IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO.

1, JANUARY 2015 67

Analyzing Assisted Offloading of Cellular User

Sessions onto D2D Links in Unlicensed Bands
Sergey Andreev, Olga Galinina, Alexander Pyattaev, Kerstin Johnsson, and Yevgeni Koucheryavy

Abstract—For the past years, the analysts have been predicting

a tremendous and continuous increase in mobile traffic, causing
much of industry and academia to seek out any and all methods
to increase wireless network capacity. In this paper, we investigate
one such method, cellular data offloading onto direct connections
between proximate user devices, which has been shown to provide
significant wireless capacity gains. To do so, we formulate a new
system model that couples a cellular network in licensed bands and
a device-to-device (D2D) network in unlicensed bands. We propose
that devices be continually associated with the cellular base station
and use this connectivity to help manage their direct connections in
unlicensed spectrum. In particular, we demonstrate that assisted
offloading of cellular user sessions onto the D2D links improves the
degree of spatial reuse and reduces the impact of interference. In
this study, a session is a real-time flow of data from one user to an-
other, which adheres to a Poisson point process (PPP). By contrast
to a throughput- or capacity-centric system view, the application
of PPP enables formulations where entire user sessions, rather
than singular data packets, are arriving at random and leaving the
system after being served. The proposed methodology is flexible
enough to accommodate practical offloading scenarios, network
selection algorithms, quality of service measures, and advanced
wireless technologies. In this study, we are primarily interested
in evaluating the data session blocking probability in dynamically
loaded cellular and D2D networks, but given the importance of Fig. 1. Assisted offloading of cellular traffic.
energy efficiency for mobile devices, we are also interested in char-
acterizing the energy expenditure of a typical data session in these
different networks. First with our advanced analytical methodol- I. I NTRODUCTION AND M OTIVATION
ogy and then with our detailed system-level simulator, we evaluate
the performance of network-assisted data session offloading from
cellular to D2D connections under a variety of conditions. This
analysis represents a useful tool in the development of practical
T HE RAPID expansion of wireless communications over
the past decade has introduced fundamental changes in
mobile Internet access and posed new challenges for the re-
offloading schemes and ongoing standardization efforts. searchers worldwide. In recent years, the wireless standards
Index Terms—Device-to-device, cellular network, LTE, community completed the fourth generation (4G) of broad-
stochastic geometry, PPP, assisted offloading, unlicensed bands, band communication technology [1], which offers numerous
WiFi-direct. advancements in wireless system design, resulting in significant
improvements in spectral and energy efficiencies as well as user
quality of service (QoS). However, it is commonly believed
that even 4G will not be able to accommodate the anticipated
acceleration in traffic fueled by the rapid proliferation in variety
and numbers of wireless mobile devices [2].
In existing cellular broadband networks, much of mobile
Manuscript received May 1, 2013; revised November 15, 2013; accepted
August 5, 2014. Date of publication November 11, 2014; date of current version
traffic is already offloaded onto small cells (cellular and WiFi)
January 30, 2015. This work was supported by Intel Corporation, GETA, TISE, which increase capacity by improving channel reuse. Given the
and the Internet of Things program of DIGILE, funded by Tekes. The work of current network loading, new methods of reuse and offloading
S. Andreev was supported with a Postdoctoral Researcher grant by the
Academy of Finland, as well as with a Jorma Ollila grant by Nokia Foundation.
are required to accommodate the expected influx of mobile
S. Andreev, O. Galinina, A. Pyattaev, and Y. Koucheryavy are with the traffic [3]. In other words, the network needs additional small
Department of Electronics and Communications Engineering, Tampere Uni- cells beyond those created by fixed access points, such as those
versity of Technology, Tampere 33720, Finland (e-mail: [email protected];
[email protected]; [email protected]; [email protected]). introduced by direct connectivity between wireless devices (see
K. Johnsson is with Intel Corporation, Santa Clara, CA 95054 USA (e-mail: Fig. 1), i.e., device-to-device (D2D) communications.
[email protected]). With D2D, neighboring wireless devices can communicate
Color versions of one or more of the figures in this paper are available online
at http://ieeexplore.ieee.org. without use of the network infrastructure, enabling a dramatic
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSAC.2014.2369616 improvement in spectral reuse [4]. In addition, the proximity
0733-8716 © 2014 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
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68 IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

