanding the curricular concepts. However, one group may extend their understanding beyond
the minimum requirements established by the curriculum.

An extension of flexible grouping occurs when multiple teachers cooperate to form a larger pool of possibilities.
Whenever two or more teachers are teaching the same subject at the same time, flexible grouping opportunities may be
extended to engage multiple teachers. In this scenario, the teachers sort the students into smaller groups based on the
needs of the students. The teachers can then specialize and work with the flexible groups that reflect the curricular
preference of the teacher. This allows a teacher to concentrate on a particular subject area and teach it to all of the
students rather than teaching all of the curricular areas to just one class of students. Flexible grouping is one way to
reorganize the class so that students with similar needs receive instruction that targets those areas.

TEACHER TIP
Flexible groups are fluid. Students may move from one group to another as their
characteristics or achievement levels change. Flexible grouping is not a method for
tracking students.
Nominal Brainstorming
Nominal brainstorming is a modification of brainstorming that gives everyone in a group the chance to respond. Each
student provides a response and then waits until all the other students respond before providing a second response. The
responses continue in this manner until every student has exhausted their supply of responses.

TEACHER TIP
Nominal brainstorming is a more controlled technique than brainstorming. It is particularly
useful in engaging students who are reluctant or shy learners.

Think-Pair-Share
In this strategy, students are first assigned a question to which they compose an individual response. Next, they are
placed in pairs and allowed to discuss, share, and combine their responses into a new response that reflects the thinking
of both students. The teacher can then require that these pairs present their combined response to the class. An
extension of this strategy is the think-pair-share-square where two pairs unite to become a foursome and a third
response is generated. Another variation of this strategy is the timed-pair-share, which is helpful in the event that one
student tends to dominate the discussion. In this strategy, each group is given a timer and each student is allowed a
designated amount of time to speak, such as one minute.

The think-pair-share strategy is e ective because students feel more pressure to perform well when they know they will
have to present their work publicly and this tends to result in better quality work. Students also feel a sense of ownership
in the class as a result of this type of lesson.

TEACHER TIP
Allowing numerous groups to respond to the same question may seem repetitious, but
repetition is a helpful practice for beginning learners. The teacher can adjust the amount
of repetition based on the needs of the students and the amount of time available.

Cooperative Learning Groups

Cooperative learning refers to a set of instructional techniques in which students work together in small groups to
complete an assignment or project. Students are assigned individual roles such as that of a facilitator, recorder, or time-
keeper and are given the opportunity to share their knowledge of the topic. Teachers have modified the “one size fits all”
cooperative learning model to create a variety of models that serve unique purposes such as grouping students across
age and subject area.
As with all group methods, special rules are necessary to ensure that groups are working as a team and moving toward a
common goal rather than acting as a group of individuals looking for individual rewards. Teachers are advised to
determine a two-tier assessment system before launching a cooperative learning assignment. One tier rewards the
productivity of each learning group as a whole while the other tier assesses the productivity for each student within a
group. Teachers are also advised to communicate the assignment and directions clearly so that students are prevented
from wasting class time and can begin work immediately.

TEACHER TIP
Asking students to work in cooperative groups is an e ective technique as long as the roles
are understood and student behavior is at an acceptable level.

Flash Cards
Why have flash cards been around for such a long time? The answer is that they are a proven technique. In its simplest
form, a flash card is a writable surface with a question on one side and the answer on the other side. They reflect material
from a particular unit. Either the teacher or the students may create them. Flash cards are extremely valuable tools for
learning letters, vocabulary and symbols. They are also great for review purposes and for students who need extra
assistance. In addition, a teacher can use flash cards for whole-class recitation, or pairs of students can use them to quiz
each other.

Interview
Teachers arrange student-student interviews for two primary reasons. First, students interview one another using
questions provided by the teacher to find out as much about the other student as possible during an ice-breaking
activity. Second, students can also interview each other to share their explanations of a current curricular concept or
about the content of a previous lesson. Teachers may also decide to allow individuals or teams to report their conclusions
or findings to the rest of the class. The interview method increases student interaction and provides repetition.

Group Discussion
Generally students don’t need to be encouraged to talk. In fact, school hallways, cafeterias, and sometimes even
classrooms are full of students’ chatter. This type of communication can be channeled into a productive instructional
group discussion with proper guidance.

Carefully planned group discussions promote student interaction, learning and higher level reasoning and they can target
numerous instructional strategies such as inquiry, review, and problem solving. Through group discussions, teachers can
observe their students in a di erent setting and gain greater insight into the nature of individual students. They also
serve as a formative method for determining the achievement level of the class which is helpful for planning lessons.
The two main types of discussions are guided and reflective discussions, each of which serves a di erent purpose. A
guided discussion augments a basic understanding of the content and requires students to interpret, describe,
generalize, synthesize, and/or summarize their prior knowledge. The teacher facilitates a guided discussion by asking
thoughtful questions that lead students to a defined curricular point.

A reflective discussion, in contrast, requires students to think creatively and critically. The teacher begins a reflective
discussion by asking an introductory question on a contemporary and/or controversial topic. The students formulate
their opinions on the topic and support them with facts from prior knowledge. The teacher’s role shifts from that of a
facilitator to a moderator as the students’ discussion matures.

So what are the elements of an e ective group discussion? The initial question, opinion, or situation posed by the
teacher must be broad enough to allow for an engaged discussion. Factual questions or those with a simple yes or no
answer elicit little discussion. The teacher should clearly communicate both the desired format for the discussion and
the expected outcome. For instance, if the teacher decides to divide the students into teams, this will have to be
explained to the class. If the teacher wants to seat the students in a circle to facilitate the discussion, this will also need to
be done in an organized way.

After the discussion begins, the teacher will need to monitor the flow of conversation to ensure that it moves toward the
desired behavioral and curricular outcomes. Yet, once this flow has been established, the teacher should remove himself
or herself from the discussion so that the interplay between the students can increase and they can take ownership of the
discussion. The teacher’s role should then be more of a moderator than a leader. Teachers sometimes fail to remove
themselves from a discussion because they are afraid of losing control of the class or because they want to help the
students arrive at the answer, but when a teacher remains involved or re-enters the discussion, he or she tends to take
control away from the students.

As the moderator, the teacher might call on certain students to encourage them to participate or ask the speaker to call
on the next responder. In some cases, when the discussion is too far o -curriculum, the teacher should intervene and
reframe the discussion with another leading question. However, in most cases, student-led discussions are preferred.

Learning Centers
Learning centers are specific areas within a classroom where the teacher has prepared a mini-lesson for the students to
utilize. They allow the teacher to present a variety of related curricular topics and to build knowledge through repetition.
Learning centers are a great way to increase student movement and interaction and the students usually enjoy moving
from one station to another.

To implement learning centers, the teacher must break down large curricular items into mini-lessons that vary in time
and complexity but are attainable by the students in a 2-10 minute time span. Note that student rotation will go
smoother if the time allotment for each center is similar. The teacher then assigns a small group to each center and
allows the students to complete the task presented at that center. When this task is complete, the teacher directs the flow
of students to the next learning center in an organized manner. After the students have visited each learning center, they
debrief as a group and then report their findings to the entire class.

Another variation on the learning center model is to establish long-term learning centers. This type of center is designed
as an opportunity for students to enrich or remediate their learning. Students typically access these centers during
downtime in their schedule, such as when they finish a test early, in the time before or after school, or at other times with
the teacher’s permission. It is helpful to locate long-term learning centers in a separate section of the room so that
students have easy access to them but they are not disruptive to the remainder of the class.

TEACHER TIP
Learning centers serve as another method to introduce di erentiation into a classroom.

Jigsaw
One strategy for increasing student interaction while covering multiple topics is to implement a jigsaw. The jigsaw activity
develops student-experts that share their information with other students in a small group setting. To implement a
jigsaw, students are arranged in small groups called “expert groups.” The expert groups are given time to collaborate and
learn a particular topic. Their goal is to become experts on that topic and to explain it to other students who are not in
this initial group.

Once the student-experts have met for their allotted time, the teacher reconstitutes the groups. This regrouping process
is designed to form a second set of groups, called “reporting groups,” so that the students can share the information they
gained during the expert group experience. The reporting groups consist of at least one student-expert from each of the
di erent expert groups. The goal of the reporting groups is to learn from the student-experts so that all of the students
can become experts on each topic. The final result, therefore, is the creation of a class full of student-experts in all of the
original topics provided by the teacher.

Numbered Heads Together

Numbered heads together is a good strategy for reviewing material, practicing vocabulary terms, reinforcing factual
information, and assessing student knowledge. To begin this strategy, the teacher creates groups of four students. The
students within a group are assigned numbers so that each student has a number from one to four. Next, the teacher
asks the entire class a question and assigns the groups a set time to deliberate on the answer. The teacher then selects a
number from one to four. The students from each group who were assigned that number answers the question for the
remainder of the group. To shorten the procedure, the teacher may select a particular number from a particular group so
that only one student is required to respond.
RAFT
RAFT is an acronym for Role, Audience, Format, and Topic. The RAFT strategy helps students to apply what they have
learned by creating something from a new perspective. This technique also allows students to demonstrate their
creativity and to think “outside of the box.”

To implement this strategy, the teacher selects an overall topic that relates to one important aspect of the curriculum.
However, the topic should be broad enough to allow the students a number of options to choose from, such as the e ects
of pollution, transportation in the twentieth century, the politics of trade, or human organ systems.

Next, the teacher collaborates with the students to determine what role the students will play or take on in their creation.
In a unit on pollution, for example, a student could play a businessperson, a fish in the ocean, a politician, or a child
growing up in the year 2108.

Following this step, the teacher collaborates with the students to select an audience to whom the students will be
presenting. In the case of the fish in the ocean, it might be the person who is polluting the ocean.

In the last step, the teacher will need to determine the format of the students’ creation. Typically the format requires
either a written or verbal response, however, it can be elaborated to include such things as a theatrical production. Using
the example above, the students could be asked to create a comic strip from the point of view of the fish for the person
who is polluting the ocean to show why pollution is harmful.

Individual Instruction Back to Top

The following teaching techniques are designed for use with individual students.

Individual Work
Allowing students to work alone is a powerful way to inform the teacher about the student’s capabilities and skills in a
particular curricular concept. Successful individual work builds self-confidence and metacognitive strength. Occasionally
combining group work with individual e orts is a great way to introduce variety into the classroom. In addition, certain
students prefer to work alone and are sometimes frustrated by always having to work in a group setting. Individual work
can also be used to demonstrate to a reluctant students how much they do not know and how beneficial it would be if
they applied themselves more.

TEACHER TIP
Certain students benefit from the use of a learning contract as a guideline for individual
work. A learning contract is an agreement between the student and teacher that defines
the scope, length, and due date of an assignment. It may also include allowable resources,
 benchmarks, and the criteria for evaluation. It is important for both parties to agree and
perhaps to sign the contract before beginning the assignment.

Directed Silent Reading

Requiring students to read a particular selection is an e ective way to increase their understanding of the material while
promoting their reading prowess in a content class. This technique works best when the students are proficient in the
reading strategies required for that lesson. For instance, students should be able to complete the pre-reading activities
before beginning to read the assignment. This technique is enhanced when students are also required to complete an
activity that allows them to use the information in the passage. For instance, students may be grouped to discuss aspects
of the passage, or they may be required to write a summary or a response.

There are three areas of concern related to the directed silent reading technique. First, it raises the question of whether it
is cost-e ective to use class time to permit students to read. Would it be more e cient for the teacher to plan a di erent
type of activity? After all, a student could take the same information home and read it for homework. Another issue is
that the selection may prove to be too long or di cult for the students to read and understand within the time frame
provided. Finally, teachers must make an e ort to provide their students with a reason for reading the passage and make
sure that they have the proper reading skills necessary for the task. Otherwise the students will not be able to
comprehend the material and will become frustrated which will waste their time as well as the teacher’s.

Internet Search
An Internet search uses a search engine such as Google to find out more about a curricular topic given criteria
established by the teacher. This type of search is the modern version of the library research event. Internet searches
allow students the flexibility to research areas of individual interest. This strategy is useful if the teacher wants the
students to have the most recent information and also helps the students to develop important Internet research skills.

Although an Internet search is an individual activity, students can work in pairs and share their findings to create a more
interactive event. As we have already discussed, not all students have access to the Internet at home, so Internet searches
may have to occur at a time and place where all students are guaranteed Internet availability. Teachers should also
implement a “no fly zone” that prevents students from surfing prohibited sites that may not be blocked by the firewall.

TEACHER TIP
Computer systems may overload or run very slowly if unusually high student usage occurs.
Check the capacity of the system with the computer technician before scheduling an
Internet search in a particular computer lab.

Portfolio
A portfolio is a collection of student work that demonstrates a student’s level of achievement. Portfolios are an extension
of the concept of the artist’s portfolio through which artists would bring samples of their work to predispose potential
clients to purchase their creations. In a similar manner, students’ portfolios are assembled using their best work as
evidence of their talents or understanding. Teachers can capitalize on portfolios by informing the students ahead of time
that their next assignment will be eligible to go into the portfolio. If the teacher uses the portfolio as part of the students’
grade, students are more likely to work extra hard on that assignment. Teachers typically use summary events such as
unit exams or projects as potential portfolio entries.

Portfolios also provide evidence for the student, teacher, and parents about the student’s academic achievement over an
extended period of time and help them to make informed decisions about that student. This type of data is especially
useful when setting personalized educational goals or petitioning to enter a special class or program. In some cases,
schools may use portfolio assessments to measure students’ growth over the course of a school year or over many years.

TEACHER TIP
Portfolios are a non-traditional form of assessment. Students will want their best work to
go into their portfolio. Allowing students the opportunity and authority to select items for
entry into their portfolio is an e ective teaching strategy that increases students’ interest
in their own education. However, teachers should retain the right to include academic
artifacts that are representative of the students’ work.

Projects
Projects represent either individual or group e orts and focus on a wide range of curricular topics. Teachers can assign
projects in a variety of modalities and in a student grouping that fits the characteristics of the assignment and the nature
of the students. A project should be a natural outgrowth of the lesson sequence. It can be a musical event for a music
class, a research paper for social studies or English class, or a science fair project for science class.

In general, projects are designed to allow the students a degree of freedom and creativity in investigating, compiling, and
displaying a particular topic in a style that allows for personal expression. Projects also allow the teacher to insert fun
into learning, such as when students create costumes for the characters in a story or present an interpretive dance
performance. Teachers establish the boundaries for the project, but students are then free to construct their project
within these parameters and pursue their personal interests within the curricular topic. It is often the case that students
will engage with their project topic in far greater detail than required by the curriculum and that they go on to develop a
particular interest in that subject area. Projects of this nature spark learning that may last forever.

When assigning projects, there are several rules to keep in mind. First, think through:

What curricular goals will the project address?

 What exactly do you want the students to accomplish?

Is the project reasonable?

What types of resources are allowed or restricted?

How long do the students have to complete it?

To what degree can parents help?

How will you evaluate the project?

Be careful not to assign a project before all of these questions are answered.

Teachers often select short-term projects that are completed during class to enhance or review the curricula. Short, in-
class projects tend to follow the flow of the curriculum. Projects that are completed within a class period or two are easier
to monitor than those completed over longer periods of time. It should also be noted that projects completed during
school are easier to monitor than those completed at home and projects completed by individuals are easier to monitor
than group projects.

Longer projects are often completed after the curricular goals have been completed in class. For longer projects, teachers
typically have students work on the projects both in class and out of school to allow for curricular enrichment and
extension. This allows the students to access resources beyond the normal school inventory, such as local museums or
libraries. When you assign large projects that are designed to be completed over time, provide the students with a
complete description of the task with specific checkpoint milestones. This will provide a clear reminder of what the
students are to accomplish and promote action by a periodic review of their progress.

TEACHER TIP
Checkpoints are crucial for a lengthy project. Teachers can use class time to have the
students display and explain their projects at each checkpoint. Since the projects reflect
the curriculum, checkpoints reinforce lesson objectives.

Another significant time commitment is the display or class presentation of the project. If every group is allowed ten
minutes of class time to explain their project, the amount of time required may be prohibitive. This is especially true if
the assignment required individual projects. There are several other drawbacks to the project strategy:

If not completely thought through in advance by the teacher, projects can be a long-term disaster.

The amount of time dedicated to the project may not justify the results.
 There are several hidden problems with the dynamics of group projects. Sometimes one student will do all or
none of the work and yet receive the same credit as other students. Students who do not actively participate may not
achieve understanding of the material or meet the curricular objectives.

The storage and transportation of projects may become troublesome.

Students may be expected to work for a length of time outside of the classroom, which may not be a realistic
expectation. Also, if groups are supposed to meet at a time other than assigned class time, it may be di cult for
students to arrange the meeting or transportation.

The checkpoints and completion date may extend into a non-supporting curricular unit and interrupt the flow of
instruction.

Careful planning can eliminate or marginalize these issues, so if a project is in your future, a detailed plan of action
should be in your present.

TEACHER TIP
One way to add importance and encourage extra e ort toward a project assignment is to
display all the completed projects for a period of time in a commonly used area within the
school. Whenever possible, coordinate with the administration to arrange for a public and
prominent showcase of your students’ projects. The students will likely enjoy seeing their
work proudly displayed. You could also enter the projects into a traveling display or
competition.

Minute Paper
The minute paper is a brief 3 to 5 sentence narrative that the student writes and submits to the teacher. This activity can
be implemented at any time during a lesson, depending upon the type of information the teacher is requesting. Typically,
minute papers are a personal essay to the teacher indicating what the students have learned as a result of the lesson and
identifying the remaining areas of trouble they are experiencing. Minute papers are e ective because they require
students to write down their own personal reflections. They are also valuable as a way to inform teachers of the success
of the lesson and to identify future topics. The concept of a minute paper can be expanded to include asking students to
write a minute paper on a curricular topic.

Double-Entry Notebook
A successful strategy that emphasizes note-taking and reviewing notes is the double-entry notebook. A double-entry
notebook allows students to write personal messages at an appropriate location in order to highlight or emphasize a
particular curricular concept.
There are a number of reasons for teachers to utilize a double-entry notebook. First, writing is an integral part of the
learning process. By using this type of notebook, students practice one of the most vital and enduring functions common
to all academic disciplines. A second reason is to provide students with a ready reference for each unit as well as a
resource to consult when reviewing for an exam. Maintaining a double-entry notebook encourages students to become
more organized. It also allows them to be creative and promotes the retention of information. Finally, a double-entry
notebook can serve as a form of communication between the student, teacher, and parent(s). All interested parties can
write notes directly into the notebook for sharing and communicating with each other.

A double-entry notebook can be created in a number of ways. One way is for the teacher to draw a line down the
approximate middle of the page. Class and/or homework notes are written on either the right or left side of the line,
based on the students’ preference. Any teacher or student comments that add meaning or importance to the notes are
then written in the correct location on the other side of the line. Another method is for the students to leave adequate
space above or below class and/or homework notes, also based on their preference. Students can then use these blank
areas to write in useful information. The double-entry notebook is a method for students to organize their learning and to
identify areas of special importance for study purposes.

Another way to organize the notebook is to use both the right and left sides of an open notebook. This format is designed
to emphasize student learning as opposed to simply copying notes. It has specific guidelines that students and teachers
follow to ensure that students are learning the curricular concepts.

This format can also serve as a useful pre-writing tool. The right side of the open notebook contains the “entry”
information where students write notes from textual materials, lecture, discussions, and independent work. The left side
of the notebook, which is the back side of the preceding page, contains the “final” or processed information. The left side
is where students process the information from the right side and reconfigure the concepts in a di erent form, such as an
illustration, graphic organizer, or cartoon along with a written explanation or description. This format requires the
student to think about the concepts before re-expressing them on the left side. As yet another way to use this format, the
student can annotate a message to the teacher in the left side next to a lecture note of interest. This type of message
typically informs the teacher about how well the student understood the information.

Regardless of how the double-entry notebook is set up, the teacher should periodically review the notebook to determine
the extent to which the student has internalized the content. The teacher then has the opportunity to respond
accordingly. This allows teachers to rectify misunderstandings or misconceptions and also to gain insight into the
personal level of achievement for each student, which is helpful when making decisions about future lesson plans.

Highlighting
Highlighting began as a reading strategy in which students highlighted vocabulary words, key parts of a topic sentence, or
other important passages in order to draw special attention to them. From there, the practice expanded to include other
subject areas. Students now use a variety of colored highlighters to emphasize important concepts, ideas, and skills. For
instance, students highlight spelling words, word wall words, or parts of speech as they practice silently reading them.
The main idea of a paragraph can be highlighted in one color while supporting details are highlighted in another color to
distinguish the two. The teacher can highlight directions on a worksheet or assignment to demonstrate the value of
focusing e ort on them. The teacher can also separate multi-step directions into smaller steps by highlighting various
steps in di erent colors. Highlighting is fun for students to do, adds color to their learning, and serves an educational
purpose at the same time.

TEACHER TIP
When teaching students how to highlight, consider the following rule: highlight as few
words as possible to achieve meaning. Highlighting can also be modeled on an overhead
projection system. Dedicating di erent colors to di erent functions clarifies instruction.

Differentiation
Di erentiation is a technique that allows the teacher to treat students di erently based on their academic needs. In a
di erentiated classroom, the teacher assesses the academic level of the students and then prepares a variety of lessons
that meet the students on their levels and provides specific ways for each student to learn in their own unique way. They
do not assume that one type of instructional modality is suitable for all children since learners di er in their preferred
modality, their personal interests, and the length of time they need to fully understand a topic. It is thought that
di erentiating instruction removes instructional hurdles and allows students to achieve at a higher level. Teachers who
utilize di erentiation hold high standards for all students but realize that the mechanism for promoting students to
higher levels varies with the diversity of the students.

The following list of instructional techniques is helpful in di erentiating a lesson. Teachers may modify these ideas to fit
their individual classroom situations.

Summary activities are independent curricular-based projects that the students can personalize. Although
typically completed at the individual level, students can be grouped to further discuss their results.

Open-ended assignments target a curricular process, such as creative problem solving or critical thinking, and
allow students a degree of individual freedom. To magnify this strategy, allow students to complete a hands-on
project. This technique is useful as both an individual and group strategy.

Authentic situations allow students to understand di cult concepts in real world terms that they can relate to in
meaningful and specific ways. The authenticity should reflect community values, vernacular, and other localized
characteristics.

Learning centers allow students varying amounts of time to complete multiple tasks which increases the
opportunity for di erentiation.
 Flexible grouping is a good way to group students with similar academic characteristics. It is important to know
that flexible groups are fluid. Students can move between groups as their needs mature.

Flexible pacing allows time to work for the students instead of against them. Flexing time does not give students
an unlimited amount of time to complete a task but it does eliminate unnecessary or trivial content to provide
additional time for struggling learners.

Knowing a variety of instructional strategies is a necessity for teachers. It is important for teachers to be able to apply the
correct strategy to e ectively reach all of their students.

TEACHER TIP
As a friend who worked in construction used to remind me, it is important to know the
right tool to use. You cannot use a table saw to hammer a nail.

Tiered Lessons (or Tiered Curriculum)

Tiered lessons or layered lessons are a series of teacher-generated, curricular-based activities that di erentiate
instruction according to the academic needs of the students so they can learn in their preferred modality. Similarly,
students with diverse needs are instructionally accommodated and enabled to master the same curricular concepts and
process skills. Tiered lessons provide one way to ensure that students with di erent learning needs receive more
personalized instruction in the same basic curriculum.

