CHUMAYYO, DOMINIC N.

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CE 211, Fundamentals of Surveying

History of Surveying

The history of surveying dates back to ancient times, with a recorded land register in Egypt in
3000BC, and re-establishment of farm boundaries following floods of the Nile River and
construction of the Great Pyramid of Giza recorded about the same time.

Under the Romans, land surveying was established as a profession and land surveyors
established the basic measurements under which the Roman Empire was divided, such as a tax
register of conquered lands (300AD).

Biblical references to land boundaries and landmarks can be found in: Deuteronomy 19.14 and
27.17; Proverbs 22.28 and 23.10; and Job 24.2

In eighteenth century Europe, a method of surveying known as triangulation, which relied on

the measurement of angles, was used to build a hierarchy of networks to allow point
positioning within a country.

Tableis of Surveying, 1728 Cyclopedia: historical surveying instruments Tableis of Surveying,

1728

Cyclopedia: historical surveying instruments

In the early days of British colonisation of Australia and New Zealand "much of the survey work
undertaken to open up the country and provide land holdings to settlers was carried out using
Gunter’s chains, measuring wheels, circumferenter, Kater’s compass and even pacing where
approximation sufficed … so long as the corners of the land were clearly staked and marked by
the surveyor, the accuracies of measurement and direction were left to chance" (Hallmann
1994, 2.3)

Over time, Gunter’s chain was replaced by steel bands and invar tapes, and later by
Electromagnetic Distance Measurement (EDM) equipment, and subsequently Global
Positioning System (GPS) devices, each in turn capable of improved efficiency and greater
accuracies of measurement than the preceding forms. Likewise, compasses were replaced by
transits, later theodolites and then Total Stations, which combined angular and distance
measurement in a single survey instrument.

In all of these situations, the status of measurements of preceding times was subject to
alternative forms of evidence of ‘what the land boundary was intended to be, and where it was
intended to be located’: measurements and mathematics alone do not provide the correct
answers!
Types of Surveying

Survey Process

The surveying process can vary depending on the specific type of survey being conducted.
Here's a breakdown of the general process for a few common types:

Land Surveying

* Cadastral Surveying:

* Establish and define land boundaries for legal and administrative purposes.

* Process involves:

* Legal research to determine property lines

* Fieldwork to locate and mark property corners

* Measurements of distances and angles

* Data processing and calculations to create legal descriptions

* Preparation of maps and plats

* Topographic Surveying:

* Create detailed maps showing the natural and artificial features of the land.

* Process involves:

* Establishing control points

* Taking elevation measurements using levels or total stations

* Collecting horizontal data using theodolite or total station

* Data processing and contouring

* Preparation of topographic maps

* Engineering Surveying:

* Provide data for planning, designing, and constructing engineering projects.

* Process involves:

* Establishing control points

* Taking measurements for project layout

* Calculating volumes and areas

 * Preparing construction plans and profiles

* Monitoring construction progress

Geodetic Surveying

* Determines the size and shape of the Earth and the precise location of points on its surface.

* Process involves:

* Establishing a network of control points over a large area

* Using precise instruments and techniques to measure distances and angles

* Applying complex mathematical calculations to determine coordinates

* Creating geodetic reference systems

Hydrographic Surveying

* Maps and charts bodies of water and adjacent land areas.

* Process involves: you

* Conducting depth soundings

* Locating underwater obstacles

* Measuring tidal currents and wave heights

* Collecting data on shoreline features

* Creating nautical charts and maps

Other Types of Surveying

* Mining Surveying: Involves underground and surface measurements for mine planning and
development.

* Construction Surveying: Focuses on layout, staking, and monitoring of construction projects.

* Photogrammetry: Uses aerial or satellite images to create maps and extract information.

* GIS Surveying: Incorporates Geographic Information Systems for data management and
analysis.s.

Units of Measurement in Surveying

The units of measurement used in surveying depend largely on the system of measurement
employed in a particular region (metric or imperial) and the specific type of survey being
conducted.

Common Units

Length

* Metric: Meters (m), kilometers (km), centimeters (cm), millimeters (mm)

* Imperial: Feet (ft), yards (yd), miles (mi), inches (in), chains

Area

* Metric: Square meters (m²), hectares (ha)

* Imperial: Square feet (ft²), acres

Angle

* Degrees, minutes, seconds (DMS): A common unit for measuring angles, with 1 degree
divided into 60 minutes, and 1 minute divided into 60 seconds.

* Grads: Another unit for measuring angles, with 100 grads in a right angle.

* Radians: A unit of angular measurement defined as the ratio of the length of an arc of a circle
to the radius of the circle.

Elevation

* Meters (m): Primarily used in metric systems.

* Feet (ft): Commonly used in imperial systems.

Responsibilities, Roles, and Tasks of a Surveyor

A surveyor's role is multifaceted, varying significantly based on the specific type of survey being
conducted. Let's explore the responsibilities, roles, and tasks for a few common types of
surveying:

Land Surveying

* Responsibilities:

* Establish and maintain land boundaries.

* Prepare accurate land and topographic maps.

* Provide legal descriptions of land parcels.

 * Conduct property line research.