of user devices promises higher data rates, lower transfer de- [17]–[19] propose interference mitigation techniques that em-
lays, and reduced power consumption [5]. User devices can ploy inputs such as channel state information (CSI), exact
also serve as mobile relay nodes, enabling data relaying and user location information, etc. The interference mitigation
cooperative communications [6]. scheme instructs D2D connections to either (i) share licensed
Driven by a wealth of potential proximity-based applications, band resources with standard cellular transmissions (those be-
the concept of D2D links as a new cell tier to wireless networks tween users and base stations), (ii) use dedicated resources, or
in licensed bands has been explored in numerous publications (iii) remain on the cellular infrastructure network. This
over the past several years [7]. Nevertheless, despite this recent decision-making process, also known as transmission mode
popularity, cellular D2D standardization efforts are slow in selection, has attracted a great deal of research focusing on
developing [8]; thus, related products are not expected for many various optimization targets from signal to interference plus
years to come. noise ratio (SINR) [20] and throughput [18] to energy efficiency
Alternatively, unlicensed band D2D protocols, such as WiFi- [21], data delay [22], fairness, and outage probability [23].
Direct, already exist on the market. While these protocols In general, published D2D studies differ in terms of the
enable direct connectivity between devices, their performance number of communicating nodes (base stations, cellular users,
can be significantly improved with some degree of centralized and D2D users), the emphasis on uplink (UL) vs. downlink
radio resource management and device discovery/selection as- (DL) cellular transmissions, orthogonal vs. non-orthogonal re-
sistance. By contrast to many past works [9], [10], we propose source sharing, the amount of available network assistance, and
that devices be continually associated with the cellular network the network/D2D duplexing mode. Most of them attempt to
and use this connectivity to help manage their D2D connections integrate D2D into Long Term Evolution (LTE) technology by
in the unlicensed bands. Third Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) [24], [25]. How-
In this paper, we investigate the potential benefits of network- ever, some papers address legacy cellular systems as well [26].
assisted D2D offloading in fifth generation (5G) networks. More recently, the FlashLinQ technology was proposed in [27]
We analyze the achievable performance gains using extensive and analyzed in [28], offering a distributed D2D communica-
simulations and an analytical framework that applies to both tions technology in the licensed bands that uses the cellular
licensed cellular transmissions and unlicensed D2D connec- network for synchronization purposes only.
tions. We demonstrate that dynamic cellular traffic offloading Given the current focus on LTE networks (and their im-
onto D2D links mitigates cellular network congestion and that pending capacity crunch), many performance improvement
simple forms of network assistance [11], [12] greatly improve techniques have already been evaluated for licensed band
the performance of D2D connections. D2D such as the design of D2D-aware multiple-input/multiple-
output (MIMO) schemes [29], network coding [30], successive
II. BACKGROUND AND P ROPOSED A PPROACH interference cancellation [31], and wireless video distribution
The potential applications for D2D connectivity in cellular over D2D [32]. With the recent introduction of comprehensive
networks are many [13]. They range from localized voice ser- D2D frameworks in [18] and [19], this research direction is
vices (offloading calls between proximate users) to proximity- essentially concluded.
based data services, such as content sharing, gaming, local In response to the excitement around D2D, 3GPP began a
multi-casting, context-aware applications, and public safety feasibility study on LTE-Direct [33]—a synchronous system
[14]. More broadly, the term “device” refers to more than just in licensed spectrum under the control of the operator—
user equipment; it also applies to “machines” (i.e., Machine- approximately two years ago. This work was recently com-
Type Communications or MTC). Thus, D2D enables a plethora pleted and Stage 2 work has begun. However, given the many
of emerging MTC-related applications and services as well. technical challenges and disjoint opinions of 3GPP member
companies, “product” is not expected for several years, thus
the immediate attention of industrial players is on D2D in the
A. D2D in Licensed Bands
unlicensed bands.
Licensed spectrum continues to be scarce and expensive,
and while there are efforts to make additional bands available
for mobile communications, they are not enough to meet the B. D2D in Unlicensed Bands
expected demand. Instead, cellular broadband providers need An operator may not claim exclusive use of any unlicensed
to find new ways to boost capacity on their existing cellular spectrum, such as that associated with the industrial, scientific
deployments. One promising method is network-assisted D2D, and medical (ISM) bands. As a result, these bands can expe-
as evidenced by the rich amount of literature on this topic, rience significant uncontrolled interference, which requires a
covering a range of network assistance levels. At one end, net- robust wireless technology which can cope with random
work assistance is as simple as providing synchronization for interference. The Bluetooth and WiFi technologies are de-
communicating devices (e.g., Aura-net [15]). At the other, the signed with this in mind and have therefore become increas-
network manages each D2D connection, enabling them to act ingly popular in wireless personal and local area networks
as an underlay tier in the cellular network [7]. (WPANs/WLANs). Based on the IEEE 802.11 standards, WiFi
Interference management, including proper admission and is currently the predominant solution (both with and without
power control [16], is required to support multiple D2D support from the infrastructure access points) for user device
connections in the same coverage area. Recent publications connectivity [8].