Structuring a learning unit so that students receive a menu of activities is the simplest form of creating tiered lessons.
The teacher creates a series of lessons with di erent modalities that remain true to the intent of the curriculum. Students
either select or are assigned those lessons that are specific to their preferred learning style. It is important that the
teacher establish a minimum level of required work in each lesson that each student must successfully complete to
provide evidence of curricular mastery while also creating additional lessons that extend student thinking beyond the
minimum curricular limits. The activities may vary according to learning style, degree of enrichment, and the amount of
time required for completion.

Preparing and implementing tiered activities is a di erent task for the teacher than more traditional lesson planning.
Tiered lessons require the teacher to front load the unit plan by preparing all the lessons to be ready for student use on
the first day of study for the unit. Once the students begin to work on their lessons, the teacher becomes a facilitator and
assists students as needed. This technique allows the teacher to interact more e ectively than is possible in a more
traditional setting. Students tend to prefer this strategy because they can work on an activity that aligns with their
background and have ready access to the teacher. Because they like this format, students complete more work at an
increased level of proficiency.
 TEACHER TIP
Tiered lessons match students’ readiness and preferred learning style with appropriate
activities. Students learn to become independent of the teacher and interdependent
among themselves.

Review Questions
1. Which strategies require the students to think at an analysis or synthesis level?

2. Which strategies are useful for recalling factual material?

3. Which techniques do not interrupt the flow of the lesson?

4. If the teacher wanted to focus on a particular curricular topic, which strategies would be most useful?

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Lesson Closure
Objective
In this workshop you will examine the fundamentals of preparing to teach a lesson and review numerous instructional
strategies that can be used as-is or modified to fit the style of a particular student or teacher.

In this lesson you will learn how to best provide closure to your instruction to help students solidify their learning
including:

Lesson Summary

Summarization Strategies

Making Connections

Providing Direction

Introduction
A crucial part of every lesson is the closure. The best closures include a summary of the objectives for that lesson, make
connections between prior and future lessons, and provide direction for future lessons.

Lesson closings also serve to prevent discipline problems. When meaningful instruction completely utilizes the time
allocation, the opportunity for student disruption is minimized. Conversely, students will consistently seek non-
educational diversions if the lesson ends early and the teacher fails to provide additional structure. Next to the beginning
of class, the end of the lesson is the time period where most student disruptions take place. New teachers will need to
develop their ability to add closure to a lesson in order to promote student achievement while reducing the threat of
student discipline problems.
Lesson Summary
The lesson summary should be used as another opportunity to provide repetition and increase student retention of the
lesson objectives. Good lesson summaries rework the lesson objectives while involving the students as active
participants. Do not underestimate the value of the insights students will provide. We will now review a few strategies for
summarizing your lessons.

Reflective Thinking
A useful technique to help students develop a fuller sense of a lesson is to have the students reflect on their learning.
Reflection o ers the students the opportunity to establish links between the lesson and their prior and everyday
knowledge. Metacognitive reflection also allows students the opportunity to “unpack” their own thinking and thought
patterns which helps the students align curricular content with their style of thinking and remembering.

Most students have not really thought about how they remember important items and therefore do not have a technique
for recalling information stored in their memory. A few students will always claim that they can remember vast amounts
of information by simply listening to the teacher. While this may be true in the moments immediately following a lecture,
the reality of the first exam generally proves this statement incorrect. Most students require a more active approach to
learning, including such active items as: note-taking, concept maps, drawings, and discussion.

Teachers can promote reflection by asking the students to describe how they arrived at an answer. Likewise, teachers can
ask their students to analyze their thinking by explaining how they would summarize the content of the lesson, or the
major points of the discussion. The teacher can also play “devil’s advocate” and challenge the students to describe their
thought pattern as they describe their response to the teacher’s challenge.

Teachers can plan reflective discussions as either a whole group or small group activity. The idea is to have the students
discuss what they have learned so that they can learn from each other and help clarify their thinking. The reflection
activity is most successful when the teacher has provided a foundation where students feel at ease when asking
questions and discussing their level of understanding. Without this level of student respect, student reflection may be
hindered. Teachers increase the impact of the reflection activity by modeling student respect. In building student
respect, it is important to listen carefully as students engage in learning and respond to them with authentic interest.
Teachers multiply the strategy by encouraging students to respect one another’s ideas.

Reflection activities will also allow the teacher to determine the e ectiveness of the lesson. For instance, if during the
reflection time, no students appear to have a grasp of the lesson, then the teacher will know to address those specific
concepts in the next lesson.

THE BIG PICTURE

 I know several teachers who require their students to write in their journals or double entry notebooks at the
conclusion of each lesson. These entries reflect their understanding of the lesson. The teachers often ask the
students to orally read their entries to the rest of the class. They also collect the journals on a regular timetable
to review the content in order to better understand how well their students are learning.

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Student Summaries
Depending upon the amount of time remaining in the class period and the intent of the teacher, students should be
asked to recite or demonstrate their interpretation of the lesson objectives. This practice provides vital instructional
insights and is an excellent use of class time. If a lesson ends early, the extra time is well spent when students are asked
to think about their own level of understanding. A simple recounting of the lesson objectives is further magnified by
asking those students to respond who may not have been as active during the lesson as the teacher would have
preferred. This is also a mild preventative discipline strategy.

Carefully listen and observe the students’ summary of the lesson. The quality and completeness of their responses will
determine the extent to which the material will need to be reinforced in subsequent lessons.

TEACHER TIP
When students are asked to summarize the lesson in their own words or actions, it
requires them to think beyond the simple repetition of the teacher’s lecture. Although this
technique is sometimes initially di cult for students, with perseverance students learn to
internalize and personalize their learning.

One of the most valuable sources of information is the quality and consistency of student responses regarding the lesson
objectives. It is a direct indicator of the degree of student mastery that occurred as a result of the lesson. If the teacher
asks the class to summarize the main points of the lesson and no one is able to do it correctly, what does that tell the
teacher? Likewise, if all of the students are able to provide a summary that demonstrates a clear understanding of the
objectives and their connection to prior learning, then the teacher receives a di erent message. The summary can also
be viewed as a means for the teacher to assess student learning in a formative manner that is also non-threatening.

TEACHER TIP
Do not become so frozen in lesson planning that future lesson plans cannot be adjusted to
accommodate information gained by the teacher when students provide responses of the
lesson summary.

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Summary-Go-Round
To conduct a Summary-Go-Round at the conclusion of the lesson, the teacher asks the students to write something they
learned from the lesson based on the objectives for that lesson. The teacher may prompt the writing by giving the
students a stem such as, “An idea that was new to me…”, or, “I was surprised to find out that…”, or “I still do not
understand…” In a Summary-Go-Round the students create the summary and present it to their group or the class in a
systematic fashion so that all students have a chance to respond. The teacher can select as many student responses as
time allows.

Repetition is a necessary ingredient for the learning and recollection of information, especially new content. It is hard for
students to ignore the opportunity to learn when five or more of their classmates orally present or demonstrate the intent
and major points of the lesson. The repetition provided by numerous student responses may sound like overkill, but it
confirms understanding. Also, when students are encouraged to create the summary in their own words, they can present
the material in a variety of di erent ways that may reach the student who did not fully understand the teacher’s
presentation. Students are sometimes the best teachers. This technique also encourages student involvement
throughout the lesson since the students will want to be prepared to present to their classmates.

The Summary-Go-Round technique can also be used to have students contribute their thoughts and understanding
during the lesson for certain curricular concepts, not just at the closure of the lesson. This will help get the students
involved. The same procedure works for both scenarios.

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Exit Slip
A good way to determine the e ectiveness of a lesson is to have the students complete exit slips at the end of the class
and deposit them in a container as they exit the classroom. Also known as the “ticket out the door” strategy, exit slips are
a mini-communication device between the students and the teacher. They contain insight into the inner thoughts and
progress of individual students. They can also be collectively evaluated to give the teacher insights into how well a lesson
was received by the students.

In some cases, exit slips may be a response to a particular teacher question such as, “list one new thing that you learned
today.” In other cases, teachers may allow students to comment on aspects of the lesson, such as whether they enjoyed it
or the degree of comfort they felt in working with new equipment. The content of the exit slips is determined by the type
of information the teacher seeks to obtain. It is important to give students adequate time to complete the exit slips
before they proceed to their next destination or the exit slips may be ine ective.

Exit cards can be an e ective transition into the next lesson. Before the teacher returns the cards during the next class,
he or she can mark five cards which invite the students to place the contents of their card on the front board for whole-
class review. Depending upon the teacher’s purpose, the selected cards may be used to review the previous lesson, clarify
misconceptions, or frame the next lesson.

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Making Connections
In addition to summarizing the lesson, the closure of a lesson is also the opportune time to connect prior learning with
the present lesson and set the stage for upcoming events. This curricular connection establishes linkages and patterns
for the students and allows for a seamless flow of thought. When students are able to connect prior to recent learning,
everything is easier to remember.

Establishing an order of thought allows the students to see instruction as a related linear event where one concept builds
upon another. As concepts are built upon each other, students can also begin to think laterally and draw upon related
concepts to complete and enrich a thought. Students that are able to include thoughtful information that goes beyond a
simple answer will also score higher on most scoring rubrics than those students who just answer the question.

Teachers help students to think with greater depth and breadth by providing them with the opportunity to network their
understanding with tangential concepts. For example, advances in science and mathematics are often motivated or
influenced by history, such as the 1957 launch of Sputnik that sparked a renewed national interest in the sciences.
Students who do not see the connection between lessons view the instruction as a series of independent items that have
to be learned separately. They appear as instructional islands that have no bridges connecting them. This leads to gaps in
student understanding that may lead to the inability to make obvious connections and transfers at a later date.

TEACHER TIP
Students who cannot establish links between concepts have a di cult time as they
matriculate through the higher grades. It is very hard for them to compete against students
who can connect to prior learning and extend their thinking. It is also frustrating for the
teacher who assumes the prior knowledge is complete and easily accessed by the student.
In this situation, the teacher has to fill in gaps in learning by over-explaining certain key
curricular items.

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Providing Direction
There is a final item to remember when closing a lesson—make sure to indicate the direction in which the lesson is
headed. Students often get so lost in their day-to-day existence that important items become blurred. It is important for
teachers to place themselves in the students’ world and realize that most students often have five to seven other classes
that are equally demanding, after-school responsibilities, and of course lunchtime and weekend thoughts and priorities.
Lost students don’t know whether they are receiving instructions to build a boat, to learn a dance step, or to separate
nouns from verbs. Continually placing the curriculum in context allows students to make better sense of the lesson and
where it belongs cognitively. It is one more way of helping students organize and prioritize their thoughts.

Review Question
Why is it important to have congruence between the curriculum, objectives, and summary?
10 Things to Remember About Pedagogy
1. A student’s mind is not a blank slate upon which to impart knowledge. It is more like a jungle that has to be
charted and navigated.

2. Students get lost, frustrated, and stop paying attention when they don’t understand a topic or the content is
taught out of sequence. Students can sleep through even the best lectures if the content doesn’t make sense to
them.

3. School is not a place where students go to watch their teachers work. Rather, it should be the reverse.

4. Get students engaged in their own learning. Be careful not to do their work for them, but allow them to think their
way through problems.

5. A well-constructed lesson minimizes student discipline problems.

6. Every lesson has a beginning, middle, and end.

7. One size does not fit all. A master teacher skillfully uses the correct technique(s) to reach every student.

8. Emerging technologies unlock new opportunities to appeal to reluctant learners as well as highly motivated
learners.

9. Each instructional methodology has a drawback.

10. Master teachers accumulate knowledge about the pedagogy of teaching every day they teach students.

Video Case Study: Pedagogy and Instructional Design (14:58)

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Resources and Reference

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of pedagogy and instructional design.

1. Anderson, E. (1985). Project IMPACT- A Summary of Outcomes in Four Schools. A report by the Orange County Board of
Education, Costa Mesa, CA.

2. Campoy, Renee W. Case Study Analysis in the Classroom: Becoming a Reflective Teacher. Sage Publications Inc., 2004.
Available from Amazon.com.

3. Ellis, E. S. and Worthington, L. A. Research synthesis on e ective teaching principles and the design of quality tools for
educators. University of Oregon: Technical Report No. 5 National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators., 1994.
http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech05.pdf.

4. Greer, R. Douglas. Designing Teaching Strategies: An Applied Behavior Analysis Systems Approach. Academic Press, 2002.
Available from Amazon.com.

5. Harvard Negotiation Project, “Pedagogy.” Presidents and Fellows of Harvard College, 2006.
www.pon.harvard.edu/hnp/teaching/pedagogy/pedagogy.shtml.

6. Kameenui, Edward J. Designing Instructional Strategies: The Prevention of Academic Learning Problems. Prentice Hall, 1990.
Available from Amazon.com.

7. Loughran, John. Researching Teaching: Methodologies and Practices for Understanding Pedagogy. Routledge, 1999. Available
from Amazon.com.

8. Loughran, John. Teaching about Teaching: Purpose, Passion, and Pedagogy in Teacher Education. Taylor and Francis, 2007.
Available from Amazon.com.

9. Novak, J.D., and Godwin, D. Learning How to Learn. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1984. Available from
Amazon.com.

10. Novak, J. D., and Wandersee, J. H. Perspectives on Concept Mapping. Special issue of the Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 27(10): 921-1075. 1990.

11. Novak, J.D. “Metalearning and metaknowledge strategies to help students learn how to learn” In L.H.T. West & A.L. Pines
(Eds.), Cognitive Structure and Conceptual Change. Orlando: Academic Press, Inc, 1985.

12. Perkins, D. and Salomon, G. “Teaching for transfer.” Educational Leadership, Alexandria, VA., 22-32. 1988.

13. Resnick, L. Education and Learning to Think. National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 1987. Available from The National
Academies Press.
 14. Wade, S. “Using think alouds to assess comprehension.” The Reading Teacher, 43, 442-451, 1990.

15. Watson, B. & Konicek, R. “Teaching for conceptual change: Confronting children’s experience.” Phi Delta Kappen, 71, 680-685,
1990.

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Introduction to Assessment Part I

Objective
In this workshop, you will familiarize yourself with the concept of classroom assessment. You will develop the ability to
discuss the purposes and uses of di erent types of assessments, the conditions for quality assessments, and multiple
modes of classroom assessment. The video will summarize concepts from the written lessons and provide tips for writing
strong assessment items.

This lesson will provide an introduction to assessment and its purposes in the classroom. It will also begin looking at the
following types of assessments:

Summarative

Formative

Ipsative

Diagnostic

Additional types of assessments will be discussed in part two of this lesson.

Introduction
When I was in elementary school, I found assessments to be very stressful. We always sat in a circle and it seemed as if all
of the other students were watching me when it was my turn to respond. Fortunately, I usually provided the correct
answer, but there were a number of students who seldom knew the correct answer. I didn’t have time to feel sorry for
them, though, because I was too busy dreading my own turn. In fact, I found that I was happy when other students
provided an incorrect answer or misbehaved since that distracted the teacher for a while and further delayed my turn in
the spotlight.
As a first year teacher, my opinion of tests changed considerably. At first, I was excited to give tests because I thought it
would be an easy day of teaching for me. After all, what was there to do if the students were taking a test all class period?
Reality set as I soon learned how much time I needed to put in to create a good test and then score it afterwards. Then
there was always a student who finished the test with half of the period remaining. Naively, I had thought that students
who finished their test early would begin working on their homework, preparing for their next class, or at the very least,
would sit quietly and respectfully in their seat. Wrong! As soon as the first students completed their test, they found
other ways of entertaining themselves that were counter to my unspoken wishes.This meant that I had to plan and
provide meaningful instruction to occupy students who finished their exam early.

Testing day was suddenly more work and less of a day o . Yet, as I became more experienced, I found ways to make my
preparation and delivery of assessments more e cient so that testing day was not as burdensome and was sometimes
even fun.

What is Assessment?
Let us begin by examining a few definitions of assessment. Assessment is:

information gathering

the process of documenting knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs

the process of determining whether or not clearly defined learning objectives have been achieved by students

a measure of students’ knowledge and skills compared against some level of desired performance, such as
attaining the level of proficient or distinguished or simply meeting the standard

how well the students are learning and how well the teacher is teaching

student, teacher, parent, and institutional accountability

a method to analyze and improve teaching and learning

a means to motivate students

a range of options for teachers to use that vary greatly from recording anecdotal notes while observing a student
to administering a standardized test

After reading these definitions, it is easy to understand the varied notion of the concept of assessment. In fact, all of
these definitions are accurate, useful and compatible with one another. The di culty in establishing a single, one-
sentence definition of assessment speaks to the universality of the concept. There are many ways to use assessment as
part of a comprehensive assessment-instruction system.
The Purpose of Assessment
Assessments help turn the act of presenting information into the science of teaching by creating the feedback loop that
connects purposeful instruction to student learning. Teaching and the subsequent assessments are reciprocal in that one
a ects the other. E ective teachers constantly move between assessment and instruction during their normal teaching
sequence. Teachers that integrate the various types of assessment into their instruction to create a comprehensive
assessment-instruction system are more successful than teachers who plan blindly and move forward with a lack of
supporting data.

There are at least six general purposes for assessment in education which have an obvious relationship with the
definitions of assessment that we have already reviewed. Each purpose should be a component of a comprehensive
assessment-instruction system. The six purposes are as follows:

To identify the whole group’s and individual student’s strengths and weaknesses with respect to the curriculum
so that the teacher can have access to the best information before making any instructional decisions

To inform parents and guardians about their children so they can help them and make informed decisions as to
their future

To show students their progress toward mastery so individual students can become more aware, self-directed,
and motivated in their approach to their own learning

To promote the concept of cyclic and continual student learning as exemplified by the model: assessment →
instruction → assessment → instruction → assessment…

To evaluate the e ectiveness of the instructional implementation of specific curricular units, educational
initiatives, teachers, or schools

To present personalized student data so that the teacher or institution can give a grade that is linked with an
award, such as a degree, license, or certificate

A comprehensive assessment plan, whether for an individual teacher or for a school system, should include data that is
relevant for each of the categories listed. Assessment is not just testing. Assessment is linked directly with instruction
and is an integral component of a comprehensive educational master plan.

TEACHER TIP
When working with assessments, remember that your goal is to collect and use data about
your classroom. However, that does not mean that only the measurable aspects of your
classroom are important.
Types of Assessments
Let’s break the concept of assessment into smaller components that are more useful to the classroom teacher. There are
a number of di erent types of assessments. Each has a unique purpose and an appropriate use as a teaching tool.
However, like any tool, if used incorrectly, it can do more harm than good.

The major types of assessments include the following:

Summative

Formative

Ipsative

Diagnostic

Performance/Authentic

Criterion-Referenced

Norm-Referenced

We should note that it is possible for one assessment instrument to qualify as multiple types of assessments. For
example, it is possible for a teacher to use a criterion-referenced, diagnostic assessment or a norm-referenced,
summative assessment.

We will now explore each type of assessment in greater depth.

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Types of Assessments: Summative Assessments
When the average person thinks of a test in school, they are typically recalling a summative assessment. These
assessments are content-driven and appear as tests, quizzes, reports, papers, recitals, and competitions. Summative
assessments are designed to add up or “sum” the amount of knowledge that the test-taker demonstrates. They are
considered “assessments of learning.” For teachers, the summative assessment is usually given at the end of a unit of
study, such as a chapter, semester, or year, for the purpose of student evaluation and assigning a grade.

To use a more sophisticated definition, summative assessments are tests that are designed to measure a learner’s
understanding following a sustained period of instruction with a focus on identifying the level of mastery and the
e ectiveness of the instruction. Because of this, summative assessments are measures of outcome that define student
achievement rather than student cooperation, aptitude, or e ort. As such, they are used to determine if a student or
learner has “passed” or reached proficiency in that particular event. Examples of summative tests include the SAT,
Advanced Placement tests, as well as high stakes exams such the ABCTE certification exams.
Exams often constitute a student’s score or grade for a particular section of the curriculum. Summative assessment
results also help in determining appropriate student placement for future courses or units. Therefore, students tend to
focus on summative assessments as an important experience and, as I mentioned in the introduction, they can cause
students varying degrees of anxiety.

From a teacher’s perspective, summative assessments serve as instructional guidance. By definition, they yield data
relevant to a student’s mastery of specific curricular goals and also provide a basis for comparison to reference or control
groups. For instance, how well did the students in class A in an American school perform in comparison to the students
in class A in a Japanese school on the SAT?

When the components of an assessment are linked to pre-established criteria (generally, these are learning objectives),
the results can be retrieved and organized so that the teacher, student, and parents are able to directly connect
achievement to specific goals. This data can then be used to construct lessons that support the child’s needs in a very
focused manner. Similarly, the data can be used as a diagnostic tool that uncovers students’ strengths and weaknesses to
help guide and personalize instruction before a unit of study has even begun and can provide information to assist
parents in their e orts to support their child. We will cover diagnostic tools more in depth later in this lesson.

Summative assessments are also means of accountability. They are often used to hold teachers and schools accountable
for their students’ learning. In these situations, certain summative assessments can cause more anxiety for teachers and
principals than it does for their students. This is magnified by the fact that the results of these assessments are routinely
published in the local media for the community. For better or worse, it is not unusual for the student achievement data
from a high stakes summative assessments to cause a principal to be transferred to a di erent assignment or a teacher to
be reassigned to teach a subject that is not required to undergo high stakes testing. The same type of data may also be
used to measure the e ectiveness of an instructional or curriculum department within a school or district.

One of the methods for establishing accountability is to compare the achievement of the students in a particular
program to students in an equivalent (or more unfairly, non-equivalent) program, such as a neighboring school or the
other teacher across the hall.

Although summative assessments do provide useful data, there are also several disadvantages. Probably the most
common misuse of a summative assessment is the over-reliance and dependence on these assessments to promote
learning. There are times when a test will serve to motivate a class or a student. However, tests by themselves are a weak
and usually temporary motivator for reluctant learners. Teachers who use quizzes and tests as the primary means for
generating student interest in the class are missing an opportunity to provide engaging instruction.

Summative assessments also draw criticism because of the pressure that is placed upon the students by high stakes
tests, such as one where passing or failing the exam will have a profound e ect on the student’s future. For instance, if a
student’s score on the SAT is not high enough, the student may not be able to attend their university of choice. When
overriding pressure is placed on certain students, they may resort to cheating on the test or avoiding the situation
completely. Either scenario is not a promising one for those students. Pressure of this type forces the teachers and
central administration to create excessive levels of security to prevent students, teachers, and administrators from
making poor decisions.

Associated with the pressure that is placed on students and teachers, is the assertion that high stakes summative
assessments force teachers to “teach to the test” to keep their students’ scores high. This criticism may be true in many
areas, especially if no guidance is provided to the teachers and the tests are poorly constructed. However, if the test is
based on the curriculum and is well constructed and secure, the teachers are unable to teach directly to the test. Instead
they teach students to master the curriculum so they can do well on the test that measures their mastery of the
curriculum.

There are a number of factors that a teacher must consider when using summative assessments:

Each summative assessment should target the teacher’s instructional objectives which are based on the
approved curriculum.

When planning a unit or sequence of lessons, the teacher should determine when a summative assessment is
most appropriate and what it should measure.

The teacher should create the assessment before beginning instruction for that unit of learning. Creating the
assessment first provides a more unbiased assessment of the students’ knowledge. When a teacher creates a test
after the instruction, it is sometimes di cult for the teacher to resist the temptation to de-emphasize a section of
the curriculum because the students might not perform well on that section. As a result, the scores are higher than
they should have been and the attention is not drawn to any areas where the students may need extra help. Another
reason to create the assessment before beginning instruction is to guide the teacher’s planning for that unit. This is
particularly helpful in terms of pacing the lesson and determining the depth of coverage.