* Roles:

* Boundary surveyor

* Topographic surveyor

* Cadastral surveyor

* Tasks:

* Fieldwork: conducting measurements, collecting data.

* Office work: data processing, map creation, legal descriptions.

* Client interaction: explaining survey results, addressing property disputes.

Engineering Surveying

* Responsibilities:

* Provide data for engineering projects.

* Establish control points for construction.

* Calculate volumes and areas.

* Prepare construction plans and profiles.

* Roles:

* Construction surveyor

* Route surveyor

* Control surveyor

* Tasks:

* Setting out construction lines and grades.

* Monitoring construction progress.

* Calculating earthwork quantities.

* Preparing as-built surveys.

Geodetic Surveying

* Responsibilities:
 * Determine the size and shape of the Earth.

* Establish geodetic control networks.

* Develop geodetic reference systems.

* Roles:

* Geodesist

* Control surveyor

* Tasks:

* Conducting precise measurements using specialized equipment.

* Performing complex calculations.

* Analyzing geodetic data.

Hydrographic Surveying

* Responsibilities:

* Map and chart bodies of water.

* Determine water depths and seabed topography.

* Identify underwater hazards.

* Roles:

* Hydrographer

* Marine surveyor

* Tasks:

* Conducting depth soundings.

* Collecting data on tides, currents, and waves.

* Creating nautical charts and maps.

Responsibilities, Roles, and Tasks of a Surveyor Assistant

A surveyor assistant plays a crucial role in supporting the surveyor's work. While specific tasks
may vary depending on the type of survey, the general responsibilities remain consistent.

Common Responsibilities
* Fieldwork Support:

* Setting up and maintaining surveying equipment.

* Assisting in taking measurements (distances, angles, elevations).

* Marking survey points and lines.

* Carrying and transporting equipment.

* Clearing survey areas of obstructions.

* Assisting with data collection and recording.

* Office Work:

* Data entry and processing.

* Drafting and plotting survey data.

* Maintaining survey records and equipment.

* Preparing field notes and reports.

Specific Roles and Tasks

While the core responsibilities remain similar, the specific tasks of a surveyor assistant can vary
based on the type of survey:

* Land Surveying: Assisting in property boundary determination, topographic mapping, and

legal descriptions.

* Engineering Surveying: Supporting construction layout, volume calculations, and as-built

surveys.

* Geodetic Surveying: Helping with control point establishment, data collection for large-scale
projects, and equipment handling.

* Hydrographic Surveying: Assisting in depth soundings, data recording, and equipment

operation on boats.

Key Skills for a Surveyor Assistant

* Physical fitness for outdoor work.

* Attention to detail for accurate data collection.

* Basic math skills for calculations.

* Ability to follow instructions and work as part of a team.

* Knowledge of surveying equipment and techniques.

Field Notes

Field notes are the backbone of any surveying project. They serve as a detailed record of
measurements, observations, and conditions encountered during the field work. Accurate and
complete field notes are essential for subsequent computations, analysis, and the creation of
final maps or plans.

Essential Components of Field Notes

Regardless of the type of survey, field notes should typically include:

* Date, time, and location: This information provides context for the data collected.

* Weather conditions: Wind speed, temperature, precipitation, and other atmospheric factors
can affect measurements.

* Equipment used: A list of instruments and their serial numbers should be included.

* Personnel involved: Names and roles of the survey crew members.

* Reference points and control stations: Clear descriptions and coordinates of established
points.

* Measurements: All recorded data, including distances, angles, elevations, and other relevant
information.

* Sketches and diagrams: Visual representations of the survey area, features, and instrument
setups.

* Observations and notes: Any additional information that might be relevant, such as ground
conditions, obstacles, or unusual occurrences.

Field Notes for Different Types of Surveying

While the basic structure remains similar, the specific content of field notes varies depending
on the type of survey. Here's a breakdown:

1. Topographic Surveying

* Detailed descriptions of ground contours, natural and artificial features.

* Accurate measurements of elevations using leveling or trigonometric methods.

* Notes on vegetation, soil types, and cultural features.

2. Cadastral Surveying
* Precise measurements of property boundaries and corners.

* Descriptions of property lines, monuments, and fences.

* Legal descriptions of land parcels and ownership information.

3. Engineering Surveying

* Measurements for construction projects, such as roads, bridges, and buildings.

* Data on existing structures, utilities, and right-of-ways.

* Calculations for earthwork quantities and volumes.

4. Geodetic Surveying

* Observations of astronomical and geodetic control points.

* Measurements of long distances and angles with high precision.

* Calculations for geodetic coordinates and datum transformations.

5. Hydrographic Surveying

* Depth measurements of water bodies using soundings.

* Locations of underwater features, such as shoals and wrecks.

* Tidal and current data for accurate positioning.

Tips for Effective Field Note Taking

* Clarity and organization: Use clear and concise language, and maintain a logical flow of
information.

* Neatness: Legible handwriting and organized presentation are essential.

* Accuracy: Double-check all measurements and recordings.

* Completeness: Record all relevant data, even if it seems unimportant at the time.

* Use of symbols and abbreviations: Develop a consistent system for shorthand notation.

* Backups: Consider using digital recording devices or taking photos to supplement written
notes.