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ANDREEV et al.: OFFLOADING OF CELLULAR USER SESSIONS ONTO D2D LINKS IN UNLICENSED BANDS 69

Unfortunately, in conventional WLANs, access points have FlashLinQ [39], assess the performance of multi-tier heteroge-
no means of managing resources used by ad hoc user con- neous cellular systems [40], and even capture the distributions
nections, which contend for unlicensed band channels in a of transmit power and SINR in D2D networks [41]. However,
distributed fashion. Hence, WiFi is often criticized for deliv- in most cases, the use of stochastic geometry does not directly
ering an unsatisfactory QoS experience [34]. However, WiFi enable system dynamics. Moreover, the existing literature fails
generally promises users higher data rates and energy effi- to provide a unified framework for modeling the intricate
ciencies than competing wireless technologies [8], and ad hoc interactions between a cellular network in the licensed bands
connections can, in principle, be made to deliver stable perfor- and a D2D network in the unlicensed bands.
mance results without assistance of the access point [35]. In In this paper, we present a general methodology for modeling
the recently introduced WiFi-Direct (WFD) technology [36], operation of cellular network that is capable of offloading user
user devices connect and communicate without help of the sessions onto D2D connections in the unlicensed spectrum.
infrastructure by assigning one device as “Group Owner” and The proposed methodology is broad enough to accommodate
the others as “Clients.” Each WFD Group Owner provides various offloading scenarios, radio selection algorithms, user
synchronization to all WFD Clients connected to it, allowing performance characteristics, and advanced wireless technolo-
them to efficiently discover and page one another. gies (e.g., WFD and LTE). Here we are primarily interested in
Since many user devices already support WFD (and their evaluating session blocking and reject probabilities, which are
market share is only expected to increase), it is becoming when a user session is not admitted by the D2D network, cellu-
crucial to provide them with a way to minimize signaling lar network, or both. However, given the increasing importance
overheads. Hence, future D2D systems could benefit from some of energy efficiency for mobile battery-driven user devices [42],
form of management and support by an authoritative entity such we also aim at characterizing the energy expenditure of a typical
as the cellular infrastructure [5]. In this paper, we consider an user session based on the power model from [37].
architecture under which several key functions of D2D com- In this work, we address the following challenges:
munication are managed by the cellular network. In particular,
device and service discovery is handled by the infrastructure, 1) General model for assisted offloading of cellular ses-
which provides devices with a service to request proximity sions: In Section III, we formulate a new methodology
notifications, as well as proximity tracking. In addition, device that couples a cellular network in the licensed bands
authentication and D2D link security is automated by relaying with a D2D network in the unlicensed bands. No pre-