Summative assessments should be comprehensive and represent measures of overall knowledge, skills, and/or
performance. They are most accurate when they aggregate data from a number of di erent sources. For instance,
relying on one test to determine a student’s grade for the year would be unprofessional. A wise teacher amasses data
throughout the learning cycle such as from quizzes, unit tests, and competitive performances, to determine the
grade for a particular child.

When using multiple sources of assessments to determine grades, the teacher should predetermine the
weighting of each assessment before instruction begins. The weighting of each particular component should reflect
established curricular priorities.

TEACHER TIP
It is unwise to change the weighting scheme once the instruction for a unit has begun. It is
even worse to change it after the first assessment.
Summative assessments generally address questions such as, “How well did the students learn the material? Was the
instruction e ective? Is this program or service worthy of continuation?” Further, summative assessments summarize the
development of learners at a particular time. The assessments are designed to measure learning as related to a specific
set of curricular topics and allows the teacher to assign a score that reflects the students’ achievement. Summative tests
may also be used as a diagnostic assessment to identify weaknesses for further lessons.

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Types of Assessments: Formative Assessments
Formative assessments are a common form of measurement and are based on the “formation” of a concept. In the
simplest terms, a formative assessment includes student practice with constructive feedback and leads to more
personalized student practice followed by more personalized feedback. The loop continues until the desired level of
student mastery is reached. The feedback provided by formative assessments is designed to help students become aware
of any gaps between their current knowledge and their educational goals. E ective feedback also helps students develop
a plan to reach their goals and can eliminate students’ errors before they become habitual.

Formative assessments can also be defined as the diagnostic use of assessments to provide feedback to teachers and
students for the purpose of providing better instruction so that individual students may reach proficiency. Therefore,
formative assessments are goal-directed, linked with instruction, and are typically embedded as part of a sequence of
lessons. Classroom examples of formative assessments include anecdotal records, practice tests, classwork, and self-
reflection activities. Since a formative assessment is considered practice, teachers do not necessarily count them for
grading purposes.

TEACHER TIP
A good way to distinguish between summative and formative assessments is to think of
summative assessments as assessments of learning and formative assessments as
assessments for learning.

There are several conditions teachers must consider when implementing formative assessments as an instructional
component of a lesson plan:

The instructional expectations must be based on the approved curriculum.

The teacher must identify and share the achievement goals with the students in a way that they will understand.
It is also helpful to provide examples of exemplary student work as a model or thought-starter.

When employing direct instruction, teachers should include a series of guided practice events with informative
feedback as a formative assessment of that instruction.
 Within a series of formative assessments, the teacher can choose to have the students complete several self-
assessments as part of the series.

TEACHER TIP
Self-assessments allow the students the opportunity to assume greater control over their
learning. They also a ord greater privacy and honesty than a more public event might
produce.

Another aspect of formative assessments are that they allow the teacher and students to assume di erent roles. In the
assessment for learning process, the teacher and students may become more interactive than a more traditional and
distant approach.

During formative assessments, the teacher’s role changes so that the teacher works more closely with individual students
to construct lessons targeting their areas of need based on the data generated by the formative assessment. To get to
that point, the teacher determines appropriate locations for formative assessments and then allocates time for them
within the lesson plan. Based on the results of the formative assessments, the teacher may di erentiate his or her
approach among the students by selecting new or advanced learning opportunities for certain students and re-teaching
some material using a new strategy for other students. The teacher may also decide to use additional formative
assessments to monitor the growth of the entire class.

The students’ role morphs into one where they become more involved with their own learning. Since they are able to
analyze the results of their own formative assessments, they can and should have a voice in what steps are necessary for
their continued development. It is helpful if the students are able to see a model or an example of the completed product
or the desired level of mastery so they can visualize the pathway that links their current level to the desired level. As the
students become more proficient in analyzing their own situation and constructing bridges to their desired goal, they will
be gaining valuable maturity which will help them to assume even greater control over their own destiny. When student
are more involved with their own learning, they are more apt to learn from their mistakes and realize ways to do it better
next time. These lessons may even be greater than the content they are trying to master.

When using formative assessments, both the teacher and students become consumers of the data generated by the
event. Within that relationship, an interesting instructional association should develop where the teacher and students
share the responsibility for learning to a greater extent than traditional models have allowed. When students do take
partial responsibility, this presents an opportunity for the teacher to become more of a facilitator of learning rather than
just a provider.

Yet, in order for this to occur, students must receive useful feedback regarding their performance. Feedback should be
personalized and specific to the expectations for that area of study. An example of ine ective feedback would be a
situation where the teacher informs the class that 35% of the students got question number 5 incorrect or that there were
12 “A” grades on the last test. This type of information may serve another purpose, but it does not help an individual
student understand what he or she did wrong or how to make improvements before the next exam.

E ective feedback is one that connects the individual student with the exact area that needs improvement as well as
those areas where the student is considered proficient. For instance, a teacher may inform a student that he performed
well on the last arithmetic practice test and showed that he has mastered adding single column numbers, but that he
needs to develop a plan to improve his ability to subtract single column numbers.

In order for formative assessments to be most e ective, the feedback must be as specific as possible and should become
the foundation for future learning events.

TEACHER TIP
One of the goals of education should be to transition students from dependence upon the
teacher to interdependence upon peers to independence and self-regulation. Students will
need to know how to use all forms of assistance wisely.

While formative assessments are great tools, there are several ways that teachers commonly misuse them. Probably the
most common is to weight a student’s grade with data primarily from formative assessments. Formative assessments are
a form of practice. Whereas a teacher may be able to derive a score from a formative assessment, it should not be
considered in the same manner as a score from a summative assessment. Scoring practice events would be similar to
assessing a baby’s ability to walk based on her first shaky steps. Although success comes in time, the first several
attempts are not going to be confident and polished…and there may even be a few falls.

Another misconception about formative assessments is that they can stand alone and still provide an e ective remedy
for students’ shortcomings. Arranging a formative assessment is merely one step in creating a comprehensive
assessment-instruction system. Formative assessments work best when they are a natural outgrowth of classroom
teaching and provide the teacher and student with renewed direction for continued growth. The teacher and student
must analyze and understand the results before they can create or continue the pathway to mastery. A formative
assessment without the supporting components becomes a summative test and loses the value unique to formatives.

Yet another misuse of formative assessments is when teachers rely too heavily on them. It is a good idea to provide
frequent formative assessments to help guide instruction. However, a formative followed by another formative is like
measuring the measuring. It does not allow for the students to receive appropriate instruction before the next
assessment. Once an instructional scheme has been developed based on the data generated from a formative
assessment, a student must engage in learning before it is practical to measure if the student has learned anything.

Finally, teachers sometimes express reluctance to use formative assessments because they feel they are losing control of
the instructional delivery system. For instance, whenever a student is allowed to self-assess or a peer is allowed to review
a formative assessment and provide instructional feedback, the teacher is left out of the loop. Yes, this is true. It is also a
good thing. The teacher retains control of the overall direction, monitors student achievement, and advances learning by
empowering the learner.

When used properly, formative assessments can develop into a self-reflective process for students that encourages their
involvement, especially when the feedback from learning activities is actually used to adapt the instruction to meet the
learners’ needs. Formative assessments promote student learning and in particular, deep learning. As such, they are
intertwined with instructional pedagogy.

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Types of Assessments: Ipsative Assessment
An ipsative assessment is a type of assessment in which the student is compared to his best previous attempt within the
same curricular concepts. It is also known as a “profiling” type of test. Typically ipsative assessments draw characteristics
from both summative and formative assessments. For instance, students may receive a grade for their e orts while the
assessment yields data that is helpful in preparation for the next assessment over the same material, skill, or process.

TEACHER TIP
It is important to remember to measure student growth within the same curricular
concepts. For instance, comparing a student’s performance on the photosynthesis test with
their results on the cell structure test is not ipsative.

Ipsative assessments have several characteristics that make them unique and particularly useful to the classroom
teacher. One of the benefits of ipsative assessments is the ease by which the students are able to compare their results
with their existing “personal best” within that domain. This unique feature promotes ipsative referencing as a type of
self-reflection in which the interpretation of the data is done by the student. Teachers also use ipsative assessments as
practice events leading to a demonstration of mastery. This instructional approach is useful as long as the student is
making satisfactory progress and consistently surpassing his previous personal best performance.

Ipsative type assessments can be used to motivate and challenge a student to continue to improve. This type of self-
competition removes excessive peer pressure and is especially successful with reluctant learners and students with
learning disabilities. Another related benefit occurs when the student analyzes his own progress and sets realistic goals
and steps for achieving those goals. As a result, student self-determination is escalated. As students become more aware
of their own progress and learning styles, they can self-diagnose and provide a personalized plan for reaching or
exceeding personal and curricular expectations.

TEACHER TIP
Ipsative assessments are the norm in competitive events, such as athletic or musical
contests. The concept of trying to improve on a previous e ort is the same in academics as
 athletics.

There are situations in which ipsative assessments may not be practical nor make good instructional practice. By
definition, ipsative events are somewhat personal because they compare a student to himself. Therefore it is not a
standard procedure to compare the results of di erent students. In this sense an ipsative assessment is like a cross
country runner who runs every race to beat her own previous best time.

Teachers must also remain vigilant regarding the pacing of the lessons. Excessive use of ipsative assessments may
consume a large amount of time that will be needed later to complete the entire curriculum. There may be some
situations whereby certain students increase their achievement at such a slow pace that the time available will run out
before they have maximized their opportunity. To guard against this, the teacher is advised to determine the length of
time available for teaching a particular concept and then plan ipsative assessments within that time constraint.
Additional instructional initiatives may be necessary to extend the learning time for students who are unable to meet the
pacing demands of the curriculum.

Another consideration for the teacher is how to grade student e ort on a series of ipsative assessments. Should the
teacher count each one or wait until the student has reached his high mark and then count that one? The answer lies in
how the teacher visualizes the ipsative assessment series. Are the assessments designed as practice (formative) or are
they intended as a final measure of student performance (summative)? If formative, then the teacher may choose not to
count some or all of the assessments. If summative, then the teacher will likely count all of them.

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Types of Assessments: Diagnostic Assessments
A diagnostic assessment is one that looks back on prior student learning and provides data that connects to new
learning. A diagnostic assessment allows a teacher to make judgments regarding how well a student is performing or is
likely to perform on a particular curricular topic. Diagnostic assessments are useful to ascertain each student’s strengths,
weaknesses, knowledge, and skills prior to instruction of that curricular sequence. Once the data is available the teachers
can then remediate students and/or adjust the instructional sequence to meet the specified needs of each student. The
data from a diagnostic assessment can also be used to create an instructional target or goal for the students.

Diagnostic assessments are similar to summative assessments in that they are both formal and identify students’
achievement in reference to pre-determined standards. Like formative assessments they presume that an instructional
component will connect the needs identified by the assessments with future student growth. In other words, the teacher
is expected to adjust lesson components and di erentiate lessons as needed in response to the data generated by these
assessments. Diagnostic assessments are unique in that they can be used to track student performance, evaluate
curriculum, and measure the e ectiveness of value-added components in a non-summative manner.

Like other assessments, diagnostic assessments should be conceived during the initial planning stages for a curricular
segment. Several fundamental questions need an answer during this initial planning stage:
 Is there currently a diagnostic available for this unit?

What is the purpose of the diagnostic assessment?

What will you do with the results?

Thoughtful answers to these questions may determine where and when a diagnostic assessment would be most
advantageous in the lesson sequence. The answers may also indicate that the school or class may not have the
infrastructure in place to support such an initiative. Fortunately, in a number of schools, diagnostic exams are currently
available that have a proven track record and are a useful addition to the overall instructional scheme. When these are
absent, the teacher may wish to survey the plethora of existing vendors for a useful tool. An internet search will reveal
many proprietary tests to assess virtually any skill or content area. When all else fails, the teacher may have to construct
the diagnostic assessment.

The usefulness of diagnostic data is magnified if it becomes PROFESSIONAL INSIGHT

incorporated into a historical measure of student performance Make friends with the teacher that feeds
over time. Schools that utilize a comprehensive assessment- students into your class or program. This will
instruction system maintain diagnostic records for every help make sure that the flow of diagnostic and
student for the entire time the student is in that school and other assessment information is smooth. Expect

school system. As diagnostic data becomes more reliable and to be contacted by the teacher that receives any
of your students. Open communication between
precise, the principal or teachers may decide that the results
teachers is instrumental in eliminating doubt,
indicate that a class reorganization may be helpful with an
uncertainty, and repetition.
accompanying redeployment of sta .

When using diagnostic exams, it is important to understand their limitations. First of all, the teacher should clearly
identify what is to be measured and make sure that the selected assessment is designed to measure that factor. Often
diagnostic tests are given as a pre-test for a curricular unit to determine the entry level knowledge and establish baseline
data about the students for measuring their growth. The information gained can become a baseline only if the diagnostic
exam is a true representation of future learning. Little useful information is gained if the test is invalid, biased, or
inconsistent with curricular intentions. Analyzing and acting on poor data can make a bad situation worse.

Consider the situation where a bright student is penalized because of a low diagnostic test score because he came from a
feeder school that did not emphasize that part of the curriculum. Try to avoid labeling students based only on diagnostic
exam results. Tests created by the teacher may be better than the tests created by outside vendors, but teachers are
advised to create a historical record of proven results before heavily weighting the diagnostic data while making critical
judgments.

Review Questions
What are your strategies for incorporating formative assessments into your classroom? What about summative
assessments? How will these strategies influence one another, if at all?

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Introduction to Assessment Part II

Objective
In this workshop, you will familiarize yourself with the concept of classroom assessment. You will develop the ability to
discuss the purposes and uses of di erent types of assessments, the conditions for quality assessments, and multiple
modes of classroom assessment. The video will summarize concepts from the written lessons and provide tips for writing
strong assessment items.

This lesson will continue reviewing types of assessments, including:

Performance

Criterion-Reference

Norm-Referenced

Then, we will explore the factors that are used to evaluate and ensure the quality of assessment instruments:

Validity

Reliability

Bias

Types of Assessments
In this lesson, we will continue exploring a few di erent types of assessments that you may come into contact with during
your teaching career or choose to utilize in your own classroom.

Types of Assessments: Performance Assessments

A performance based assessment, which may also be referred to as an authentic or alternative assessment, is a form of
testing where the assessment is not a traditional paper and pencil test, but rather an exhibition of skills. The tasks are
typically based on real-life (authentic) scenarios or are career-specific, and require the application of the requisite skills
and knowledge for that task. Performance assessments are popular because the students can actively demonstrate what
they know rather than select an answer from a given list. Therefore, performance assessments can feel like a truer
indicator of the student’s actual knowledge and ability level than more traditional tests.

TEACHER TIP
Testing is often done to the student, but performance assessments are done by the
student.

Performance assessments open a vast array of assessment types for use by the teacher. For instance, performance tasks
may include open-ended questions, hands-on problem solving, cartoons, experiments, inventions, musical compositions,
original plays, stories, dances, essays, and story illustrations. In certain classes, performance assessments are also called
lab practicums because the students are required to demonstrate how to correctly use the equipment specific to that
program.

A performance assessment consists of two parts, an authentic task and a rubric, or scoring criteria. To construct a
performance assessment, the teacher identifies a well-defined task that requires the students to create, make, or do
something that is within the intent of the curriculum and normal classroom instruction. The teacher then creates a
holistic set of scoring criteria or a rubric that is based on curricular standards. This is used so that students’ responses
are assessed using the approved curriculum and the common classroom procedures.

The best performance tasks allow the students to apply an array of curriculum-related skills and knowledge in a creative
manner that is a personalized response to the assessment. This also assumes that there are multiple methods for
defining a correct answer. The teacher might also design the assessment so that students search out additional facts or
information or try novel approaches to elaborate or extend an answer.

It is important for the teacher to do a final review of the task design before asking the students to begin working. The final
review must include a thorough analysis to prevent technical constraints and/or equity issues and bias. The task must be
fair to all students. Then teachers with training in holistic rubric scoring judge the quality of the students’ work based on
the established standards.

Well constructed performance tasks appear more like a normal classroom activity than a test. Tasks that are embedded
into and align with the intent of the curriculum demonstrate the assessment-instruction feedback loop.

TEACHER TIP
 The simple way to create a performance assessment is to take a proven, existing activity,
create a rubric, and refer to it as a performance assessment.

There are many instructionally significant reasons to implement performance assessments as part of the assessment-
instruction system. Performance assessments tend to engage the students more than traditional paper and pencil tests.
As a result, the students are more diligent and show greater motivation in their preparation. Likewise, the lesson planning
that leads to a performance exam tends to involve more active learning than the lecture and review type of lesson that is
used to prepare students for other types of tests. Students that are actively engaged in learning tend to be more
interested and motivated than students who have a more passive learning experience.

Teachers also tend to feel that the data collected from a performance task is more representative of the students’ true
knowledge. There is rarely a way that students can guess the correct answer using a performance assessment and all of
the information must typically be generated by the student. In this way, they separate those students who have studied
and prepared for the event from those who may have taken shortcuts. Performance assessments di er from most other
assessments because they allow great student freedom in constructing responses that require higher order and/or
analytical thinking. Students will generally respond more creatively with greater depth and detail when they are not
limited by a prompt. Another value of performance assessments is that they can be collected over time as evidence of
the growth, mastery or achievement of curricular goals.

Yet, for all of the good that comes with performance assessments, there are also several items to consider during the
planning stage:

The amount of time required to complete the testing sequence. Although traditional tests can usually be
completed during the time allotted for a normal class session, more elaborate tasks may require multiple sessions.

The amount of time needed to score the tasks. It will most likely require a lot more time to score a performance
assessment than just running a set of answer sheets through the scanner. In some cases, the scoring will take
significantly longer than the actual assessment. When this happens, providing the students with immediate and
informative feedback is not realistic.

Knowing how to use rubrics and holistic scoring prior to the event. Often a team of teachers will score a common
assessment in a round-table format so that they have the opportunity to discuss borderline student answers and
create a continually-refined and common understanding as the process unfolds. In addition, anchor papers or
exemplary models are needed to help standardize the inter-rater reliability and scoring consistency if multiple
teachers are scoring the same assessment.

Some students may not score well because they are not accustomed to a performance assessment. Students
might not know what to expect and will not adequately prepare for the activity. In cases like this, the students may
feel the tasks are unfair. To prevent this, teachers are advised to keep their instruction and performance
assessments similar and to communicate that similarity to the students. It is also a good idea to inform the students
 ahead of time as to what the task entails and explain the standards that will be used to evaluate their performance.
This will require a careful description of the elements that will be expected for a proficient response.

Performance assessments add a useful dimension to the assessment-instruction system which gives students more
freedom in constructing and elaborating their responses to the stimulus. Like the other types of assessment we have
covered, performance assessments can also drive future instructional experiences and provide students with the
opportunity to self-reflect about their learning.

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Types of Assessments: Criterion-Referenced Assessments
A criterion-referenced assessment is one that measures students’ success in reference to defined standards, or criteria. A
criterion-referenced test is typically utilized in the classroom to determine how well students have mastered a particular
curricular unit or standard and the students’ scores will reflect their level of mastery. The results of a criterion-referenced
assessment are not determined by how well a student scored in relation to the other students taking the same exam.
However, criterion-referenced assessment may be used to compare students’ results by criterion if they completed the
same exam, such as a statewide exam in a particular subject area.

There are several instructional advantages a orded by criterion-referenced exams that teachers can utilize to maximize
their benefits. First, since the students are working to accomplish mastery of a criterion and not working against each
other, the students can work in teams, or the teacher can form cooperative groups. A lack of competition between
students presents an opportunity for the students to work and study together for the benefit of everyone.

A criterion-referenced assessment also allows the teacher to clearly define the objectives and goals for the students and
create instructional ladders or steps for each student to reach those expectations. The teacher should make the goals as
obvious as possible and note their importance. Teachers should also provide their students with an understanding of
criterion-referenced tests if they are unaccustomed to taking them. Once the goal is clearly understood by the students,
they can assist in the development and implementation of instructional activities. In essence, they will know where they
are and where they have to be to reach mastery, so it becomes a matter of connecting the dots.

A criterion-referenced assessment may not work in every situation. On a true criterion-referenced exam, all of the
students may fail or they may all earn a perfect score. In the simplest terms, the students either make it to proficiency or
they do not.

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Types of Assessments: Norm-Referenced Assessments
A norm-referenced assessment, which is also known as a cohort-referenced assessment, does not measure student
success against a defined standard or criteria, but against the achievement of the other students who took the test. This
is also known as “grading on the curve” or “curving” the test results. When curving the test results, the top scoring
students always get an “A” (or some other indication of a high mark) and the rest of the students receive scores based on
how well they scored on the assessment relative to the top scoring students. That way, no matter how well or poorly the
students demonstrated achievement, a set number or percentage of the students, such as 15% of the class, will always
score an “A,” a set number or percentage will receive a “B,” and so on. Thus, the results of norm-referenced assessments
rank students in comparison to other students who took the same test. The IQ test is one of the best known norm-
referenced assessments.

Teachers use norm-referenced tests because of several unique benefits. First, norm-referenced tests are considered more
fair or compassionate because they guarantee that a prescribed number of students will be successful regardless of the
ability of the students, teacher, or institution. It is well known that students and parents of students who score well in a
particular class will have very few negative comments to make. Thus, curving scores can minimize problems for the
teacher. Norm-referenced tests are also useful whenever the teacher wants the students to understand how their scores
compared to the remainder of the cohort who took the same assessment. In some cases, this is very motivational for the
students. The teacher can also use a series of norm-referenced tests to move students toward a standard in such a way
that the students do not feel hopeless or defeated based on the results of the test.

Recently norm-referenced tests have received criticism. By definition, a norm-referenced assessment does not measure
achievement with respect to a standard, so the assessment is seldom linked to lesson planning or mastery learning.
Teachers can curve a benchmark test showing how well the class is progressing and, after the test, the teacher can begin
the next unit of study regardless of how well the students performed.

With norm-referenced tests, it is not uncommon to find that students will be unwilling to work together or cooperate to
help other students learn. From a student’s perspective, it may seem disadvantageous to help another student in the
same cohort. This type of behavior is obviously not very helpful in promoting the overall success of the class.

In response to standardized and high-stakes testing, teachers have moved away from a reliance on norm-referenced tests.
With the loss of the protective umbrella provided by norm-referenced tests, teachers and schools have developed better
pedagogy to di erentiate instruction so that all students can learn.

Evaluating the Quality of Assessments

We have already noted the importance of and the many reasons for using assessments in the classroom. Assessments
can target instructional needs, communicate valuable information about a student’s progress, and can indicate a
student’s mastery of curricular content. However, this information will only be useful if teachers are using quality
assessment tools. Poor assessments provide poor data, send teachers down the wrong path, and can harm students by
misrepresenting their needs and skill levels. We will now discuss the conditions that are often used to evaluate and
ensure the quality of assessment instruments.

Validity
There are many types of validity but the most common in educational assessments is content validity. The best definition
of content validity is also the simplest: a valid assessment is one that measures what it is intended to measure. Validity is
concerned with what exactly is being measured and more importantly, what the results of the assessment mean. As a silly
example, a teacher would not assess the proficiency of a student regarding a social studies lesson using the results of a
math test.

In the technical sense, validity refers to the appropriateness of the interpretation of the assessment results and not to the
assessment instrument. As such, validity is considered in relation to the specified use of the assessment. For instance, a
social studies assessment will have a high validity index if it measures what has been taught in the class. It may also have
a degree of validity for predicting how well the students will do in the next social studies course. However, the validity
would be suspect in determining how well the same student will do in a mathematics course.

For the teacher, the use of valid assessments is critical. Decisions regarding students, lesson planning, and special
initiatives presume valid assessments. Within the classroom, teachers must be sure that the assessment of a particular
curricular unit is reflective of the weight and importance given during the instruction on those particular topics. Heavily
weighting students’ responses on a miniscule item is not as valid as scoring in proportion to the importance of the item.
A good rule of thumb is to construct the assessments to represent an adequate sampling of the knowledge and skills
taught in that course.

Testing students in a modality di erent from their classroom training will also have a low validity. As an example, if
students were asked to write extended essay-type responses to open-ended sample questions during the instruction
which allowed them the freedom to express themselves in their answer, then a multiple choice test over the same
material will have a lower validity. The same would be true of a mathematics test that contained large amounts of reading
material.

TEACHER TIP
Never hold students accountable for content on an assessment that was not part of the
instruction. It is also di cult to justify a low score on a test or test question for material
that is not within the confines of the approved curriculum.

Reliability
Reliability relates to the ability of an assessment to replicate the same results. It is a measure of test consistency. A
reliable assessment is one which provides the same data with the same or a similar cohort of students and is consistent
in its methods and criteria. To demonstrate a perfectly reliable test, a teacher would have to give his students the same
test twice and have the students get the exact same score. This example assumes that the students would not remember
anything from the first administration of the test, which is highly unlikely in most classroom situations.
It should be known that all measurements, whether measuring the length of a chalkboard or a student’s mastery, are not
perfectly reliable. As an example, if we wanted to determine the accuracy of an instrument for measuring the length of a
chalkboard, we would take lots of measurements with that instrument. Typically, these measurements would vary slightly
at the smallest increments, but would cluster around a prominent value. The cluster of measurements would be the
reliability of that instrument. We can assume that the chalkboard did not change in length between measurements.
However, this assumption cannot be made in educational circles because the students will always grow, mature, learn
more, or change in some way. Therefore reliability is even more elusive in the classroom.

There are a number of variables that a ect the reliability of an educational instrument. The students themselves will
a ect the reliability. They may be having a good day or a bad day which could a ect their performance on a test and
therefore, change its reliability. The test may be unreliable because it contains ambiguous questions, unclear or no
directions, faulty scoring criteria, or is too long or short.

Bias
A biased test is one in which the presence of some characteristic may unfairly influence the students’ scores. A biased
test question results in an inconsistent performance for certain individuals or groups of the same ability level, but from
di erent ethnic, gender, cultural, or religious populations. There are typically three types of biases that characterize
educational assessments: fairness, prejudice, and stereotyping.

A fair test provides everyone with an equal chance of getting a good assessment of their achievement. There are several
things that a teacher can do to avoid an unfair test. The teacher can analyze each test item to make sure that:

It does not include any non-essential vocabulary that will be challenging or unfamiliar to the students

It does not present a situation that is unlikely for certain students to experience or to which only certain students
may have had prior access

It is equally familiar to all students

It is not too lengthy

There are many forms of prejudice that may bias an assessment. A test question would be prejudiced if it contains
content, language, or situations that o er an advantage or disadvantage to subpopulations of the class. It may also be
prejudiced if it contains an item structure or format that is di erentially di cult for certain students. For instance, an
assessment where students are scored on how much weight they can lift is prejudiced in favor of boys.

Stereotyping is a situation whereby a test question may be o ensive, contain negative connotations, or is historically-
charged. Although the presence of stereotyping may not make the item any harder or easier, it may upset certain
students and a ect their performance on the assessment. Teachers should make sure to avoid items that create an
unfavorable representation of a particular group, depict members of a population in an unfavorable light, or make
unnecessary assumptions about gender roles, such as using “businessman” instead of “businessperson.”

If data is collected from a biased assessment, it will be skewed and the teacher should be very careful how the data is
used, if at all.

TEACHER TIP
To remove the teacher as a source of bias, it is helpful to ask neutral teachers to conduct a
sensitivity review to eliminate potential bias in the questions’ construction. It also helps to
have multiple scorers rate each student’s assessment, or to create anonymous student
answer sheets for scoring to minimize teacher scoring bias on subjective questions.

Review Questions
1. What can teachers do to make sure that their traditional pencil and paper assessments are valid, reliable, and
unbiased?

2. How might these steps change for a performance assessment?

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Modes of Classroom Assessment

Objective
In this workshop, you will familiarize yourself with the concept of classroom assessment. You will develop the ability to
discuss the purposes and uses of di erent types of assessments, the conditions for quality assessments, and multiple
modes of classroom assessment. The video at the end of this unit will summarize concepts from the written lessons and
provide tips for writing strong assessment items.

This lesson will list modes and item types for traditional, non-traditional, and informal assessments. Specifically, we will
look at:

Traditional Assessments
Selected Response

True or False

Matching

Essay or Constructed Response

Lab Sets or Ordered Sets

Oral Exams

Recitation

Take-Home Exams

Open Book Exams

Portfolios

Projects

Non-traditional Assessments
Paired Testing
 Reworking on the Board

Piggyback

Round Robin Responses

Interview

Informal Assessments
Questioning

Flash Cards

Exit Slips

Thumbs

Minute Paper

Typical Classroom Assessments

There are a number of modes and item types that teachers often use for their classroom assessments. We will review
some advantages and special considerations that accompany each one.

Selected Response
Selected response (also known as multiple choice) questions are among the most common question or item types. A
selected response question asks the students to select the correct answer from a series of possible correct answers in
response to an introductory statement, which is also called a stem. Typically the students are confronted with four or five
possible answers and their task is to select the correct one instead of having to generate a response from memory.
Selected response questions are considered objective assessments because there is only one correct answer.

Selected response questions o er many advantages for the classroom teacher:

They are easy to score. Multiple choice questions have become very popular because of the proliferation of
machine scoring. Computer scoring also allows for an advanced statistical analysis of the data. This type of analysis
will indicate areas of student strengths and weaknesses as well as provide an item analysis for each question.

Teachers can create di erent degrees of di culty. For instance, the teacher can include simple recall or
memorization questions while also including more di cult questions that require a synthesis or evaluation of facts
or details.

Distractors (meaning the wrong answer choices) can be worded to indicate student misconceptions. This can
help teachers determine if a particular concept is well understood and isolate any areas or concepts that may be
confusing or troublesome for students.
 Multiple choice short quizzes make good formative assessments to quickly determine if the students are
progressing at an acceptable level.

Teachers can include a range of questions that assess an entire curricular unit in both a summative and
formative style.

Teachers can minimize the disadvantage felt by poor readers or non-English speaking students by adjusting the
question stem.

There are several limitations to selected response questions as well. The one that most students recognize is that the
correct answer is in there somewhere. Savvy test takers can eliminate one or more of the distractors and then guess
between the remaining two or three choices. This is important because if there are four possible answers on a test, then
the student has a 25% chance of guessing the correct answer. If the student can eliminate one or two of the distractors,
the odds may become 50-50.

It also takes time to create good multiple choice questions. A good question must be consistent with the approved
curriculum, written without bias, and include reasonable distractors that are neither too close to the correct answer nor
too unrelated to not be considered a possibility. Because of the time involved in creating questions that assess advanced
thinking, teachers often rely too much on factual recall questions. Students are quick to figure this out and they may limit
their preparation to just enough to do well on the test. They may not develop a deeper understanding of the material just
because it will not be measured on the test.

An additional disadvantage of selected response questions is that they do not measure or allow for the creativity of the
students.

TEACHER TIP
It takes longer to write selected response questions that assess higher level thinking than
would be expected. It may be helpful to write a few of your own and then, search the web
and consult with your peers for additional questions. You should continue to add to your
item bank which you can tap into again and again.

True or False
True or false questions are a common type of question. A question of this type is one in which the student is required to
determine whether the question stem or statement is a falsification or not. Like multiple choice questions, true or false
questions are also considered objective assessments because there is only one correct answer. This type of exam is not
considered very reliable or informative since the students have a 50-50 chance of guessing the correct answer. In some
cases, the degree of e ectiveness can be increased by asking the students to make each false statement into a correct
statement or by having the student write an explanation for each answer for why the question is true or false.
True or false question types can be very e ective if the question is measuring dichotomous information. True or false
questions are also teacher-friendly because they are among the easiest to write and can be used as a springboard to an
instructional event.

Matching
Matching type questions are objective assessments that require a student to correctly identify, link, or “match” the
relationship between two items. Typically matching questions provide two sets of items for the students to analyze.
Virtually any items can be used to create a matching question, but typical examples include vocabulary words and
definitions, cause and e ect relationships, tools/instruments and their uses, or dates and events. Matching questions are
able to cover expansive amounts of curriculum while minimizing students’ ability to guess correctly compared to
traditional multiple choice questions. The likelihood of guessing a correct answer is decreased as the length of the item
sets increases. It can be further decreased when one of the item sets is larger than the other or by allowing answers to be
used more than once. Therefore, the students cannot better their chances just by eliminating possible answers from the
answer pool.

Matching questions measure recognition but are not especially good at measuring multiple step problems or creative
thinking.

Essay or Constructed Response

Most students think essay-type questions are the most di cult because the student has to generate the correct answer
since it is not given somewhere in the question stem. Essays and constructed responses are considered subjective
assessments because there is more than one correct answer or more than one way to express the correct answer. They
require students to think through their answer and perhaps write a rough draft before writing a final draft. Students are
often prompted to study more in preparation for an essay-type exam.

From a teacher’s perspective, essay-type questions reveal more insightful data about the student than other types of
traditional assessments. They enable the teacher to evaluate a student’s ability to solve problems, organize, integrate,
analyze, and apply concepts in their own words. Essay questions allow the teacher to assess all six levels of Bloom’s
Taxonomy.

There are two variations on the essay-type question that are common and useful to the classroom teacher. The short
answer question is one in which the teacher is looking for an answer within a paragraph or less. This contains most of the
benefits of the longer essay-type question but is more limited in scope. Short answer questions should be designed so
that they can be successfully answered within the time given and response limitations. Another variation is the mock or
incorrect answer. In this type of question, the teacher presents incorrect answers for the students to repair.

One of the drawbacks to essay questions is the amount of time it takes to score them. Yet, though they take longer than
most other types of questions, they reveal a lot of useful information about the learner. Other considerations about essay
questions include how to ensure grading consistency among your students and whether and how much spelling and
grammar will a ect students’ scores. Finally, think what might occur if a student writes an answer that is correct, but is
di erent than the teacher’s goal or expectation for what the question was supposed to measure. How will this a ect this
student’s score and what should be the teacher’s response? These are questions that teachers should consider before
giving students essay assessments.

Lab Sets or Ordered Sets

A lab set (which is also known as an ordered set or a problem set) is a series of questions based upon and related to a
single stimulus. The types of stimuli vary but generally fall into one of the following categories: mathematical solutions,
technical reading passages, graphics or illustrations, or processes or experiments. For instance, a student may be
required to read a narrative that describes a laboratory investigation. The questions that follow may ask the students to
identify the purpose, the independent variable, the control, all sources of error, and predict the type of graph needed to
correctly display the data while using the information from the passage. Typically lab sets are used by science and
mathematics teachers although their usefulness should extend into other disciplines.

Lab sets allow the teacher to assess students for a number of discrete items by using a single stimulus. The teacher can
adjust the range of question types to elicit almost any type of thinking. As an example, an ordered set may require the
students to write an essay or complete multiple choice problems. This type of problem also allows the teacher to “dry
lab” or try out an experiment to save the time and cost of actually doing the experiment to determine if the students can
transfer understanding from a similar “wet lab” or hands-on experience.

Oral Exams
Oral exams have long been the domain of foreign language and reading teachers, but should be considered as an option
for almost all subject areas. If a teacher wants to know how much or to what extent a student understands a curricular
topic, one of the best ways is to ask the student directly. This may be as informal as a question in class or a more formal
arrangement where the questions are prepared in advance and may require models to successfully respond to the exam.
The teacher also has the opportunity to ask follow-up questions to pursue answers to a deeper level and to clarify
student thinking.

Oral exams tend to be a strong instructional motivator for students. However, most students do not initially like oral
exams for the same reasons that they do not like essay questions: they have to produce the correct answer without any
hints from the answer choices. Oral exams also cause additional anxiety in that the oral exam is typically face-to-face with
the teacher and may be in full view of the remainder of the student body. Yet, once students become accustomed to oral
exams, they generally prefer them to more traditional exams because they are often better able to explain their answer
and the amount of reading and writing is minimized.

When preparing for an oral exam, the teacher needs to determine if the event is to be public so that other students can
hear and learn from their peers, or if it will be more private to make the students feel more comfortable. If the teacher
prefers a more private setting, the remainder of the class will have to have an assignment to work on while the oral testing
is occurring. Time is also a factor in that oral exams take longer if each student in the class must have a turn.
Teachers often use formative oral quizzes to determine if/when the students are ready for a summative exam. From the
teacher’s perspective, they are a definitive means to determine the strengths and weaknesses of a student.

TEACHER TIP
There is an instructional advantage to public oral testing in that most students will listen
intently to their peers’ answers while waiting and preparing for their turn. This repetition
promotes mastery learning. However, students who go last have a decided advantage.

Recitation
Similar to an oral exam, recitation is a type of discourse where the teacher asks questions, the students respond, and the
teacher judges the quality of their answers. While this is typical in most traditional classrooms, recitation is a quick way to
determine if the students understand a topic.

Take-Home
Take home tests o er a unique characteristic in assessing students because they allow the students the freedom of
unlimited resources, outside help, and a lengthened time frame for completing an answer. In the simplest form, a take-
home exam is one where the teacher creates an assessment and then allows the students to work on solving the problem
for an predetermined amount of time outside of class. The students are then free to work together, draw upon
professional expertise, and think creatively. Of course, the teacher knows this in advance and expects each student to
complete the task at a mastery level. A variation on this question type is to require the students to complete several
questions as a take-home event and then the teacher selects one question as an in-class assessment.

Take home exams give the teacher the freedom to ask a variety of question types at multiple levels of rigor and to expect
that the answers will reflect genuine understanding. Most teachers appreciate the instructional value of take home tests
and use them to interlock instruction and assessment.

Teachers should provide their students with a clear understanding of the rules because students may become very
creative with take home exams. For instance, imagine if all of the students’ answers appear to be identical. To preempt
these types of situations, teachers should determine what they will and will not accept for take home exams and clearly
present this to the class before the exam is administered.

Open Book
Most students love the thought of an open book test until they have to take one. An open book test is one where the
teacher allows the students to use their textbook and often any notes or other resources during a test. Typically students
assume that they will be able to look up every answer and receive a mastery score for their e orts. Because of this,
students often spend their time searching and marking the location of vocabulary words and other curricular topics in
the textbook as opposed to actually learning them. On test day, those students who know the material tend to do much
better than those students who have to look up every or most of the questions because their time is up before they are
able to complete the task.

However, teachers can and should advise their students about open book tests before they administer them. From a
student’s perspective, an open book test should be retitled as a book-assisted test. Students should understand that
their best strategy is to only reference the text for those questions that they absolutely need help in solving. In that way,
the students prepare for the assessment with the same rigor that they would apply to a standard assessment.

A variation on this type of assessment is the professional scenario technique. The premise behind the professional
scenario technique is that students are placed in a simulated real-life or authentic career situation. Students are allowed
to use multiple resources to solve problems and write reports or memos. Open book activities or tests can also be used
as instructional components and may be used to link instruction with assessment.

Portfolios
A portfolio is a purposeful selection of student work that exhibits the student’s e ort, progress, and achievements in a
curricular area. The portfolio is personalized for each student and is designed to portray the student within the confines
of the curriculum. When using the portfolio technique, teachers should clearly explain the purpose of the portfolio and
inform the students if a particular event may be included in their personalized portfolio. Students should be encouraged
to be invested in the process and participate in the selection of the portfolio’s contents.

There are several characteristics of portfolios which make them unique and useful to the teacher:

Portfolios are designed so that the teacher is able to work directly with the students. This attribute promotes
discussion and increases student-teacher interaction.

They are e ective at displaying student growth over time. This allows the classroom teacher and other interested
parties to make decisions based on a history of evidence.

They allow students to recognize their own growth.

They empower students to assume greater responsibility for their own learning which is often a motivator for
reluctant learners.

Portfolios allow the teacher to assess the students using a variety of techniques and formats, including
performances and open-ended problem solving strategies.

They are often considered to be a more representative sample of the students’ true level of achievement for a
particular area.

Note that developing a portfolio style of assessment will require extra class time to explain the concept to the students
and then to rate each item individually with the student.
 TEACHER TIP
It is a good idea to inform administrators and parents before you implement a portfolio-
based assessment plan, especially if you are the first teacher to propose the idea.

Projects
Projects allow students a degree of freedom in investigating, compiling, and displaying a particular topic in a style that
represents a personal flair. Teachers establish the boundaries for the project, such as the curricular goal, due date, extent
of research, and allowable materials. Then the students are free to construct their project within these parameters.

Projects are a great way to allow students to pursue their personal interests within the umbrella of a curricular topic.
Often students engage their topic in far greater detail than what is required by the curriculum and may develop a
particular interest for that subject area. Projects allow the teacher to measure learning at a greater depth, through a
variety of modalities, and over a greater curricular expanse.

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Non-Traditional Assessments
In addition to the item types and assessment instruments that teachers often use in their classrooms, there are also non-
traditional assessments that teachers can use to measure their students’ learning. We will review just a few of these
additional assessment tools that are available to teachers.

Paired Testing
Paired testing is a way to allow a pair of students to collaborate on an assessment event. The teacher may select the pairs
or allow the students to self-select their pairings to maximize their e ectiveness. Upon completion, the pair submits one
answer form that represents the work of both students. Therefore, one of the obvious benefits is that the amount of
scoring the teacher has to complete is divided in half. Another benefit is the collaborative nature of the assignment,
especially if it is a criterion-referenced event.

A variation on this strategy is to have the students work together to accomplish the task and then work independently to
complete individual answer forms. Another variation is to expand the number of students working together to create a
group exam. A group exam is e ective if the task is large and rich enough to allow each student a specified role that
compliments and contributes to the entire process.

Reworking on the Board

Allowing students to rework problems or add to curricular concepts while at the front board is a popular event for
students. In most cases, students are happy to get out of their seat to perform a task. The fun and instruction are
multiplied when the students get to orally share their ideas with the other students while referencing their board work.
While this is a great way to measure students’ understanding of the concepts being taught, this is also an easy method
for the teacher to build student engagement.
Piggyback
In simplest terms, a piggyback occurs when the teacher asks the students to create or expand on an answer based on the
previous response of another student. For instance, the teacher asks an open-ended question. Once a student response
is received, the teacher calls upon another student to add to or continue that response. The process repeats until the
topic is covered.

Round Robin Responses

The round robin responses technique requires the students to think creatively and provides feedback to the teacher
regarding the achievement level of the students. In this strategy, the teacher provides the initial stimulus such as a
question and then facilitates and monitors the flow of student answers. In round robin responses, students provide
answers in an organized manner so that all students have the opportunity to respond in order before a student is
required to provide a second response.

Interview
The interview format is designed as an ice-breaker and provides an opportunity for the teacher and students to get to
know each other. This is especially useful in the beginning of the school year and as an introduction into oral
assessments. Teachers can also interview students as a variation of the oral exam strategy or students can interview each
other as a formative assessment to help guide their study e orts.

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Informal Assessments
Informal assessments are those that can be easily and quickly incorporated into lessons without taking much if any time
away from the instruction. They usually serve as formative assessments in that they indicate the students’ learning and
understanding of the skills or topics being discussed. We will review just a few modes of informal assessments, most of
which were introduced in previous workshops. As a new teacher, you will likely identify ways that you prefer to check in
with your students.

Questioning
An informal, non-obtrusive method for determining if a student understands the instruction is to ask him or her a
question. A proper questioning technique is a valuable, everyday strategy that is needed by every teacher. Good
questions not only measure students’ understanding, but they also promote student thinking. A good questioning
technique will also inform the teacher about the pace of the lesson in reference to the level of student retention.

You can review the first part of the Whole Group Strategies lesson in the Pedagogy and Instructional Design workshop for
more detailed information about questioning and responding to students.

Flash Cards
A flash card is a writable surface with a question on one side and the answer on the other side. The teacher can used
them in small or large group settings or can allow pairs of students to use them to quiz each other. The length of this
activity can vary as the time and circumstances permit. Flash cards are very valuable because the students can
immediately see the results and receive feedback.

Exit Slips
Exit slips or tickets are small pieces of paper with answers to previously asked questions that the students give to the
teacher as they exit the room or after a particular unit of study. The exit slips are designed to give the teacher a snapshot
of how much the students learned as a result of the instruction. Although this technique does require the teacher to
collect and analyze the data, the responses tend to be truthful and insightful, especially if they are anonymously
received.

Thumbs
During a lesson the teacher may ask the student to signify if they know the answer, understand a concept or agree with an
opinion or statement. One method is to have the students signal “thumbs up” if they know or agree,“thumbs down” if
they do not know or disagree, and “thumbs sideways” if they are neutral or not sure. The resulting information is
immediate and usually truthful. Variations of this strategy are stop/go cards or red/green colors. This technique is not
disruptive to the flow of a lesson and provides useful and immediate feedback from all students.

Minute Paper
The minute paper is a brief three to five sentence narrative that the students write to the teacher. This activity can be
implemented at any time during a lesson, depending upon the type of information the teacher is requesting. Typically
minute papers are a personal essay to the teacher which indicates what the students have learned as a result of the
lesson and identifies any remaining trouble areas. Minute papers are e ective because they require the students to write
about their own personal thoughts, ideas, and reflections.

10 Things to Remember About Assessment

1. Assessments work best when they are ongoing and integrated into instruction as opposed to episodic and
marginally referenced to classroom instruction.

2. The value of assessment is magnified when assessments are part of a comprehensive program that promotes
learning, improvement, and growth.

3. A comprehensive assessment-instruction system should contain a variety of assessment techniques.

4. A test only tests what it was designed to measure. It is up to the teacher to make sense of the data.

5. Summative assessments are referred to as “assessments of learning,” while formative assessments are referred to
as “assessment for learning.”

6. Specific and descriptive instructional feedback that will help students to improve their learning and prepare for
mastery of the curricular topics are central to e ective formative assessments.

7. Frequent short tests are more instructionally helpful and provide better assessment data than infrequent
extended exams.
 8. Diagnostic assessments measure a student’s current knowledge and skills for the purpose of identifying a
personalized program of learning for that student.

9. Quality assessments are valid, reliable and unbiased.

10. A test is no better than the quality of items it contains.

Video Summary: Assessment (13:44)

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Assessment Glossary
This review of assessment terms may be helpful for those that are new to the vocabulary and concepts of the Assessment
Workshop.

Accountability is the use of assessment results and student or program data to influence important educational
decisions such as teacher evaluations, program continuation, and/or funding determinations.

Assessment is the process of documenting, usually in measurable terms, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs.

Authentic Assessment measures students’ performance on real life situations, problems, and tasks.

Benchmark is a detailed description of the current performance level of a student in reference to a curricular unit
specific to that grade or age level. Benchmarks can also be used as checkpoints to monitor student performance
through a unit of study or over time. Examples of students’ work may serve as an example of a benchmark.