the necessary security information over cellular infrastructure. viously proposed solutions consider these wireless com-
In other words, we assume that cellular network controls the munication technologies jointly in related D2D studies.
setup of the D2D connections, but does not monitor interference Moreover, while most current publications concentrate on
or link quality, which is similar to the loosely controlled D2D static, full-buffer loading scenarios, our model employs
mode proposed in [13] (as opposed to fully controlled D2D in Poisson point processes that explicitly capture network
the licensed bands). It is further assumed that the devices can dynamics.
handle the varying link quality effects themselves, falling back 2) Detailed evaluation of a D2D network: In Section IV,
to cellular mode if D2D link can no longer support the required we investigate the interactions among simultaneous D2D
data rate. Without loss of generality, in this paper we consider a user sessions. Since communication in the unlicensed
system with static users, as any potential disconnects could just bands is inherently interference-limited, we specifically
be treated as new arrivals on the infrastructure network. account for the interference caused by each D2D link to
other neighboring links. Further, we assume that the cel-
lular network may assist the D2D network with admission
C. Paper Focus, Contribution, and Structure
control of new D2D connections to improve the degree of
Current cellular networks may be substantially underutilized spatial reuse and reduce interference.
[37] except in highly congested areas during specific times of 3) Characterization of baseline cellular network perfor-
the day (commuting hours, public events, etc.). Therefore, the mance: In Section V, we augment the D2D network
performance of a cellular/D2D network depends greatly on the model with a conventional cellular network. We model an
users’ arrival rate as well as on their geographical locations, and interference-free environment where the cellular network
it is important to capture the network dynamics together with employs admission control, power control, and schedul-
the spatial features. A promising and very flexible approach ing of ongoing user sessions. When transmitting real-time
to handle network spatiality is to use tools from stochastic data, users adjust their power level as in [37] based on two
geometry while explicitly investigating network dynamics with transmission policies: maximum user rate vs. full system
queuing theory. utilization.
The application of queuing theory makes it possible to model 4) Extensive dynamic system-level evaluations: In
user sessions arriving at random and leaving the system after Section VI, we detail our system-level simulator
being served. A session is a real-time data flow from one and use it to verify our analytical findings and provide
user to another; in this work, sessions are initiated according engineering insights into the performance of real-world
to a Poisson point process. Such spatial processes have been wireless networks. We assemble a test scenario that
used extensively to characterize the coexistence of cellular and mimics LTE-assisted offloading of user sessions from
mobile ad-hoc networks [38], study device discovery aspects of cellular onto WiFi-Direct and quantify the performance