Biased Assessment includes the presence of some characteristic that may unfairly influence the students’ scores.

Criterion-Referenced Assessment compares an individual’s performance to a specific standard or learning

objective. This informs the students and teacher about how well the students performed on specific goals rather
than how their performance compared to a norm-referenced group. In a true criterion-referenced assessment, it is
possible that all, none, or some of the students will demonstrate proficiency on a particular standard.
 Formal Assessments are planned events that are scored and contribute to a student’s grade. Typically, they
require a written response such as a traditional test or essay.

Formative Assessment is the repeated collecting of information that monitors students’ learning as part of a
class or program to improve and personalize instruction to improve the students’ learning.

Informal Assessments are embedded into instruction and are less high risk than formal assessments. If the
teacher records a score, it seldom weighs heavily enough to a ect the students’ final grade. Examples of informal
assessments include direct observation by the teacher as well as student checklists, performances, peer and self
evaluations, and discussions.

Ipsative Assessment is a measure that compares a student’s personal best with subsequent assessments over
the same event or topic.

Norm-Referenced Assessment is where student performances are compared to a larger “norm group.” The
purpose of a true norm-referenced assessment is to sort students and not measure their achievement in
comparison to a standard or criterion.

Objective Assessment is a type of assessment where there is only one correct answer. Objective assessments can
be either formative or summative. There are many di erent types of objective questions, such as true/false, fill in the
blank, multiple choice, selected response, and matching. The popularity of objective assessments has grown
recently because they are easily machine-scored.

Peer Assessment is the evaluation of learning by one’s own peers.

Performance-Based Assessment gathers data through a systematic observation and measure of student prowess
by evaluating that data based on predetermined criteria.

Portfolio Assessment is a collection of work that is used to make judgments about student achievement.

Reliability refers to the degree to which the results of an assessment are consistently able to get the same
measure for student knowledge and skills. Reliability is also an indication of the consistency of scores and raters
across time.

Rubric is a specific set of standards or criteria that define for both the teacher and students the range of
acceptable and unacceptable performance. Rubrics typically assign a value to each level of proficiency.

Self Assessment is the process of evaluating one’s own level of mastery.

Standards are a predetermined level of accomplishment that students are expected to meet or exceed.
Standards may be high or low and do not necessarily imply a high level of thinking or a single pathway to meet a
minimum level.

Subjective Assessment is a type of assessment where there is more than one correct answer, or more than one
way to express the correct answer. Essay or constructed response questions are typically subjective.

Summative Assessment is the deliberate collecting of data at the end of a learning unit to determine student
achievement or to satisfy accountability demands.

Validity is the extent to which an assessment measures what it is intended to measure and the extent to which
decisions made on the basis of test scores are accurate.
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Resources and References

1. Bangert-Drowns, R.L., Kulick, J.A., and Morgan, M.T. “The instructional e ect of feedback in test-like events.”
Review of Educational Research 61.2 (1991): 213-238.

2. Black, P., and Wiliam, D. “Assessment and classroom learning.” Assessment in Education 5.1 (1998): 7-74.

3. Black, P. and Wiliam, D. “Inside the black box: Raising standards through classroom assessment.” Phi Delta
Kappan, 80.2 (1998): 139-148.

4. Black, P., Harrison, C., Lee, C., Marshall, B., and Wiliam, D. Assessment for Learning: Putting it into practice.
Berkshire, England: Open University Press, 2003.

5. Brookhart, S.M. and Wiggins, Grant. Educative Assessment: Designing Assessments to Inform and Improve
Student Performance. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.

6. Butler , D.L. and Winnie, P.H. “Feedback and self-regulated learning: a theoretical synthesis.” Review of
Educational Research, 65.3 (1995): 245-281.

7. Cowie, B., and Bell, B. “A model of formative assessment in science education.” Assessment in Education 6
(1999): 101-116.

8. Herman, J.L., Ashbacher, P.R., and Winters, L. A Practical Guide to Alternative Assessment. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1992.

9. McMillan, J.H. “Classroom Assessment: Principles and Practice for E ective Instruction.” Pearson Technology
Group, 2000.

10. National Research Council. Classroom Assessment and the National Science Education Standards. Ed. J.M.
Atkin, P. Black, and J. Co ey. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press, 2001.

11. Nicol, D.J. and Macfarlane-Dick, D. “Formative assessment and self-regulated learning: A model and seven
principles of good feedback practice.” Studies in Higher Education 31.2 (2006): 199-218.

12. Pausch, L.M. and Popp, M.P. “Assessment of Information Literacy: Lessons from the Higher Education
Assessment Movement.” 1997.

13. Sadler, D.R. “Formative assessment and the design of instructional systems.” Instructional Science 18.2 (1989):
119-144.
14. Sadler, D.R. “Formative assessment: revisiting the territory.” Assessment in Education 5.1(1998): 77-84.

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Simple Statistics
Objective
In this workshop, you will develop the ability to identify the educational signi cance of statistics and to interpret and apply
useful statistics for the classroom. The accompanying video will review statistical concepts and calculations.

This lesson introduces simple statistical knowledge for everyday use and the necessary mathematical explanations related
to:

Simple Data Tables

Ordered Arrays

Ranges

Percentiles

Quartiles

Frequency Distributions

Histograms

Normal Curves

Introduction
As a student, I remember being very eager to receive my test results to nd out how I did and to compare my scores with my
classmates. During the moments right before tests were returned you could feel the anxiety in the classroom. Then, the
release of this data was usually accompanied with groans of despair, sighs of relief, and cheers of joy. Good students always
made certain that the other students knew how well they had scored; embarrassed students were silent; really bad students
made fun of their failing grade. It was usually my hope that my score would be one of the best in the class. When I was worried
about my score or I had not given my best e ort, I hoped that the teacher would grade on a curve so that my score might
receive the bene t of the extra points. I liked teachers who graded on a curve.

When I became a teacher, I provided statistical evidence as a way of showing my students the fruits of their labor.
Interestingly, the same groans of despair, sighs of relief, and cheers of joy were evident in my own classroom. Some things
never change.

At rst I provided the statistics because I thought it was a fun and useful thing to do for the students. I soon realized that
there was a greater value to these statistics that I had overlooked for a number of years. I found that if I analyzed the
statistical data carefully, I could infer a number of things about the quality of the test, the capabilities of the students, and
the overall fairness of the assessment. As I began to look more closely at the data that I had collected, I also began to discover
shocking truths about myself as a teacher. I found myself asking important questions like: Why did most of the students miss
a particular question? Did I not teach it well enough? Was the test a valid measure of what I thought I was testing? Is it
possible that I constructed a test that was confusing or biased? Did I score it correctly? Was the score that the students
received an accurate measure of their achievement? These questions and many more ooded through my thoughts as I
peered into the world of statistics and applied that knowledge to my teaching.

Along with the curriculum, lesson planning, and assessments, statistical analysis is another integral part of teaching.
Statistical analyses of assessment data provides information that links assessments with lesson planning and instruction.
Teachers use statistical information to guide lesson planning, create quanti ed student achievement pro les, provide
accurate communication to students, parents, and other teachers, identify a starting location for instruction, and de ne
remediation. It is also used to gain insights for re ning instruction for students, small groups, or the whole class level and to
indicate ways to improve the overall e ciency and e cacy of teaching and learning in the classroom. When teachers neglect
to perform statistical analysis on their assessments, they miss a signi cant opportunity for valuable feedback. On the other
hand, a misused statistic or a poor interpretation of a good statistic limits or prohibits classroom productivity.

In this workshop we will focus on a few statistical calculations and data displays that teachers can use to make the most of
their data, starting with some simple tools that you may have already used throughout various experiences.

Simple Statistics
There are some statistics that every teacher will nd useful. Although it is not always necessary to know the mathematical
derivation of statistics, it is important to understand the data they produce. It is equally as important to know the limitations
of statistics and what they cannot produce. After all, statistics does have a reputation for being a tool that can “spin” data to
show preferred outcomes. There is even a popular quote attributed to both Benjamin Disraeli and Mark Twain which claims
that there are di erent kinds of liars: liars and statisticians. This is perhaps a harsh exaggeration, but it does show that having
some knowledge of statistics can help protect a teacher from false claims and conclusions.

Data Tables
Data tables summarize and organize raw scores. Typically teachers create data tables as they record all of the scores attained
by students from a particular test. Data tables are useful because they allow the teacher to look at all of the scores at one time
before rearranging the data for a more complete picture. Data tables are also the rst stop in a progression of statistical steps
that illuminate additional insights.

Let’s look at a situation where a data table might be useful. Consider a teacher with a class of 30 students. The students have
just completed a unit assessment worth 100 points. The teacher records the raw scores (“raw” meaning the actual, unaltered
scores) for each student in a data table for analysis. The following illustrates the resulting data table.

Illustration 1: Simple Data Table of a Classroom Assessment

Student Number Raw Score Student Number Raw Score

1. 34 16. 88

2. 97 17. 67

3. 90 18. 89

4. 21 19. 85

5. 78 20. 42

6. 89 21. 58

7. 98 22. 12

8. 60 23. 76

9. 94 24. 23

10. 89 25. 88

11. 82 26. 37

12. 99 27. 74

13. 29 28. 90

14. 76 29. 54

15. 12 30. 89
This simple data table allows the teacher to scan the results and make preliminary decisions regarding the level of student
achievement. However, the data are presented in a random order. It was probably created as the exams were graded. What
type of information might the teacher glean from a simple data table? Actually there are several types of information.

The teacher can verify attendance by noting that there are 30 students in class and 30 scores in the data table. Therefore, no
one was absent which means that there are no make-up tests to be given. The teacher can also review the test during
classtime without worrying about what to do with students who are present for the review, but were absent for the test. In
addition, the simple data table allows the teacher to scan and note a rough estimation of how well the students performed.

Yet, to improve the amount of quality data that can be obtained from these raw scores, the teacher may decide to reorganize
the data table into a more useful format: an ordered array.

Ordered Array Back to Top

An ordered array is a special type of data table. In an
Student Raw Score Student Raw Score
ordered array, the scores are ranked by a particular
value or for a special purpose. In this case, the 1. 99 16. 76
teacher decided to rank the scores from highest to
lowest. Using the same data found in illustration 1, 2. 98 17. 76

the ordered array for that data is displayed in

3. 97 18. 74
illustration 2.
4. 94 19. 67
The ordered array is easy to construct and allows the
teacher to gain further understanding of how well the 5. 90 20. 60

students performed on the assessment. It contains all

6. 90 21. 58
of the information in the simple data table but also
provides the data in a more user-friendly and useful 7. 89 22. 54
format. After some practice, most teachers are able to
8. 89 23. 42
save time by skipping the simple data table stage and
sorting the raw scores into an ordered array as the
9. 89 24. 37
rst step.
10. 89 25. 34
So what is the educational signi cance of the ordered
11. 88 26. 29
array? First of all, the scores were deliberately ranked
so that the teacher can quickly determine who did
12. 88 27. 23
well and which students need extra help. Note that
teachers may include student names instead of 13. 87 28. 21
numbers along with their rank to organize the data.
14. 85 29. 12
However, in this case, the teacher should avoid

15. 78 30. 12
sharing the table with the class to protect the
students’ privacy.

Second, organizing the data in a particular fashion allows the teacher to quickly and easily use quanti ed attributes of the
class to make instructional decisions. For instance, given the data in illustration 2, should the teacher proceed to the next
unit since 12 students scored an 80 or higher? Or should the teacher provide additional instruction to try to provide extra
help for the 10 students (1/3 of the class) who did not accomplish the curricular goals? Without the ordered array, the teacher
may not have realized the degree of variability that exists on this assessment. Without this knowledge, the teacher would
have made an uninformed decision regarding future lesson planning. However, since the teacher does have this knowledge,
the teacher can take steps to address the variability in this scenario.

An ordered array is also a good tool for determining the high and low scores, as well as the range of student scores.

TEACHER TIP
The presentation of simple data tables and ordered arrays can be customized to a teacher’s
needs. They can be listed in one column, two columns, four columns, or any other
arrangement. In the case of an ordered array, it is sometimes more informative to use a one-
column format.

Range Back to Top

The range is a useful statistic for the teacher because it assists in identifying the level of achievement of the class.
The range is de ned as the distance between the highest and lowest score. For instance, using the data from illustration 2,
the highest score was a 99 and the lowest was 12. The range of these scores, 87 (99 − 12 = 87), is quite large. A range of scores
this large indicates that the class achievement varied considerably. It is likely that the class consists of some students who
understood the curriculum and some who did not. This is a challenging scenario for the teacher.

A low range would mean that the students performed at about the same level. A low range is generally good news for the
teacher because it indicates that the instruction was received equally well by all students. It is best when the low range is also
at a high achievement level.

A middle range, as one might assume, indicates a greater degree of variability than a low range but less than a high range. The
middle range is often the most di cult for the teacher because no clear-cut message can be derived from the data. The
teacher must decide where to proceed with lesson planning when there is an intermediate range of results.

Before planning for the next unit of study, the teacher must take into consideration another factor regarding range. The range
statistic may be deceiving. The range only accounts for the highest and lowest scores. What if the entire class scored a 99 and
only one student scored a 12? That information varies considerably from a situation where only one student scored a 99 and
the remainder of the class scored a 12. Granted, these are extreme examples, but they do make the point that looking at the
range alone may be deceptive.

The ordered array provides additional information that places the range into perspective. By looking at the rank-ordered
scores, the teacher has a better understanding of the range and how well the students scored. Again using the scores from
illustration 2, it is obvious to the teacher that a large number of students scored well on this assessment, while a smaller
number performed less well. Speci cally six students scored in the 90+ zone, 8 scored in the 80-90 zone, 4 scored in the 70-
80 zone, 2 scored in the 60-70 zone, and 10 students (1/3 of the class) scored below 50. This data was easily observed by
simply referring to the ordered array. By looking at the data more closely, the teacher realizes that multiple students had both
very high and very low scores. This means that the performance on this assessment varied considerably within the students
in this class.

Once the data are organized, it is easy to apply additional statistics that help explain the meaning of the data, such as
percentiles, quartiles, and frequency distributions.

Percentiles Back to Top

Percentiles divide the ordered data into 100 separate units. For instance, it is possible to have a data point at any
number between 0 and 100 such as the 99th percentile, 44th percentile or 9th percentile. A percentile is the value or score on
the ordered array of data that indicates the percentage of the scores that fall at or below that value. This is best explained
with an example. Let’s say that the 25th percentile of a certain assessment is a score of 39. This would mean that 25% of the
scores from that assessment fall below 39.

The 25th percentile is also known as the rst quartile; the 50th percentile is also the median (which we will talk more about
later). The coveted 99th percentile is that location point where no scores are above it. A student who scores in the 99th
percentile has done very well in comparison to the rest of the students who were included in the pool of scores.

For teachers, percentile rank is a useful continuation of percentile. The percentile rank for a given raw score, such as the
score of a particular student on a test, is the percentage of students that scored less than or equal to that raw score. For
educational purposes, percentile ranks are used to interpret an individual’s raw score by comparing it with the scores of
other students. For example, if a student earned a raw score of 77 and that score translated to a percentile rank of 89, then
89% of the students in that population received a score of 77 or less. The results of high stakes tests are often reported in
terms of percentile rank.

Quartiles Back to Top

A quartile is a special type of percentile. A quartile is any of the three values which divide the sorted data set into
four equal parts so that each part represents one-fourth of the population. Each quartile de nes a speci c section of the
ordered data distribution.
The rst quartile (Q1) or lower quartile is that point on the ordered array where 75% of the scores are above it and 25% of the
scores are below it. The range of the rst quartile accounts for the bottom one-fourth of the data, or the lowest 25% of
whatever is being measured. Thus, the lowest quartile is also know as the 25th percentile.

Likewise the second quartile (Q2) would identify the midpoint of the data where 50% of the scores are above and 50% are
below. The second quartile is also called the median and the 50th percentile.

The third quartile (Q3) establishes that point where 25% of the scores are located above it and 75% below it.

The interquartile range (IQR) is the di erence between the upper and lower quartiles. The interquartile range is often used to
characterize the bulk of the population.

The quartiles that are labeled in illustration 3 are for data that was collected from a performance assessment in an elementary
class.

Illustration 3: Quartiles from a Performance Assessment

Quartile Score

11

13

First Quartile 15

18

18

19
Second quartile (21)
23

23

23

Third quartile 24

25
 25

Quartiles divide the data so the teacher can analyze the results by an ordered grouping rather than by focusing on the entire
data pool. A frequency distribution, which we will discuss on the next page, provides an alternative analysis of the raw data.

Frequency Distribution Back to Top

A frequency distribution takes the ordered array and extends the usefulness of the available data. The frequency
distribution takes advantage of the adage that the fewer numbers a person has to be concerned with, the less the opportunity
there is to confuse things. In simplest terms, a frequency distribution indicates how many students scored at the same level.
For instance, it tells how many students received a score of 92. This data becomes useful because it allows the teacher to
clump like scores together to eliminate repetition.

The following illustration uses the original data found in illustrations 1 and 2 to display a frequency distribution of that data.

Illustration 4

From this frequency distribution, the teacher can

Student
Frequency easily note that a number of the students’ scores are
Score Student Score Frequency
clumped in the 90-88 zone. Speci cally 8 of the 30

99 1 67 1 students, or approximately 25% of the class, scored

in this zone. Further, the teacher can see that the
98 1 60 1 remainder of the scores are not clumped, but are
spread out over a very wide range.
97 1 58 1

94 1 54 1 In this scenario, the teacher probably has mixed

feelings about the test results. The teacher is likely
90 2 42 1 happy that so many of the students scored well on
this assessment; however, the teacher is probably
89 4 37 1
distressed at the wide range of the scores and the
88 2 34 1 low performance of the remainder of the scores.

87 1 29 1 This frequency distribution gives the teacher

additional information to guide decision making
85 1 23 1
and lesson planning. By organizing the data in this
78 1 21 1 fashion, a shape begins to emerge. As demonstrated
in illustration 4, the shape is one where most of the
76 2 12 2
scores are clumped in one speci c area near the top
of the range with a large number of scores trailing
74 1
 o into a long and narrow tail extending down to
the bottom of the range. Now rather than having to
analyze 30 di erent scores, the frequency distribution reduces the number to 23.

Teachers often nd it useful to compare students’ scores over a number of di erent assessments. One easy way to perform
that task is to overlay the results of multiple assessments on the same frequency distribution. Examine the following
illustration which compares the scores from three separate exams for the same class in the same subject area over a period of
nine weeks. The classroom assessment data we looked at in illustration 4 are shown below as the scores for exam 1.

Illustration 5: Multiple Frequency Distributions

Scores: Exam 1 Frequency Scores: Exam 2 Frequency Scores: Exam 3 Frequency

99 1 99 2 100 1

98 1 98 1 99 2

97 1 96 4 98 7

94 1 95 4 96 4

90 2 92 1 93 2

89 4 91 1 92 2

88 2 88 1 91 1

87 1 84 1 89 1

85 1 83 1 86 1

78 1 80 3 71 1

76 2 64 1 66 2

74 1 59 1 61 2

67 1 56 3 56 1

60 1 53 2 51 1

58 1 29 1 32 2

54 1 21 1
 42 1 17 1

37 1 15 1

34 1

29 1

23 1

21 1

12 2

The addition of two more frequency distributions distinguishes a de nite trend in the data as seen in illustration 5. It allows
the teacher to observe patterns or anomalies in the data that may have an impact on future lesson planning. From illustration
5, it is easy to see several things without knowing anything about the teacher, subject, test, or students.

To begin with, the range decreases as the students progress through the sequence of exams. How does the teacher know this
by just looking at the frequency distribution? The range is determined by subtracting the lowest score from the highest score.
For exam 1, the range is 87; for exam 2, the range is 84; for exam 3, the range is 68. The progressive rise of the lowest score is
also easy to notice. This is a positive sign for the teacher. However, if the range had decreased because of fewer high scores,
then this would have been a very di erent indicator for the teacher. This may have shown that the instruction was less clear
or that the teacher was losing the interest of the students and would require further investigation.

Another easily identi ed attribute is the additional clumping of the scores. In exam 1 the results showed very little clumping.
In exam 2, the clumping is increased with a large grouping of students in the 99-95 zone (11/30, or about 30% of the class)
and a smaller clump in the 56-53 zone, (5/30, or about 17% of the class). A similar analysis of exam 3 indicates a large grouping
in the 99-92 zone (17/30, or more than 50% of the class) with smaller groupings at the lower end. A growth toward greater
grouping indicates that the students are performing somewhat equally. This informs the teacher that the delivery of
instruction is such that the students are receiving instruction in an equivalent manner.

Another item that is brought to the teacher’s attention by this type of organization is the overall progress of the students.
Notice how the scores trend upward toward greater achievement as the students move through the exams. For example, in
exam 1, 6 out of 30 students (about 20%) scored in the 90+ zone. The results of exam 2 show that 13 out of 30 students (over
30%) scored in the 90+ zone. In exam 3, 19 out of 30 students (almost 67%) scored in the 90+ zone. This progression
towards greater achievement is one form of a rmation to the teacher. At least on the surface it means that whatever the
teacher is doing in class appears to be working to raise grades. However, it may also mean that the exams were not at the
same level of di culty.
This combined frequency distribution was able to provide useful information to the teacher, but a picture is worth a
thousand words. Sometimes it is easier to use a graphic rather than a table to express student scores, so we will now explore
histograms.

Histograms Back to Top

A histogram is a graphic representation of related data. In simplest terms, a histogram is a connected bar graph of
the data. In the case of student scores, a histogram shows the frequency of student scores in an easy-to-read, illustrative
format.

Let’s refer back to the original set of data that was used in the ordered array in illustration 2. The data clearly show that six
students scored in the 90+ band; eight students scored in the 89-80 band; four students scored in the 79-70 band; two
students scored in the 69-60 band; and ten students scored less that 59. Although this organization of data is quite telling,
we will use a histogram to display the same results.

Illustration 6: Histogram of a Classroom Assessment

The histogram makes the ten students who scored below 59 stand out for distinction. It also shows a trend toward high
achievement by most of the remainder of the class. Anyone can get a relative idea regarding the overall achievement level of
the students in this class by looking at this histogram without knowing anything about the students, teacher, or subject.

A drawback to the use of a histogram is the lack of actual student data. In illustration 6, it is impossible to determine if or how
many students scored a 93. The best interpretation of the data indicates that six students scored in the 90+ range, but no
explanation more speci c than that can be o ered. As you can see, the results displayed by a histogram are not as speci c as
the data displayed on a frequency distribution data table.

A “double” or “triple barreled” histogram is designed to show trends in similar data. Much like placing multiple frequency
distributions on the same data table, a histogram can be expanded to include multiple measures as well. When adding
multiple data sets to the same histogram, each data set should be coded to distinguish it from the others. In most cases, the
bars are either shaded or colored so that related data appears the same. Thus, the results of exam 1 would appear in a
di erent color than the results of exam 2.

The use of simple histograms evolved into one of the most widely-used concepts in educational statistics which we will talk
about next: the bell-shaped or normal curve.

The Normal Curve Back to Top

Over many centuries of data collection and analysis, an overwhelming number of frequency distributions and
histograms describing real data have repeatedly demonstrated the same relative shape. This particular shape on a histogram
has a central highpoint with downward sloping sides in both directions. Both slopes are mirror images of each other. The
graphing of real data or a “normal” distribution of data consistently produced this characteristic bell-shaped curve. A
mathematical model was then created to describe the graphing of a normal distribution based on this repeated phenomenon.
The resulting bell-shaped graph was called a normal curve. Over time, educational statistics have formalized the use of the
normal curve as a standard to describe many features about reported results which are useful to teachers.

Illustration 7 is a representation of the normal curve. The normal curve is a fundamental model that is repeatedly referenced
in more advanced statistics. The mean, median, and mode of the curve is indicated below and we will talk about these
measures in the next lesson.

Illustration 7: Normal Curve

The normal curve is very useful when graphically representing a normal distribution of data. For instance, the scores of a
random assortment of a very large number of students taking the same test would create the normal curve when plotted on a
graph. In other words, if the population of students was statistically “normal,” a graph of their test scores would reveal a
normal curve.

Interpreting a graph of a normal curve is easy. The graph would show that some students did quite well. Their scores would
be plotted on the far right side of the graph where the slope nears the X-axis. The majority of the students would score in the
middle range. Their scores would create the middle area including the large peak in the center of the graph. Likewise, a few
students would not score well on the test. The actual number would be identical to the number of students who scored well
on that same exam. The scores of the low performing students would be plotted on the far left and would be a mirror-image
opposite of the students who scored well on the test.

Should a teacher expect the results of every exam to re ect the normal curve when graphed? The normal curve is based on a
large population and assumes a normal distribution of data, so the answer is “no.”

What types of things might alter the data so that something other than a normal curve is produced? Actually there are a
number of things that in uence the data. First, the population might not be “normal.” For example, students in the fourth
year of a foreign language course do not represent a normal foreign language population. Students at that level are somewhat
homogeneous since their e ort and dedication set them apart from other students with less experience in that subject area.
As a result, we would expect their scores to be very high when measured against other students on the same foreign language
test. Therefore, their results should be clustered to the far right of a graph. This cluster of grades on the far right of the graph
would not create a normal curve.

Data is considered skewed if it does not form a normal curve when graphed. A distribution of data can be positively or
negatively skewed. For instance, if the speed of the runners in a 100 meter dash was graphed, those students who had special
talent or training would score better than those who have neither. Therefore, members of the track team if measured against
themselves would typically score in a narrow range at the top of the scale. As another example, what if a teacher did an
exceptionally good job in teaching a concept? If those students were measured, it is expected that most of their scores would
fall on the far right.

In both of these examples, the data would favor the right side of the graph, which is referred to as negatively skewed.
Whenever the data contains an abnormal number of data points on the right side of the graph, the graph is not a normal
curve. This means that the population measured did not represent a normal distribution.

TEACHER TIP
It is a time for celebration when a teacher nds that all the students’ scores are negatively
skewed on a normal distribution that includes all students in a given population. That means
the students performed better than the average on that assessment. Administrators are also
made happy when scores for students in their school are negatively skewed when compared
to students’ scores from other schools.

As you have probably already guessed, a positively skewed graph is the exact opposite of a negatively skewed graph. A
positively skewed graph displays data that is graphed predominantly to the left of the midpoint. This indicates that the
greatest number of items plotted were to the left of the center of a normal curve. For instance, if most of the students scored
poorly on an assessment, the bulk of the students’ scores would be plotted on the left side of the graph, indicating a
positively skewed distribution of data.
Illustration 8: Negative Skew Compared to Positive Skew

Let’s consider another example of positive skew. Suppose 10 new students moved into a teacher’s class and were asked to
take a single column addition test without any preparation. Their scores would likely be less than the remainder of the class
who just completed a unit on adding single column numbers. Consequently, their scores would be graphed on the left side of
the graph because their achievement would be lower than the remainder of the class. If there were only 15 students in the
class to begin with, making a total of 25 students, then the scores of the 10 who scored lower than average would constitute a
considerable percentage of the class. If their data was added to the normal curve for that class, then their scores would be
plotted on the left side creating a non-normal curve.

TEACHER TIP
Remember that a normal curve only represents a normal distribution of data, so do not worry
if the student scores from your midterm exam do not t into a normal curve.

An understanding of the normal curve serves as a reference point for additional work with educationally signi cant statistics.
In the next lesson, we will use our knowledge of the normal curve to explore ways that we can measure how values in a data
sample are both similar and di erent.

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Back to Top
 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T L ESSO N

Measures of Central Tendency and Variability

Objective
In this workshop, you will develop the ability to identify the educational signi cance of statistics and to interpret and apply
useful statistics for the classroom. The accompanying video will review statistical concepts and calculations.

This lesson will introduce the following measures of central tendency (the center points of data) and variability (the diversity
of the data).

Mode

Median

Mean

Standard Deviation

Measures of Central Tendency

One of the most useful statistics for teachers is the center point of the data. Knowing the center point answers such questions
as, “what is the middle score?” or “which student attained the average score?” There are three fundamental statistics that
measure the central tendency of data: the mode, median, and mean. All three provide insights into “the center” of a
distribution of data points. These measures of central tendency are de ned di erently because they each describe the data in
a di erent manner and will often re ect a di erent number. Each of these statistics can be a good measure of central
tendency in certain situations and an inappropriate measure in other scenarios. The next section describes each statistic and
both its educational value and its limitations.

Mode
The mode is de ned as the most frequently occurring score. If the data are arranged in a frequency distribution similar to
illustration 4, then the mode is easy to identify. In illustration 4 the mode is 89. Why is the mode 89? Because there were four
students who scored an 89, and that was the largest number of students who scored at the same level on this assessment.

The mode is easy to locate on any type of distribution curve graph, regardless of skewing. Let’s examine several examples to
further understand the concept of mode by locating it on three representative types of graphs.

From Illustration 7: Mode of a Normal Curve

Note that the mode is located at the highest point of the graphed data. This represents the greatest frequency of that score.

From Illustration 8: Mode of Skewed Graphs

As expected, the mode is located at the highest point on both the positively and negatively skewed graph. Again, the highest
point indicates the score with the greatest frequency. Note that the mode moves to the left on a positively skewed
distribution and to the right on a negative skewed distribution. Both cases are examples of non-normal data distributions.
Also note that non-normal does not imply that it is incorrect. It simply means the data does not indicate a normal
distribution of data that would create a normal curve when graphed.

Let’s complicate the process by looking at the data collected from an elementary class where 14 students were given the
same 10 point quiz. The frequency distribution for the class is listed in Illustration 9.

Notice that the frequency distribution only lists those scores

Illustration 9: Elementary Class Frequency Distribution
that were actually attained by students, not all the possible
 Student Score Frequency scores. What is the mode for illustration 9?

10 1 If you selected 9 you are correct; if you selected 2 you are also
correct. This is a trick question because the data displays two
9 5 modes: both 9 and 2 are correct. However, it would be more
correct to describe the data as a “bimodal distribution of data.”
8 1 Bimodal simply means that there are two modes within the same
distribution of data. In this case, because the modes are
6 1 considerably far apart, the elementary teacher likely has a class
where a substantial number of the students understand the
2 5 content and a substantial number of students who do not.
However, if in the same bimodal scenario, one mode was a score
1 1 of 10 and a second mode was a score of 9, then the teacher
would be entitled to a victory lap around the school parking lot.

A bimodal graph is easy to identify. In every case, there will be two peaks in the data. The two peaks represent the frequency
that students attained those scores. Illustration 10 is a graph of the data displayed in illustration 9. Note the two humps in
the graph representing a bimodal distribution of the data.

Illustration 10: Bimodal Distribution

Is it possible to have more than two modes? Multi-modal distributions become more common as the amount of data gets
considerably larger. The same rules for selecting the mode apply, although the educational implications may vary. A
distribution with four modes at equally spaced intervals of 90, 80, 70, and 60 on a diagnostic exam indicates a wide variety
of levels of understanding. This type of information would be useful to guide the teacher in the selection of appropriate types
of activities that should include lesson preparations that will reach all students. The teacher would prepare di erently when
the four modes were clustered in the following manner: 99, 97, 45, and 38. In this scenario, the teacher would prepare two
di erent lesson plans for this class: one for the high achievers and one for the lower achievers.
The determination of the mode is a useful statistic for teachers. It not only measures the central tendency or grouping of
data, but it also provides a reference point to assist teachers in understanding the nature of the students and their needs, and
then guides teachers in planning instruction that will meet their needs.

Median
The median divides a distribution exactly in half so that 50% of the scores are at or below the median and 50% of the scores
are at or above it. It is the “middle value” in a frequency distribution. When the number of data points is an odd number, the
middle score is the median. For example, given 13 scores, the 7th score would be the median. When the number of data points
is even, like 14, then the median is equal to the sum of the two middle scores in a frequency distribution divided by 2.

Illustration 11: Ordered Array of Unit Consider the following scores collected from a unit exam worth 50 points in a
Exam Scores (Odd number of scores) class of 15 students.

Whenever dealing with an odd number, the median is the middle number. So in
Student Score
Illustration 11, the total number of student scores is 15, an odd number. The

50 midpoint of 15 is the 8th score because there are 7 scores above it and 7 scores
below it. The teacher then counts down or up to the 8th score to determine the
49 midpoint, or median. In the case of Illustration 11, the median is 29. Note that, for
this data set, 29 is also the mode.
46

41 What if this teacher had a class with an even number of students? How would the
median be calculated? Illustration 12 provides an example of how to determine
34 the median in an even numbered class. Let’s assume that the class size is 6 and
they have just completed an exam worth 50 points. The following illustration
31
displays their scores.
29
Illustration 12: Ordered Array of Unit Exam Scores (Even number of scores)
29

29 Student Score

27 3

24 6

19 12

12 19

12 35
 7 47

To determine the median of an even number of scores, we begin by adding the 2 middle numbers and dividing by 2. In this
case, the numbers 12 and 19 are the middle numbers. Together they total 31. The quotient of dividing 31 by 2 delivers a
median of 15.5. Note that the median does not have to represent one of the listed scores. For a teacher using an ordered array
of test scores, the median locates the middle or center grade.

On a display of the normal curve the median is exactly the midpoint of the data distribution and is located in the exact center
of the graph. This is also the highest point on the curve.

Would the median be a ected by a skewed data distribution? Since the median represents the midpoint, skewed data would
move the midpoint in the direction of the bulk of the scores. Illustration 13 displays how the median is in uenced by a
positively or negatively skewed data distribution.

Illustration 13: Median Location with Skewed Data

It is interesting to note that skewed data moves the median o of the mode, or the highest peak on the normal curve. In
skewed data, the median moves toward the direction of the skew or tail. For a positively skewed data distribution, the median
moves to the right of the mode; for negatively skewed data, to the left. The movement of the median to the right or left of the
mode indicates that a larger than normal number of scores are located in that area.

Mean
The mean is the arithmetic average of all of the data points. It is also the most common measure of central tendency and is
the most widely understood. In fact, when most people think of average, they are imagining the mean. The mean is easy to
calculate and most people have been doing it since elementary school. To calculate the mean, add up all of the data points
and divide that result by the total number of data points. Consider the following ordered array of test scores on a 25 point
quiz from a typical middle school class of 20 students.

Illustration 14: Ordered Array There are 20 scores listed in the ordered array. Note that they do not have to be
of Students’ Quiz Scores organized in an ordered array to calculate the mean.
 Student Score The sum of these scores is 320. To calculate the mean, divide the total of the scores
(320) by the number of scores (20): 320/20 = 16. Observe that the mean score does not
25 have to be represented by any of the actual scores as no student scored a 16 on this
assessment.
25

25 For the teacher, it is helpful to calculate the mean to get a sense of the average score.
However, the mean has a major drawback: it is greatly in uenced by extreme scores.
24 Consider the data below in illustration 16. Assume the data points are from a single
student on a series of 10 point tests.
23

23 Illustration 15: Student X’s Quiz Scores

21
Student Score
21
10
20
10
17
10
17

15 From the data, it is easy to calculate that the student’s mean is 10. This student
undoubtedly deserves one of the top grades in class. But let’s imagine that the child
14 leaves on vacation and misses school for a week. On the next exam, the student scores a
2, so the new data looks like the following:
14

12 Illustration 16: Student X’s Updated Quiz Scores

9
Student Score
9
10
6
10
5
10
5
2

From this data the new mean is 8. An 8 is a considerable drop from the previous mean of 10. In this case, the child has scored
the highest possible grade three times and a low grade only once. However, the extremeness of the low grade has a dramatic
e ect on the mean, which reduced the child’s average by 20%.
Let’s get an idea of how many 10’s the student would have to get to move the mean back up to a 10. To keep the calculations
simple, let’s try adding 6 more scores.

Illustration 17: Student X’s 10 Quiz Scores

Student Score

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

10

The total number of scores is 10 and the sum of the numbers is 92. Therefore, the mean is 9.2. How might this a ect the
child? One score out of ten was enough to keep the child from regaining a mean score of 10. In fact, the child could never get
an average of 10 because there is no way to recoup the mathematical e ects of the low score. The mean has limitations as a
statistic and this is a classic example of the most common one. This is a teacher’s dilemma: what score does the student
deserve? It is important for teachers to remember that the mean is strongly in uenced by extreme scores. At this point it may
by useful for the teacher to reference the median and mode for additional support.

TEACHER TIP
Using the mean as the sole source of information for determining a student’s grade may be
unfair to a student if the student’s scores contain an extremely low score. Instead, it may be a
good idea to drop the score or minimize the weight of the score. It is unwise to drop an
extreme score if it is unusually high.
Some school districts may have a policy stating that a teacher cannot fail a student by recording a score lower than a certain
grade, like 40% for example. This is to help avoid situations where a student can never bring up their scores. When grades are
de ated to a hopelessly low number, this can have very negative e ects on classroom behavior and participation.

The way that extreme scores a ect the mean is apparent in illustration 18. The mean is identi ed in a positively and
negatively skewed data distribution as it generally relates to both the mode and the median.

Illustration 18: Mean Values of Skewed Data

Skewed data moves the mean away from the center point of a normal curve. The more skewed the data, the further the mean
migrates to the area of the skew. The more extreme the scores, the more the mean is a ected.

Like the median, in a positively skewed frequency distribution, the mean moves to the right and the majority of the scores
fall below the mean. For a frequency distribution that is negatively skewed, the mean moves to the left and is shaped so that
the majority of its scores fall above its mean.

For a teacher, the use of the mean may be inappropriate. In the case where the bulk of scores are located in one mode, and a
minimum number of scores are a signi cant distance from the mode, the mean average may create an arithmetic model that
does not approximate the nature of the students. Likewise, the mean of a bimodal distribution may not describe anything
useful to the teacher.

THE BIG PICTURE

When I was a student in high school, my Latin teacher created a chart with all of our names on it. Every time she
asked a question, she scored the student’s answer on a scale of 0-4, with 4 being the top grade equal to an “A”. I
remember being on a high-performing streak where I had scored several 4s in a row. This was closely followed by a
score of 2. When my score was calculated at the end of the year, the score of 2 prevented me from reaching the “A”
level in that subject. Just one score out of many subtracted so much from my grade that I could never replace it.

Mode, Median, and Mean

The mode, median, and mean are measures of central tendency and they provide meaningful information to the teacher
when used correctly. Each of the statistics is a good measure of central tendency in certain situations and a bad measure in
others. So what are their limitations, and when should a teacher use a particular statistic? Here are some helpful tips:

Most data approximates, but do not constitute, a normal distribution because of small sample sizes and intervening
educational factors such as tracking.

In a perfectly normal distribution of data, as described by the normal curve, the mode, median, and mean are
located at the same point. A perfectly normal curve almost never occurs.

The mode, median, and mean are usually di erent numbers especially in a non-normal distribution of data.

The mode is not a ected by extreme scores and, therefore, will vary greatly from the median and mean in an
extremely skewed distribution of data.

The mean is generally considered the average score and is considered the best measure of central tendency, unless
exaggerated by extreme scores.

The median establishes the midpoint of the data regardless of skewed data.

So which statistic should the wise teacher use? The best answer is to use the one(s) that are appropriate for that purpose.
Often it depends upon what the teacher wants to know. When in doubt, use all three before making a major decision.

Measures of central tendency provide the teacher with a mathematical description of how well the students are performing.
However, it should be noted that two completely di erent sets of data, such as the results of two di erent tests in elementary
social studies, can have the same mode, median, and mean, but have vastly di erent scores. For a better understanding of
this phenomenon, it is necessary to understand the basics of variability, which we will look at next.

Variability
The mode, median, and mean de ne the centers of a distribution of scores and provide the teacher with important
information, but they do not present the total picture. For a view of the entire process, an understanding of variability must
be applied to the measures of central tendency. As an example, consider illustration 19.

Illustration 19: Limits of Central Tendency

 Mean = 17 Mean = 17

Median = 17 Median = 17

Mode = 16 Mode = 16

The distributions of data displayed in illustration 19 have the same measures of central tendency. The mode, median, and
mean of Graph A are identical to the mode, median, and mean of Graph B. So as far as central tendency is concerned, they
are equal. However, in educational terms, they are anything but equal. For a teacher, graphs of this nature represent two very
di erent circumstances.

Let’s consider that both graphs represent the test scores of two di erent sets of students in the same subject area on the
same day. Graph A shows a tight band of scores near the midpoint. Graph B shows a more diverse range of scores. Translated,
the students in Group A have performed at about the same level of average understanding. However, the students
represented by Graph B displayed a much more diverse level of understanding. In this case, some of the students performed
quite well, while others scored considerably less well. If the same teacher had both sets of students, this would likely indicate
the need for two di erent lesson plans for each class.

By looking at variability we can access a more complete story than what the measures of central tendency have told us about
students’ scores.

Standard Deviation
Standard deviation is a measure of the spread of scores around the mean in a normal curve. It is sometimes referred to as the
mean of the mean. For a given situation, the standard deviation measures how close the data points are to the mean. If most
of the data points are clustered around the mean, then the standard deviation is small. Conversely, if most of the data points
are widely spread and are not grouped around the mean, then the standard deviation is large. In other words, the more the
data points di er from the mean, the greater the standard deviation, and vice-versa. Remember, data points for a teacher are
likely to be test scores.
To clarify the concept of standard deviation, let’s consider a class of 30 students. Each of the 30 students received a score of
87 on a test. Since every student received the same grade, the mean is 87. Since all of the scores are the mean, there is no
arithmetic di erence between the scores and the mean. Therefore, the standard deviation in this scenario would be zero. If a
few students scored an 85, the standard deviation would not be zero, but it would be quite small and much less than one.

The focus here is on standard deviation rather than variance, because although the two are related (the standard deviation is
the square root of the variance), the standard deviation is easier to interpret because it is expressed in the same units as the
data, e.g. points on a test. The standard deviation is usually denoted with the letter σ, whereas the variance is σ2.

The calculation of standard deviation is quite simple, but there are two slightly di erent ways to do it depending on the
context. First, consider the steps below:

1. Determine the mean (arithmetic average)

2. Subtract the mean from each score

3. Square the result for each score

4. Add the results together

5. Divide this result by either the number of scores (biased) or the number of scores minus 1 (unbiased), as explained
below.

6. Determine the square root of this number which is what we call the biased standard deviation

This method is appropriate when the data represents the entire population of interest. What is much more commom
however, is that the data being analyzed are a sample taken from a larger population. In this case, the biased standard
deviation will be too small compared to the expected but unknown standard deviation of the population. Therefore, we need
a way to calculate an unbiased standard deviation. Fortunately this is simple, as shown in Step 5. Instead of dividing by the
total number of scores, divide by the total number of scores minus 1. If you are unsure whether to use the biased or unbiased
standard deviation, use the unbiased (number of scores minus 1) calculation.

Let’s work an actual problem. In a class of 4 students, the following scores were recorded:

Student Score

4
 3

1. Determine the mean: The mean is 6.

2. Subtract the mean from each score:

(9−6) = 3
(8−6) = 2
(4−6) = −2
(3−6) = −3

3. Square the result for each score:

32 = 9
22 = 4
(−2)2 = 4
(−3)2 = 9

4. Add the results together: 9 + 4 + 4 + 9 = 26

5. Divide this result by the number of scores minus 1 (unbiased), because we are interested in considering these students
as a sample from the entire school: 26/3= 8.67

6. Determine the square root of this number which is the standard deviation: The square root of 8.67 = 2.94.

It is a general rule of thumb for statisticians that a large standard deviation means an excessive spread of data well dispersed
away from the mean. A small standard deviation indicates a tight cluster of data points near the mean.

Probably the most valuable information regarding standard deviation is gained by analyzing the application of standard
deviation to the normal curve. When the normal curve is divided according to standard deviations, the result is displayed in
illustration 20.

Illustration 20: Standard Deviation

Dividing the normal curve according to standard deviations reveals a tremendous amount of information to the teacher such
as the following:

68% of the data points, such as test scores, will fall within one standard deviation of the mean. Note that the
standard deviation includes the area on both sides of the mean.

95% of the data points will fall between two standard deviations of the mean.

99.7% of the data points will fall within three standard deviations of the mean.

99.993665% of the data points will fall within four standard deviations of the mean.

99.9999426% of the data points will fall within ve standard deviations of the mean.

99.999999802% of the data points will fall within six standard deviations of the mean.

>99.99999999974% of the data points will fall within seven standard deviations of the mean.

So why is it important to know about standard deviations and the normal curve? Consider a situation where a teacher gives a
100 point test. When the data were analyzed, the mean score was 70 and the standard deviation was 5. If we assume that the
distribution of scores is normal, resulting in a normal curve, then we can conclude:

68% of the students scored between a 65 and 75, (70−5 and 70+5).

95% of the students received scores between 60 and 80, (70−5−5 and 70+5+5).

99.7% of the students received scores between 55 and 85, (70−5−5−5 and 70+5+5+5).

This data can be transferred to a data table for easier analysis:

Illustration 21: Distribution of Scores from 100 Point Test

 Interval of Scores Percent of Scores

65-75 68%

60-80 95%

55-85 99.7%

From this table a teacher can get a much clearer picture of how well the students performed on a particular assessment. In
the scenario presented, the standard deviation was quite small. Let’s look at the same situation, except this time the
standard deviation will be 10.

68% of the students received a score between 60 and 80, (70−10 and 70+10).

95% of the students received a score between 50 and 90, (70−10−10 and 70+10+10).

99.7% of the students received a score between 40 and 100, (70−10−10−10 and 70+10+10+10).

It is easy to see that the standard deviation on this set of scores indicates that the students have a wider range of
understanding as measured by this assessment. Imagine if the standard deviation was 20 instead of 10!

TEACHER TIP
An understanding of standard deviation is advantageous when analyzing the scores and data
from another source, such as a vendor attempting to sell the teacher a new product.

In the next lesson, we will continue our discussion of statistics with a look at correlations.

Review Questions
Many schools and school districts are attempting to be more “data driven,” or to make more decisions based on their
schools’ data. (Visit resources from the Center for Public Education for more information about what types of data are used).

1. Based on what we have discussed in the Statistics workshop, what do you think may be some advantages of making
data-based decision?

2. Can you think of any weakness, risks, or obstacles related to making data-based decisions?
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Correlations
Objective
In this workshop, you will develop the ability to identify the educational signi cance of statistics and to interpret and apply
useful statistics for the classroom. The accompanying video will review statistical concepts and calculations.

This lesson will introduce correlations which help teachers to gain information about the relationships between di erent
classroom data. Speci cally, we will review:

The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coe cient

Scatter Plots

Correlations
A correlation is the measure of a relationship between two or more variables. A correlation is simply a co-relation which
de nes how well two separate variables “go together.” For a teacher, the two variables might be items such as correlating a
successful homework assignment for students to their grades on a related assessment. Correlations also hold the distinction
of being the statistic that is most likely to be misunderstood and misused in education.