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70 IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

gains. The output of this work provides many useful

insights into network-assisted offloading of user sessions
from LTE to D2D links, and the accompanying analytical
and simulation frameworks may serve as a useful
reference for ongoing work in academia and industry
(e.g., 3GPP).

III. S YSTEM M ODELING

In this section, we introduce our integrated system model of
Fig. 2. Power model of a transmitting user.
cellular and D2D networks and summarize the core assump-
tions made throughout this paper. where di is the distance between the BS and the transmitting
user Ti , k is the propagation exponent, and G is the propagation
A. General Model constant.
We concentrate on a cellular network in the licensed bands Without loss of generality, we further assume that the data
coupled with a D2D network in the unlicensed bands both serv- rate is continuous, and the power/rate mapping is given by
ing data from wireless users. The considered traffic corresponds Shannon’s formula.
to real-time sessions with the target bitrate r. For every session Assumption 2: The transmit power pi of a user i and its
i, we differentiate between the transmitting user Ti , which is data rate ri are coupled by Shannon’s capacity theorem for
data originator and the receiving user Ri , which is the respective interference-free environment:
destination. Due to non-overlapping frequency bands, transmis- ri = w log(1 + γi pi ), (2)
sions on the two networks do not interfere with each other
and every Ti may send its data to Ri via either the cellular where pi is the output power of the radio frequency (RF) power
network (infrastructure path) or the D2D network (direct path) amplifier, γi is the SNR per power unit in (1), and w is the
as shown in Fig. 1. For the sake of simplicity, we disregard any spectral bandwidth.
communication that is not directed at a particular D2D partner. We employ a realistic but also analytically tractable power
To explicitly model system spatiality, we make the following model (see Fig. 2) with different power levels for every trans-
principal assumption. mitting user and take into account antenna efficiency η. This
Assumption 1: The transmitting users are distributed as model is similar to that in [37] and includes (i) dynamic transmit
a Poisson point process (PPP) in the three-dimensional power ptx = γ1i η (eri /w − 1) + pc , which is incurred whenever
space (two-dimensional spatial locations and time) with time- the user is transmitting (ri > 0), with pc being some constant
independent rate function λ f (x), where f (x) is the user spatial circuit power, and (ii) active power pa , which is consumed
location distribution. We further assume that this user location whenever the user does not transmit but waits for a transmission
distribution is uniform within a circle of a particular radius R. opportunity.
For a transmitting user Ti , the corresponding receiving user The BS governs the network by applying transmission poli-
Ri arrives simultaneously with Ti , such that the location of Ri cies. A particular policy generally decides on user admission,
is distributed uniformly within the same circle of radius R. The scheduling, and transmit power. Whenever admitted, a trans-
first assumption implies that the locations of transmitting users mitting user occupies a fraction of the time frame resource and
are also distributed uniformly within the same circle R [43]. We sets its power as commanded by the BS to achieve the data
additionally assume that the duration of a real-time session by rate given by (2). The BS makes a new decision on scheduling
each Ti is exponentially distributed with mean 1µ . allocations and transmission power for all active users at every
new arrival or when an existing session is served and leaves the
B. Cellular Network Model system.
For the Maximum Rate (MR) policy, we assume that a user
We consider an isolated cell of a centralized network, which
sends its data at the maximum allowed transmit power level.
is exempt from inter-cell interference. This formulation implies
In the absence of interference, this ensures that the data rate of
interference-free communication, as user transmissions are or-
each user is thus maximized. Given the relationship in (2), the
thogonal by network design. Assuming that downlink channel
instantaneous data rate for the session i is determined by the
is typically more reliable and has more resources than the up-
maximum transmit power pmax as:
link, we only address the uplink component of the infrastructure
path, that is, from a user to the cellular base station (BS). Hence, rimax = w log(1 + γi pmax ). (3)
we exclusively focus on the transmitting users.
We model the channel propagation according to the standard- Consequently, the system admits a newly arrived session if
ization documents [44] and assume for tractability that for the it still has sufficient resources to serve it. In other words, each
session i the signal to noise ratio (SNR) per power unit γi is ongoing session i has to occupy exactly r/rimax -fraction of time
expressed as: frame duration, while for all sessions it holds the following:
 
Gk r
γi = , (1) ∑ max ≤ 1. (4)
dik all sessions ri

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ANDREEV et al.: OFFLOADING OF CELLULAR USER SESSIONS ONTO D2D LINKS IN UNLICENSED BANDS 71

With the MR policy, even for the increasing arrival rate,

the system is underutilized in the sense that there is always
a (vanishingly small) portion of time frame resource that is
unused by the active sessions.
As an alternative, the Full Utilization (FU) policy ensures
that the system time is always used completely. More specif-
ically, each admitted session is allocated an equal portion of
the frame duration, i.e., rri = 1n , and users adjust their transmit
power to match the required target bitrate. Clearly, in case of n
active sessions, it holds the following:
r 1
= , ri = rn, ∀ i = 1, n. (5)
ri n Fig. 3. Envisioned system operation.