It is possible to correlate any item to any other item. Some correlations are silly, such as the correlation made between the
relative abundance of clouds in the sky to a winning lottery ticket. Other correlations have real value to a teacher, such as the
correlation between the amount of time that students study and student achievement. Sometimes correlations are useful,
sometimes they are not; sometimes they are positive, sometimes they are negative.

A positive correlation between two events means that when the value of one item increases, then the value of the other item
is likely to increase. An example of a positive correlation is the relationship between height and weight: taller people
generally weigh more than shorter people. However, since there are plenty of “short” people who weigh as much or more
than “tall” people, the correlation cannot be described as strong. A strong positive correlation means that when the value of
one item increases, the value of the other item also increases. An example of a strong positive correlation is the relationship
between an increase in wealth and an increase in spending. In America, the more people make, the more they spend.

A negative correlation describes an inverse relationship. In this case, when one event increases, the other decreases. For
example, before the advent of safety devices in cars, a negative correlation existed between increasing car speed and the
number of days without car accidents. In this case, the faster the cars were able to travel, the less the chance of an accident-
free day.

THE BIG PICTURE

One of my classmates in a statistics class in college correlated the birth dates of everyone in class to their score on
the midterm. Although there was not much meaning in the correlation, the example does show that any two items,
regardless of how similar or dissimilar they are, can be correlated.

For educational purposes, a correlation may be quite useful. For instance, it may be helpful for the teacher to know that a
score greater than 75% on a student’s review packet has a strong positive correlation to student performance on the
subsequent exam. The teacher would then know to suggest that the students take the review packet seriously and complete
it thoughtfully. It may also work in reverse. Some things do not correlate well together. For instance, a teacher may nd that
completing a particular activity in class had no e ect on student performance. Or, a teacher may identify a negative
correlation, such as the more time that recess cuts into the spelling instruction period, the lower students’ spelling scores
begin to fall.

Correlations are often used to predict events. One of the most common predictions from a strong positive correlation is high
school class rank and success in college. That is one of the reasons why post-high school institutions are so interested in high
school class rank before admitting incoming freshmen. It is important to know that correlations are often helpful in
predicting events. Yet, it is also important to know that a correlation does not imply cause and e ect. Thus, a strong positive
correlation does not mean that one event causes the next event. This is probably the biggest error that educators make.

For example, there is a strong correlation between people wearing warm coats and cold weather. This does not imply or
suggest that people wearing winter coats causes cold weather. The correlation simply means that when there is cold weather,
people are more likely to wear winter coats, or, people are more likely to wear winter coats when the weather is cold. There
also tends to be a strong correlation between students who play instruments and their high academic achievement in other
subject areas. Does this mean that playing in the band causes high academic achievement? No, it means that some of the
students who do well in school also play in the band, or students who play in the band are also doing well in school. This
correlation does not preclude other students from doing well academically and not playing in the band. One event does not
cause the other any more than wearing winter coats causes cold weather.
Wouldn’t it be nice to have a method of correlating important educational events so that decisions could be made with a
degree of certainty? Fortunately, there is a mathematical procedure for just this type of situation. It is called the Pearson
product-moment correlation coe cient.

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Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient
The Pearson product-moment correlation coe cient is a simple statistic that indicates the degree of linear relationship
between two variables. The Pearson correlation coe cient can range in value from +1.0 to -1.0. A value of +1.0 indicates a
perfect direct linear relationship; a value of -1.0 indicates a perfect inverse relationship. For instance, a coe cient of +1.0
means that when the value of something increases, the value of the other item increases. A coe cient of -1.0 means that
when something trends upward; the other event is likely to trend downward. For most educational decisions, it isn’t quite
that easy. Most coe cients are very seldom +1.0 or -1.0.

A strong coe cient is still helpful, regardless of whether it is positive or negative. For instance, grade point average (GPA)
has a strong positive coe cient with scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). For that reason, students are encouraged
to do well in school as a preparation for scoring well on the SAT. Likewise, o -task behaviors in students and student
achievement have a strong negative coe cient. That is why teachers construct lessons to keep the students meaningfully
and thoughtfully engaged in their learning. The level of student achievement and the size of students’ feet have neither a
positive nor a negative coe cient. In fact, it would be near zero. This means that there is no predictive relationship that can
be established between foot size and student achievement.

The Pearson coe cient provides statistical insight which allows educators to make better decisions regarding what is best
for students.

Scatter Plots
A scatter plot is a graph that shows to what degree two variables correlate. In other words, a scatter plot is a graph of a
correlation. In a scatter plot, one of the variables is plotted on the X-axis and the other variable is plotted on the Y-axis. Each
individual score or measurement of the two variables is plotted as a single point. The single point is the junction where the
two variables meet. It is directly above the score represented by the horizontal axis and to the right of the score on the
vertical axis.

The location of the plotted scores indicates the nature of the correlation:

When plotted, if the scores trend in a pattern from lower left to upper right, then the correlation is positive. A
positive correlation where all of the scores fall on a single diagonal line would have a +1.0 Pearson coe cient.

If the scores trend from upper left to lower right, then the correlation is negative. A negative correlation where all of
the scores were on a single diagonal line would have a -1.0 Pearson coe cient.
 If the scores appear in a random or circular fashion, the correlation is neither positive nor negative. A perfectly
random or circular array of scores would have a zero Pearson coe cient, which means that the two items do not
correlate well. Translated this means that when one value increases, the other value cannot be predicted; it either
increases, stays the same, or decreases. With a zero coe cient, there is no ability to predict the results.

The value of a scatter plot is that the correlation is easily identi ed by the shape created by the plotted points. Illustration 22
represents a positive correlation graphed as a scatter plot of IQ and achievement in school for a particular 4th grade class.

Illustration 22: Scatter Plot Example

In this particular case, the scores tend to fall in a line extending from the lower left to the upper right as noted by the gray
line. Translated, this means that as the students’ IQ increased in that particular 4th grade class, their achievement also
increased.

Scatter plots also indicate the degree of strength of a correlation by how close the numbers fall in line. As the plotted points
come closer to falling in a perfectly straight line, they also come closer to a perfect +1.0 or -1.0 Pearson coe cient and have
greater predictive value. Examine the sequence of scatterplots listed in illustration 23 and note how the points begin to fall
into a straight line as the Pearson coe cient increases or decreases toward a +1.0 or -1.0.

Illustration 23: Sequence of Scatter Plots

Pearson correlation coe cient = -1

Pearson correlation coe cient ≈ -0.6

Pearson correlation coe cient ≈ 0

Pearson correlation coe cient ≈ +0.6

 Pearson correlation coe cient = +1

Concluding Remarks
Statistical analysis of data is an important aspect of teaching. Whether the analysis is based on the review of students’ scores
or a critique of the latest educational research study, the ability to correctly use and understand statistics is vital. Teachers
who have mastered the fundamentals described in this chapter will be well ahead of those teachers who are still confused by
them.

Statistics Quiz
Test your mastery of this workshop by taking the Statistics Workshop Quiz.

10 Things to Remember About Statistics

1. It is important to understand both the bene ts and limitations of statistical data. Avoid the temptation to extend a
statistical analysis beyond the limitation of the statistic.

2. A frequency distribution is easily converted into a histogram.

 3. The normal curve is a statistical derivation that serves as a basis for understanding data, but it is seldom found
completely intact in the real world.

4. The mean, median, and mode are di erent measures of central tendency.

5. Standard deviation is a measure of the variance of measurements.

6. A correlation does not prove cause and e ect.

7. A correlation can be used as a predictive statistic.

8. The Pearson product-moment correlation coe cient is the most common type of predictive correlation with
measures that range from -1.0 to +1.0.

9. Scatter plots are a graphic presentation of correlations.

10. Statistical analysis is important to teaching and provides information for lesson planning, re ning instruction,
remediation, and communicating about students.

Video Summary: Statistics

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Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of statistics.

1. Brase, C. and Brase, C. (2006). Understandable Statistics (Eighth Edition). Boston: Houghton Mi in Harcourt.
Available from Amazon.com.
 2. Chalmer, B. (1987). Understanding Statistics. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Available from Amazon.com.

3. McLaughlin, J. (2002). Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences: Step by Step. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing. Available from Amazon.com.

4. Oppenheimer, R. and Gitlow, H. (1986). Stat City: Understanding Statistics Through Realistic Applications (Irwin
Series in Quantitative Analysis for Business). Homewood, IL: Richard D Irwin. Currently out of print. Check local library.

5. Popham, W. and Sirotnik, K. (1992). Understanding Statistics in Education. Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock Publishers.
Available from eCampus.

6. “School Data Tutorials.” (n.d.) UCEA Center for the Advanced Study of Technology Leadership in Education
(CASTLE). Available from http://www.schooltechleadership.org/school-data-tutorials/.

7. Triola, M. (2009). Elementary Statistics. Boston: Addison Wesley. Available from Amazon.com.

8. Watkins, A., Schea er, R., and Cobb, G. (2004). Statistics in Action: Understanding a World of Data. Emeryville, CA:
Key College. Available from Amazon.com.

More resources are available on the PTK Recommended Resource list for Assessment.

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Correlations
Objective
In this workshop, you will develop the ability to identify the educational signi cance of statistics and to interpret and apply
useful statistics for the classroom. The accompanying video will review statistical concepts and calculations.

This lesson will introduce correlations which help teachers to gain information about the relationships between di erent
classroom data. Speci cally, we will review:

The Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coe cient

Scatter Plots

Correlations
A correlation is the measure of a relationship between two or more variables. A correlation is simply a co-relation which
de nes how well two separate variables “go together.” For a teacher, the two variables might be items such as correlating a
successful homework assignment for students to their grades on a related assessment. Correlations also hold the distinction
of being the statistic that is most likely to be misunderstood and misused in education.

It is possible to correlate any item to any other item. Some correlations are silly, such as the correlation made between the
relative abundance of clouds in the sky to a winning lottery ticket. Other correlations have real value to a teacher, such as the
correlation between the amount of time that students study and student achievement. Sometimes correlations are useful,
sometimes they are not; sometimes they are positive, sometimes they are negative.

A positive correlation between two events means that when the value of one item increases, then the value of the other item
is likely to increase. An example of a positive correlation is the relationship between height and weight: taller people
generally weigh more than shorter people. However, since there are plenty of “short” people who weigh as much or more
than “tall” people, the correlation cannot be described as strong. A strong positive correlation means that when the value of
one item increases, the value of the other item also increases. An example of a strong positive correlation is the relationship
between an increase in wealth and an increase in spending. In America, the more people make, the more they spend.

A negative correlation describes an inverse relationship. In this case, when one event increases, the other decreases. For
example, before the advent of safety devices in cars, a negative correlation existed between increasing car speed and the
number of days without car accidents. In this case, the faster the cars were able to travel, the less the chance of an accident-
free day.

THE BIG PICTURE

One of my classmates in a statistics class in college correlated the birth dates of everyone in class to their score on
the midterm. Although there was not much meaning in the correlation, the example does show that any two items,
regardless of how similar or dissimilar they are, can be correlated.

For educational purposes, a correlation may be quite useful. For instance, it may be helpful for the teacher to know that a
score greater than 75% on a student’s review packet has a strong positive correlation to student performance on the
subsequent exam. The teacher would then know to suggest that the students take the review packet seriously and complete
it thoughtfully. It may also work in reverse. Some things do not correlate well together. For instance, a teacher may nd that
completing a particular activity in class had no e ect on student performance. Or, a teacher may identify a negative
correlation, such as the more time that recess cuts into the spelling instruction period, the lower students’ spelling scores
begin to fall.

Correlations are often used to predict events. One of the most common predictions from a strong positive correlation is high
school class rank and success in college. That is one of the reasons why post-high school institutions are so interested in high
school class rank before admitting incoming freshmen. It is important to know that correlations are often helpful in
predicting events. Yet, it is also important to know that a correlation does not imply cause and e ect. Thus, a strong positive
correlation does not mean that one event causes the next event. This is probably the biggest error that educators make.

For example, there is a strong correlation between people wearing warm coats and cold weather. This does not imply or
suggest that people wearing winter coats causes cold weather. The correlation simply means that when there is cold weather,
people are more likely to wear winter coats, or, people are more likely to wear winter coats when the weather is cold. There
also tends to be a strong correlation between students who play instruments and their high academic achievement in other
subject areas. Does this mean that playing in the band causes high academic achievement? No, it means that some of the
students who do well in school also play in the band, or students who play in the band are also doing well in school. This
correlation does not preclude other students from doing well academically and not playing in the band. One event does not
cause the other any more than wearing winter coats causes cold weather.
Wouldn’t it be nice to have a method of correlating important educational events so that decisions could be made with a
degree of certainty? Fortunately, there is a mathematical procedure for just this type of situation. It is called the Pearson
product-moment correlation coe cient.

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Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient
The Pearson product-moment correlation coe cient is a simple statistic that indicates the degree of linear relationship
between two variables. The Pearson correlation coe cient can range in value from +1.0 to -1.0. A value of +1.0 indicates a
perfect direct linear relationship; a value of -1.0 indicates a perfect inverse relationship. For instance, a coe cient of +1.0
means that when the value of something increases, the value of the other item increases. A coe cient of -1.0 means that
when something trends upward; the other event is likely to trend downward. For most educational decisions, it isn’t quite
that easy. Most coe cients are very seldom +1.0 or -1.0.

A strong coe cient is still helpful, regardless of whether it is positive or negative. For instance, grade point average (GPA)
has a strong positive coe cient with scores on the Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT). For that reason, students are encouraged
to do well in school as a preparation for scoring well on the SAT. Likewise, o -task behaviors in students and student
achievement have a strong negative coe cient. That is why teachers construct lessons to keep the students meaningfully
and thoughtfully engaged in their learning. The level of student achievement and the size of students’ feet have neither a
positive nor a negative coe cient. In fact, it would be near zero. This means that there is no predictive relationship that can
be established between foot size and student achievement.

The Pearson coe cient provides statistical insight which allows educators to make better decisions regarding what is best
for students.

Scatter Plots
A scatter plot is a graph that shows to what degree two variables correlate. In other words, a scatter plot is a graph of a
correlation. In a scatter plot, one of the variables is plotted on the X-axis and the other variable is plotted on the Y-axis. Each
individual score or measurement of the two variables is plotted as a single point. The single point is the junction where the
two variables meet. It is directly above the score represented by the horizontal axis and to the right of the score on the
vertical axis.

The location of the plotted scores indicates the nature of the correlation:

When plotted, if the scores trend in a pattern from lower left to upper right, then the correlation is positive. A
positive correlation where all of the scores fall on a single diagonal line would have a +1.0 Pearson coe cient.

If the scores trend from upper left to lower right, then the correlation is negative. A negative correlation where all of
the scores were on a single diagonal line would have a -1.0 Pearson coe cient.
 If the scores appear in a random or circular fashion, the correlation is neither positive nor negative. A perfectly
random or circular array of scores would have a zero Pearson coe cient, which means that the two items do not
correlate well. Translated this means that when one value increases, the other value cannot be predicted; it either
increases, stays the same, or decreases. With a zero coe cient, there is no ability to predict the results.

The value of a scatter plot is that the correlation is easily identi ed by the shape created by the plotted points. Illustration 22
represents a positive correlation graphed as a scatter plot of IQ and achievement in school for a particular 4th grade class.

Illustration 22: Scatter Plot Example

In this particular case, the scores tend to fall in a line extending from the lower left to the upper right as noted by the gray
line. Translated, this means that as the students’ IQ increased in that particular 4th grade class, their achievement also
increased.

Scatter plots also indicate the degree of strength of a correlation by how close the numbers fall in line. As the plotted points
come closer to falling in a perfectly straight line, they also come closer to a perfect +1.0 or -1.0 Pearson coe cient and have
greater predictive value. Examine the sequence of scatterplots listed in illustration 23 and note how the points begin to fall
into a straight line as the Pearson coe cient increases or decreases toward a +1.0 or -1.0.

Illustration 23: Sequence of Scatter Plots

Pearson correlation coe cient = -1

Pearson correlation coe cient ≈ -0.6

Pearson correlation coe cient ≈ 0

Pearson correlation coe cient ≈ +0.6

 Pearson correlation coe cient = +1

Concluding Remarks
Statistical analysis of data is an important aspect of teaching. Whether the analysis is based on the review of students’ scores
or a critique of the latest educational research study, the ability to correctly use and understand statistics is vital. Teachers
who have mastered the fundamentals described in this chapter will be well ahead of those teachers who are still confused by
them.

Statistics Quiz
Test your mastery of this workshop by taking the Statistics Workshop Quiz.

10 Things to Remember About Statistics

1. It is important to understand both the bene ts and limitations of statistical data. Avoid the temptation to extend a
statistical analysis beyond the limitation of the statistic.

2. A frequency distribution is easily converted into a histogram.

 3. The normal curve is a statistical derivation that serves as a basis for understanding data, but it is seldom found
completely intact in the real world.

4. The mean, median, and mode are di erent measures of central tendency.

5. Standard deviation is a measure of the variance of measurements.

6. A correlation does not prove cause and e ect.

7. A correlation can be used as a predictive statistic.

8. The Pearson product-moment correlation coe cient is the most common type of predictive correlation with
measures that range from -1.0 to +1.0.

9. Scatter plots are a graphic presentation of correlations.

10. Statistical analysis is important to teaching and provides information for lesson planning, re ning instruction,
remediation, and communicating about students.

Video Summary: Statistics

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PR EVIO US L ESSO N

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Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of statistics.

1. Brase, C. and Brase, C. (2006). Understandable Statistics (Eighth Edition). Boston: Houghton Mi in Harcourt.
Available from Amazon.com.
 2. Chalmer, B. (1987). Understanding Statistics. New York: Marcel Dekker, Inc. Available from Amazon.com.

3. McLaughlin, J. (2002). Understanding Statistics in the Behavioral Sciences: Step by Step. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing. Available from Amazon.com.

4. Oppenheimer, R. and Gitlow, H. (1986). Stat City: Understanding Statistics Through Realistic Applications (Irwin
Series in Quantitative Analysis for Business). Homewood, IL: Richard D Irwin. Currently out of print. Check local library.

5. Popham, W. and Sirotnik, K. (1992). Understanding Statistics in Education. Itasca, IL: F.E. Peacock Publishers.
Available from eCampus.

6. “School Data Tutorials.” (n.d.) UCEA Center for the Advanced Study of Technology Leadership in Education
(CASTLE). Available from http://www.schooltechleadership.org/school-data-tutorials/.

7. Triola, M. (2009). Elementary Statistics. Boston: Addison Wesley. Available from Amazon.com.

8. Watkins, A., Schea er, R., and Cobb, G. (2004). Statistics in Action: Understanding a World of Data. Emeryville, CA:
Key College. Available from Amazon.com.

More resources are available on the PTK Recommended Resource list for Assessment.

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 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

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NEX T W O R K SHO P

Professional Learning
Objectives:

In this workshop you will familiarize yourself with:

Professional Learning Communities

Professional Learning Plans

Professional Development Plans

The Continuous Improvement Cycle and Four Types of Data

The School Improvement Process

Teacher preparation programs lay the foundation for professional teaching knowledge. Teachers are expected to
participate in ongoing professional development as a part of their practice. The term “professional learning” covers all
types of learning experiences related to teaching, whether it is a brief “sit and get” session, a weeklong conference, or a
series of lectures. While there are many di erent delivery models for professional development, there are just as many
content areas for teachers to develop their knowledge and skills. While some professional development is appropriate for
any faculty, professional development is most e ective when it meets a specific need of a particular group.

Selecting Learning Experiences

School administrators are often faced with the task of reviewing and processing large amounts of data in order to
identify needs and select appropriate professional development activities for a sta . Yet more and more systems are
moving toward teacher evaluation systems which place a priority on teachers participating in professional learning
or growth plans, professional learning based on goals developed for the individual teacher by the individual teacher
and his or her supervising administrator. With this trend toward more teacher involvement in identifying
professional development needs, teachers need to be familiar with the process of how to select learning experiences
 that align with the school community needs. Many systems utilize a continuous improvement cycle in order to
ensure that their school community focuses on systematic problem solving.

Continuous Improvement Cycle

1. Identify Needs:
In this phase of the continuous improvement cycle, educators review data from a variety of sources in order to look for
gaps. Needs are identified by analyzing the data and prioritizing the needs of the school. Schools may select needs based
on:

Student needs

Teacher needs (identified by colleague, supervisor, and reflective feedback)

Local and district school improvement initiatives

Engaging students in activities aligned with State and local standards

Data is often disaggregated into appropriate subgroups and graphed or visualized other ways to help educators identify
the degree of disparity between groups. School primarily examine four types of data: achievement, demographic,
process, and perception. Educators need to look at all types of data to gain an understanding of the whole picture of
school performance.

Types of data:
Achievement data is the data that tells you how well students have performed on an assessment. Achievement
data can be looked at individually, student by student, or can be looked at in various groupings so teachers can
identify populations of students who need more support. Common groupings, or sub-groupings include by teacher,
gender, ethnicity, ELL status, Special Education status, and race. This sub group data allows teachers to see the
e ectiveness of current strategies within di erent populations. Examples of achievement data are standardized test
scores, classroom grades, formative assessment scores, and Lexile scores.
Above are two representations of achievement data. The graph on the left is a line graph that represents student
growth scores over three years in eight di erent subject areas. The bar graph on the right follows three years of
performance data on common district assessments in four di erent English Language Arts classes. The graph on the
left gives us a quick representation on how much progress teachers are making with students in each subject. The
bar graph on the right gives us similar information and can be helpful when there aren’t the same number of data
points for all areas being examined. Both of these types of representations can be useful in helping educators find
gaps in performance and predict trends.

Demographic data describes a population of people. Some examples of demographic data include the
percentage of students by race, gender, disability status, socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and ELL status.
Demographic data lets you know the makeup of the population of students you are working with and is helpful in
interpreting some of your other data. It is often helpful to view demographic data in pie chart to visualize the
segments of a whole school population. Demographic data can also be helpful in looking at trends and making
predictions.

Process data tells you about the processes and programs of the school. Some examples of process data are:
student participation in clubs, sports, afterschool programs, counseling programs, student support programs, and
peer mediation. It also includes data related to lesson planning and instructional framework implementation.
Process data often comes from walk through and observation reports, sign in sheets at events, counting the number
of lunches sold, or the number of tickets sold to di erent events. Teachers may find it helpful to review process data
in their PLC’s when trying to determine supports for students. For instance, if a teacher knows that parents and
students attend activities after school on Tuesday more than any other day of the week, they can capitalize on this
information to schedule their classroom activities on a day when they have an increased chance for good
 participation. Also if a teacher sees walk through data that indicates the use of higher order thinking skills are lower
in their department than in the rest of their school, they can consider how that might be impacting student
achievement and make a change to instruction if needed. Process data can also help teachers understand the types
of school activities that engage the community. Looking for trends in the process data can help a PLC leverage
school resources and optimize participation to meet their goals.

The bar graph below depicts process data on the use of instructional technology in a moderately sized high school. This
particular data was collected over time to monitor the use of instructional technology after a professional development.

Perception data is the data that describes peoples’ opinions, or what they think they know. Perception data often
comes from surveys. Many schools and districts conduct surveys several times a year in order to review perception
data. Perception data is often used when evaluating school climate. Perception data is often collected based on the
strength of agreement with a particular statement, such as “My teachers assign challenging work” and the student
responds with rating of strongly disagree, somewhat disagree, somewhat agree, or strongly agree. Perception data is
often collected at the end of a professional learning activity.

Strongly Strongly
Disagree Neutral Agree
Disagree Agree

My child’s school is clean 5% 15% 10% 45% 25%

My student is safe at school 2% 5% 18% 25% 50%

My child is happy at school 2% 13% 5% 25% 55%

My child’s teacher communicates important

2% 5% 5% 63% 25%
information

Teachers at school are accessible to parents 5% 25% 30% 35% 5%

The perception data table above shows a summary of responses from a parent survey. The benefit of perception data is
that you can collect data with any questions you like. This particular survey was conducted using a Likert scale for
responses. Perception can also be collected using a rubric style response.

Collecting Data
In our everyday life data is being collect on our behaviors all the time! When we watch a video online, we add to the
view count. When we “like” an image on social media, we provide perception data. When we pay with our credit
card, we are providing data to retailers, manufacturers, and financial companies. Data is a part of our culture, and it
drives so much of what our culture is exposed to. Data is how companies know what people like and don’t like, how
much to produce, what to charge, who to advertise to, and how they know what works for them. As educators we
need to know what’s working for us, how much of it to use, and when. Data on our e ectiveness is just as important
as everyone else’s!

It is critical for educators to seek out technology solutions to make data analysis as e cient a process as possible,
and to make the data accessible to the larger school community. As you can imagine, most schools have an
abundance of data. In a school of 1000 students, each student will have at least five demographic factors and five
achievement factors. At the minimum, that is 10,000 raw data points. It is unreasonable to imagine that schools are
collecting, aggregating, disaggregating and calculating statistics by hand. Several di erent tools may be necessary
for schools to interpret and analyze data. Computers to perform calculations, spreadsheets to sort information and
create visual representations of data, databases to student information system databases that house and extract
demographic and achievement data, software that specializes in collecting survey responses, and even software to
track tardiness to school. Educators rely on seeking out and using available technology solutions to make the data
accessible and meaningful.

TEACHER TIP
Connect with your media specialist and instructional technology specialist to get support
in finding technology solutions to manage data.

2. Creating a Plan
Once you’ve crunched the numbers, it’s time to set a goal and develop an action plan. Educators must
collaborate and prioritize their needs and develop a plan that supports attaining a specific goal.

Set Goals

Goal setting is a practice that sounds easy but takes some skill. When we are working to set goals for a school
community, it is important that we are setting goals that are specific, measurable, attainable, relevant, and time
 bound (SMART goals). SMART goals allow a school community to have a clear understanding of what goal they
are trying to reach, when they need to reach it by, to be able to measure progress along the way, and to feel that
it is something worth working for. As a teacher you will spend time each year participating in goal setting for the
school in your school improvement process, for your PLC in your small group learning community, for yourself,
and for your students. The goal setting is the foundation for many plans throughout the school and district.
SMART goals drive district improvement plans, IEPs, student support team plans, and in some districts teacher
bonuses.

Choose a Strategy

Once the goal is set, it’s time to review research in that area and choose a best practice that is e ective in
improving the area of need. Choosing research-based strategies allows schools to be able to anticipate a certain
degree of success in attainment of their goal.

3. Implement the Plan

Once the plan has been formalized it’s time to take action! Implementing the plan is simply following the steps
and the timeline.

4. Monitor
Once the plan has been launched, monitoring will begin. Monitoring includes periodic checks on the progress
on the steps of the plan, and on the attainment of the goal. Monitoring can be informal assessment, checklists,
or formal reporting.

Begin again
As the formative and summative data about goal attainment comes in, it’s time to revisit the cycle by analyzing the data
and identifying needs.

The continuous improvement cycle is a common theme throughout educational practice. As you develop and attain
more knowledge and skills in educational practice you will begin to notice the continuous improvement cycle utilized
again and again.

Individual Plans
Professional Learning Plans

Professional Learning Plans (PLP) begin with the teacher reviewing and reflecting on school and/or classroom
data and selecting and creating goal. PLP is usually developed by the teacher in consultation with the
 administrator. Goals can target an individual teacher’s needs, and / or school or district wide initiatives. These
professional learning goals drive the professional learning plan, which outlines the teacher’s and school’s part
in meeting the professional learning goal. Professional learning plans di er from remediation plans in that they
are not a corrective measure for struggling teachers, but they are instead a required plan for all educators to
ensure that teachers remain life-long learners and that they have the opportunities to develop their areas of
strength, weakness, and preference.

Professional Insight
Develop weaknesses but develop strengths too!
Nothing builds confidence like being an expert!
SAMPLE Professional Learning Plan

Tara Teacher Professional Learning Plan for the 2017-2018 School Year

Data sources reviewed: Previous standardized test scores, Lexile scores, walkthrough data

Professional Learning Goal:

In order to increase my standardized test scores by 5% I will add the use of “clickers” in my classroom to increase
student opportunity to respond to questions and collect formative student data. My goal is to collect formative
assessment data with clickers once a week.

Professional learning activity:

Fall: I will attend a training with the media specialist on the use and maintenance of the multiple response clicker
system and I will observe the use of these clickers in another teacher’s classroom.

Fall / Winter: I will research the use of clickers for formative assessments in the area of Mathematics. I will read and
reflect on at least three professional articles about teachers who have implemented this practice.

Winter: I will work with a member of my team to covert our weekly formative assessments to clicker-based
assessments.

I will begin collecting data with the clickers weekly.

Resources and Supports:

I will need access to the clicker system at least once per week. I will need to meet with the media specialist for at least
one training session on the clickers and have access to him for support periodically.
 Professional Development Plan

Professional Development Plan (PDP) is a plan developed by an administrator for a teacher whose practice
reflects that they are struggling in a particular area or areas. The Professional development plan di ers from
the professional learning plan in that it is an administrator developed plan that is intended to correct
something in the teacher’s practice that is negatively impacting their evaluation. A professional development
plan is part of the evaluation process and intended to do set clear expectations and supports for a teacher who
is having di culty. Professional development plans are often required by teacher evaluation systems for
teachers who score below a certain total or below a certain score in a specific area. For instance, if the teacher
evaluation platform designates total scores between 15-20 are proficient teachers, any teacher at 14 or below
may be required to have a development plan. Also, if an evaluation system uses a scoring system of 1-4 for each
area, and a teacher scores a 1 in a particular area (though their overall rating may be proficient) a professional
development plan may also be required. While professional development plans are corrective, and considered
remediation, they are intended to provide support and clear expectations, so a teacher can grow.

TEACHER TIP
If an administrator puts you on a remediation plan, don’t be shy! Be clear in asking for the
supports that you need to be successful. Consider asking for resources, training classes,
professional coaching, or other a.

SAMPLE Professional Development Plan

Tony Teacher Professional Development Plan for School Year 2017-2018

Start Date: October 2017

End Date: January 2018

Area(s) for improvement: Classroom management

Educator actions: Mr. Teacher will take a classroom management course of at least 20 seat hours. Mr. Teacher will
observe two other teachers’ classrooms (identified by administration) and submit a written reflection of both
observations to his supervising administrator. Mr. Teacher will keep a journal of the di erent classroom management
strategies he uses in class each day and write weekly reflections on their e ectives. Mr. Teacher will consult with the
behavior specialist every two weeks and make his journal available for behavior specialist review. Mr. Teacher will
schedule monthly conferences with his administrator to debrief her on his progress. At each meeting Mr. Teacher will
submit his journal for review.
Resources provided by the system: Classroom management class at the county o ce, behavior specialist consultation,
access to two other teachers’ classrooms for observation, monthly conferences with administrator.

Timeline for implementation: Mr. Teacher will complete the classroom management class by the end of November. He
will begin daily entries in his journal during week two of his classroom management course. Mr. Teacher will begin
conferences with his supervising administrator in October. Mr. Teacher will consult with the behavior specialist
beginning upon completion of the classroom management course (expected in mid-November).

Documentation and Deliverables: Journal, Documentation of course completion, record of conferences with behavior
specialist, record of conferences with administrator

Collaborative Learning
Professional Learning Communities

The Professional Learning Community, or PLC, is a group of people that meet regularly and examine data with
the purpose of making changes to improving student outcomes. PLCs can be content area groups, grade level
groups, or any combination of people from the school community that come together on a regular basis to
review data and inform practices that should lead to better outcomes for students.

PLCs have a goal. Common goals for PLCs include determining what to teach when, creating lesson plans, or
developing common assessments, or improving behavior management. All PLCs share a common purpose of
improving student learning experiences and performance. An example of one school’s PLC process is described
below:

Content Alignment: Review and unpack standards and curriculum to ensure that all members have a clear
understand of the content and the depth of knowledge required.

Teaching Practices: Plan lessons for the unit.

 Student Work: Using a protocol review students work.

Data Analysis: Using a protocol review data collected from common formative and/or summative assessments.

Reflection: Review strengths and challenges of the past unit and determine changes that need to make for
upcoming unit.

The PLC structure described above is designed to be used by the school’s common course teacher PLCs at least
once per week.

Grade level and content area PLCs often focus on examining student and work and achievement data, discussing
best practices and unexpected outcomes. Teachers participating in PLCs will practice skills of analyzing data,
reflective practice, and school improvement.

PLCs should be large enough for people to o er one another feedback, support, and to collaborate on problem
solving, and be small enough that everyone’s needs and concerns can be routinely addressed. PLCs function best
when there is a structure to the meetings, so that PLCs can stay focused on completing their work and meeting their
purpose.

It is not unusual for PLCs to produce work such as common lesson plans, common assessments, remediation plans,
acceleration plans, and intervention plans. PLCs may have the responsibility of reviewing RTI data and moving
students through the school’s tiers of support.

PLCs should meet regularly, with the frequency appropriate to their purpose. If the PLCs task is to examine student
work and develop lesson plans, the PLC may meet once or twice a week.

Participating in PLCs
Analyzing Student Work

One of the most critical endeavors that a teacher PLC embarks upon is the analysis of student work.
Examination and analysis of student work is critical to making e ective instructional decisions. Performing this
task as a group helps teams to build interrater reliability and build consensus in standards alignment and
analysis of rigor. Using protocols can be helpful in keep a group focused on generating specific information
when examining student work. There are several protocols available for examining student work as an individual
or with a group. Some protocols are for extensive and deep thinking and analysis, and others take a short
amount of time and yield a small amount of information. Examining student work is often the primary task of
the PLC, analysis of the work provides formal formative data that is critical to designing the next lessons so that
all learners have chance to succeed.

Some guiding questions for student work analysis:

 Which students’ work is good enough?

What does good enough mean in the context of this work?

For the students that didn’t meet the standard, what do they need to do to meet it?

Was my teaching strategy e ective?

For whom was my teaching strategy ine ective?

Feedback to Colleagues
Giving and receiving feedback is critical skills for PLCs. Over the course of their practice teachers will participate in
giving and receiving feedback with their peers in several areas. Teachers should be prepared to participate in
feedback sessions regarding their professional practice, student and teacher data, identifying needs, professional
learning, planning lessons, and when analyzing student work.

The feedback process can be intimidating at first. People giving feedback may be afraid of hurting someone’s
feelings or exposing their own insecurities during this process. The person receiving feedback can feel insecure,
uncomfortable, and judged. In order to engage in professional feedback with peers, and develop and maintain
collegial relationships, it is important that the feedback process have some clear expectations and processes. This
allows the presenter and receiver to be clear about their roles, and the limits of that roles. Structured processes or
protocols can be helpful in creating clear expectations and supporting a safe space for feedback sessions. Protocols
can be found in literature and on the internet, or you can structure your own. A good protocol will:

Have the participants choose a specific area of examination

Set a time limit for observation / analysis

Include a time for clarifying questions or response

Include “cool” (areas of improvement) and “warm” (behaviors to repeat) feedback

Inspire reflection

School Improvement Process

The School Improvement committee is another type of PLC that you will find in most schools. The School
Improvement Plan (SIP) aligns goals with the vision and mission of the school, and the needs of the school. Schools
assemble diverse teams of school community members to apply the continuous improvement cycle to the school
program as a whole. Teachers are an integral part of the School Improvement PLC. Teachers are needed to help
identify and develop goals for the plan, and they are immensely critical in determining what resources, training, and
supports are needed in order to meet these goals. Teachers have great influence over the school improvement plan,
and great influence over the outcomes. Teachers will participate in every part of the SIP including goal setting, plan
development, implementation and monitoring.
Review Questions
How do you apply the continuous improvement cycle in your PLC?

What is the common purpose of all PLCs?

What types of data should be considered when developing goals for professional learning?

What are the di erences in a PDP and a PLP?

What are the important factors in making peer feedback comfortable?

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

NEX T W O R K SHO P

Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of Professional Development

Banks, F. and Mayes, A. Early Professional Development for Teachers. David Fulton Publishers, 2001. Available from
Amazon.com

Dufor, R. and Eaker, R., Professional Learning Communities at Work: Best Practices for Enhancing Student
Achievement. Solution Tree Press, 1998. Available from Amazon.com

Dufor, R. and Dufor, R. Learning by Doing: A Handbook for Professional Communities at Work – A Practical Guide
for PLC Teams and Leadership. Solution Tree Press, 2016. Available from Amazon.com

Joyce, B, and Calhoun, E. Models of Professional Development: A Celebration of Educators. Corwin Associates, 2010.
Available from Amazon.com

Lieberman, A. and Miller, L. Professional Development that Matters. Teachers College Press, 2001. Available from
Amazon.com
Martin, L. and Kragler, S. Handbook of Professional Development in Education: Successful Models and Practices,
PreK-12. The Guilford Press, 2014. Available from Amazon.com

McLaughlin, C. Teachers Learning Professional Development and Education. Cambridge, 2013. Available from
Amazon.com

Reeves, D. Transforming Professional Development into Student Results. ASCD, 2010. Available from Amazon.com
 PR EVIO US L ESSO N

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Teacher Leadership
Objectives:

In this workshop you will gain an understanding of:

Building networks of support

Advocacy

Leading professional development

Reflecting on practice

Cultural competence

Action research

Teacher Leadership
Leadership skills are an essential part of teaching practice. Teachers must manage classrooms, develop long range
plans for their curriculum and manage a budget and set of resources to accomplish that goal. Teachers can also
fulfill leadership roles in their schools. Teachers who engage in leadership activities are engaging in professional
development for themselves that also impacts the professional growth and experiences of others in the school
community. Teachers have opportunities to be grade level and department chairs, instructional coaches,
instructional trainers, PLC leaders, participate in building leadership teams, hiring boards, serve on the school
council, and lead committees.

Teachers who serve as leaders have the opportunity to discuss and address teacher concerns with other building
leaders which has a big impact on the culture and climate of the school. Teachers can be leaders in many di erent
areas and through many di erent activities. They share a common purpose in that they all act to improve the school
community. Even schools with excellent climate and achievement scores rely on teacher leaders to maintain high
standards and find opportunities for improvement.
 Some core competencies for teacher leaders include:

Engages in reflective practice

Serves as a model for others

Self-awareness

Engages in the activities and issues of the school community

Communication

Leverages technology

Reflective Practice
A well-developed teacher will have a good knowledge of several di erent e ective strategies to use in the classroom.
Having a toolbox full of strategies is great, but teachers also need to be able to select the right tool for the job. While
many strategies can be e ective in a situation, it is often the master teacher who is most successful in choosing the
right strategy for a particular lesson for their students. Novice teachers can build skills in selecting the right tool for
the job by engaging in reflective practice.

Reflective practice is the process through which a teacher considers and challenges their own practices with an
intent to improve. When engaging in reflection, teachers should pay particular attention to issues of equity and bias,
intention and action. Intentional reflection on teaching practice adds context to a teacher’s existing knowledge and
helps develop a higher level of understanding.

In order to be e ective in reflecting on practice, a teacher must be willing to view themselves as a professional that is
willing to take risks, that is willing to be flexible, and that is willing and capable of growth. Reflective practice
requires teachers to question themselves and to be willing to find room for improvement.

Sample questions for reflective practice:

Did this lesson accomplish what I intended?

Why a particular student responds that way?

Was there an opportunity to make this lesson more culturally relevant?

Why did I respond that way?

What assumptions did I make about my students when planning this lesson and how did these beliefs
influence my instruction?

Did I make this lesson more di cult on myself than it should have been?

BuildingNetworks
Connecting with the larger school community can be critical for teachers to be highly e ective. In order for students
to be successful they must have the support from the family and oftentimes they require support from the
community as well. Engaging the community as collaborators in improving the educational outcomes of your
students provides additional supports for the students and teachers and provides a real-life context for much of the
classroom work. When students are able to see that they are important to the community, their success will more
easily follow.

Building a network of support may seem overwhelming, but people in your community want to be involved and they
want to help.

Get the word out. Public awareness can be crucial in generating support in your community. Community
publications, local newspapers, and the school’s social media are great ways to let the community know about
the e orts in your classroom. Schools usually have several social media outlets and will be able to reach a far
wider group than your classroom social media account.

Identify a core group. You probably have already identified a couple of parents or colleagues who have
been friendly and o ered to help somehow. Identify three or four core people and engage them in
conversation about the goals for your students.

Form a purpose. Be specific with your core group about their objectives. It is helpful to develop objectives
together. When people have a clear understanding of their mission and vision they are more easily able to
identify the things that they have to o er and can bring to the table. If they have participated in developing the
mission, vision, or goals, they will have a strong investment in success. Specific goals such as “all the students
will participate in our field trip” or “all students will have mentors for the science fair” are reasonable and
challenging objectives that will motivate people to meet specific targets. If the goal of your group is too
general, such as “create a better educational experience” participants won’t have su cient direction and will
either do nothing or pursue things separately.

Engage the group in the continuous improvement cycle. Apply the cycle to your group’s purpose and keep
members involved. If your group’s purpose is that all students will have mentors to the science fair, share
monitoring, host sneak previews, and celebrate accomplishments along the way.
Advocacy
Advocacy is an integral part of the teaching and learning process. Teachers must act as advocates for their students,
bringing inequities to light and working to level the playing field for all students. Advocacy begins with teachers
being intentional about what they say. Avoid being critical of students and families when speaking to community
members, and on social media. Be intentional about communicating the inequities and the needs. Be intentional in
communicating the importance of education for all students.

Besides advocating for students, teachers should advocate for teachers. Speaking intentionally about the success
and impact of the teachers in classroom brings a positive light on the teaching profession. Teachers have the
opportunity to communicate positive experiences with members of the community when they are at the grocery
store, social engagements, and in any other casual conversations. Advocacy does not require a formal space, a blog,
or a conference. Advocacy starts with sharing positive teaching experiences during everyday conversations.

TEACHER TIP
Every post on social media adds to your “brand”. Increase positive and uplifting posts
about your work life and avoid negative posts. Not only are negative posts a bad reflection
on the profession, but they can negatively impact your professional reputation and impact
your attractiveness to potential employers.

Leading Professional Development

Teachers are extremely busy professionals who have little time left over in their day after teaching, planning, grading,
and completing paperwork. Any professional development that is required of a teacher must be engaging and
 worthwhile. As you begin to assume the role of a teacher leader, you are likely to be asked to provide a professional
development to a group of teachers. Teaching teachers can be a great opportunity to share your expertise and help
your colleagues grow, but care should be taken to design a professional development that will engage adult learners.

There are some di erent challenges when working with adults. One challenge is that you lose the “authority figure”
status that you have when you teach kids. Adults are more critical and less forgiving. They are likely to challenge new
information. When working with adults you are not working with a “blank slate” trying to impart knowledge, you are
working to change the practices of people with di erent levels of experience. When we are engaging in professional
development we are asking people to change what they are already doing, we aren’t really asking them to learn
something new. In order to get someone to change we have to provide good reason and incentive to do so.

Adult learners need relevance. As they challenge new information, they make comparisons to the knowledge and
experience they already hold. Adult learners need the opportunity to evaluate the new information if they are going
to adopt it into practice. Schedule time in your professional development for your adult students to evaluate
information through a writing exercise, or through conversation with a group.

Some accommodations must be made when working with adult learners. Adults have rich lives and responsibilities
and it is unreasonable to expect them to keep their cell phones up and ask for permission to go to the restroom. The
level of independence of the adult learner requires a di erent type of classroom management. When you begin a
professional development with adults it is important to set clear expectations. Are you planning scheduled
bathroom breaks? What’s the cellphone policy? Is the training long enough that it would be worth developing group
norms? Adults are usually very cooperative when they know what the expectations are, and when expectations are
reasonable.

Cultural Competence
While some school communities look homogeneous, they usually encompass a diverse student population. E ective
teachers display cultural competence. Cultural Competence refers to the teacher’s ability to understand and
 appropriately respond to students’ and families’ unique cultural variables. Cultural competence refers to factors
such as race, ethnicity, gender identity, language, country of origin, religion, and disability. While this list includes a
lot of indicators, it is not exhaustive. There is no one book or resource that allows a teacher to become culturally
competent. Teachers develop this skill but acquiring knowledge over time, asking questions, and engaging in
reflective practice. The most important thing to do to develop cultural competence is to practice intentional
reflection on your practice and its implication for di erent cultures.

Research
The teaching field is in a state of perpetual study. Researchers and practitioners alike are eager to collect data and
share information on existing and new strategies for di erent populations of students. It is critical to the betterment
of educational practice for teachers to engage in di erent types of research and communication in order to advance
the field and to improve their own practice.

Action Research
For full time teachers, the most common type of research is action research. This is research in which the person
conducting the research is the one taking the action. You are taking data on your own actions. Action research can
be done by an individual teacher or by a collaborating team of teachers. This intent of action research is to improve
practice.

Action research can be divided into seven di erent steps:

1. Clarifying theories

2. Selecting a focus

3. Identifying research questions

4. Collecting data

5. Analyzing data

6. Reporting results

7. Taking informed action

You will notice that the process of action research is very similar to the continuous improvement cycle that guides
the PLC and the School Improvement process. The desire for ongoing improvement in one’s practice and the
success of students is pervasive in education.

Once teachers have engaged in research, it is helpful to share results with others. Sharing information with your PLC
and school community is a great start. There are many professional conferences dedicated to teacher presentations
on the data collected in their classrooms. Sharing results in these ways develop essential leadership skills and can
positively impact teacher performance and evaluation ratings.
Review Questions:
How do you approach teaching adults di erently than young people?

How are action research and the school improvement process similar?

How can you be an everyday advocate?

How do you build a network of support?

How does reflective practice develop a teacher?

PR EVIO US L ESSO N

W O R K SHO P INDEX

Resources and References

The following is a list of resources that relate to the topic of Teacher Leadership

Barbara, B. and Schrum, L. Every Teacher a Leader. Corwin Press, 2017. Available from Amazon.com

Crowther, F. Developing Teacher Leaders: How Teacher Leadership Enhances Student Success. Corwin Press, 2009.
Available from Amazon.com

Gabriel, J. How to Thrive as a Teacher Leader. ASCD, 2015. Available from Amazon.com

Johnson, J. and Leibowitz, S. The Coach Approach to School Leadership: Leading Teachers to Higher Levels of
E ectiveness. ASCD, 2017. Available from Amazon.com

Krovetz, M. Collaboratvie Teacher Leadership: How Teachers can Foster Equitable Schools. Available from
Amazon.com

Lieberman, A. and Miller, L. Teacher Leadership. Jossey Bass, 2005. Available from Amazon.com

Murphy, J. Connecting Teacher Leadership and School Improvement. Corwin Press, 2005. Available from
Amazon.com

Reeves, D. Reframing Teacher Leadership. ASCD, 2011. Available from Amazon.com