Therefore, to admit a new session, the BS has to increase the We impose that the noise plus interference power does not
power of already running transmissions, such that they would exceed some network-wide threshold N0 + I ≤ KN0 (see related
fit into the smaller allocations. If it is not possible for at least discussion in Section III-E). Further, it is assumed that the D2D
one of n active sessions, that is, rimax = w log(1 + γi pmax ) < nr, network of n − 1 active users admits a new session n if for the
a new session cannot be admitted by the system. Otherwise, the set {Ti }ni=1 of transmitters the following conditions hold at each
system time is re-allocated for n + 1 sessions and users employ receiver R j , j = 1, n:
other (higher) transmit power levels: pmax γi,i r
≥ e w −1 and pmax γi, j ≤ N0 , ∀ i, j = i, (8)
1  nr/w  KN0
pi = e −1 . (6)
γi
where r is the target bitrate and the value of K is fixed through-
As a summary, the MR and FU policies offer a flexible choice out the D2D network. These conditions imply that the required
between more system capacity (resulting also in higher power bitrate r can be achieved on each link i [see the left part of (8)]
consumption) and better network resource utilization (enabling and that the interference on R j produced by Ti does not exceed
some transmit power savings). By considering both policies, the given threshold N0 [see the right part of (8)].
we ensure that the system may offer a good balance between
network- and user-side performance. D. System Operation and Metrics
General system operation is illustrated in Fig. 3. We assume
C. D2D Network Model the following consecutive service when a new data session
As D2D network resides in the unlicensed bands, several arrives into the system. First, cellular network attempts to
transmission sessions can be activated simultaneously. There- offload the newly arrived session onto the D2D network by
fore, the D2D system is inherently interference-limited and this performing an admission control check (8). In case the session
interference has to be accounted for explicitly by the analysis. is accepted, it is served by the D2D network without interrup-
As previously, the channel gain γi, j between the transmitter Ti tion until when it successfully leaves the system. Otherwise,
and the receiver R j depends on the distance di, j between them the cellular network attempts to serve this session given MR or
similar to (1). FU admission criteria. Finally, if the session cannot be admitted
By contrast to our cellular network model, we make the by the cellular network as well, it is considered blocked and
following assumption on the power/rate mapping. permanently leaves the system.
Assumption 3: The transmit power pi of a user and its We remind that the arrival rate on the D2D network is λ (see
data rate ri are coupled by Shannon’s capacity theorem for Assumption 1). Due to the Poisson property of thinned flow,
interference-limited environment: the arrivals on the cellular network (those rejected by the D2D
  network) also follow a Poisson process of density λ(1 − Pa ),
pi γi,i where Pa is the D2D network accept probability. Abstracting
ri = w log(1 + SINRi ) = w log 1 + , (7)
N0 + I away the point locations for analytical tractability, we assume
that the arrivals on the cellular network are also uniformly
where pi is the output power of the RF power amplifier, distributed within the circle of radius R.
γi,i is the channel gain between the transmitter and the re- Consequently, the system blocking probability Pblock may be
ceiver belonging to session i, w is the spectral bandwidth, established as follows:
N0 is the fixed noise power level, and I is the level of
interference. Pblock = 1 − [Pa + (1 − Pb )(1 − Pa )] , (9)
We also consider two different power levels for every
transmitter in the system: (i) transmit power consumption where Pa is the D2D network accept probability and Pb is the
(including the circuit power pc ) and (ii) active power con- cellular network blocking probability.
sumption. The transmit power is assumed fixed at its maxi- Another important metric considered by this work is the
mum pmax . energy consumption ε of a typical session given that it satisfies

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72 IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

the bitrate requirement. This follows from the Little’s law and some maximum feasible data rate rmax (of around 60 Mbps for
the definition of the average energy consumption as: LTE and 56 Mbps for WFD) by limiting the maximum usable
SINR value on the receiving end:
E[P]
E[ε] = . (10)
λPa rmax = w log(1 + SINRmax ). (11)
Here, Pa for the D2D network may be replaced by 1 − Pb for the
Hence, γi and γi, j cannot grow indefinitely as di or di, j → 0,
cellular network. rmax
and after some γmax = pmax 1
(e w − 1) the data rate would not
increase any further.
E. Applicability of Our Model For the D2D network, the admission control procedure in (8)
As opposed to infrastructure-based cellular (3GPP LTE) determines if a particular session may be accepted. With perfect
networks where all communication is directed through the base D2D planning, the power level of each transmission would be
station, distributed WLAN (IEEE 802.11 or WiFi) networks selected individually, as to maximize, e.g., total throughput of
typically offer a possibility of direct (or peer-to-peer, P2P) the network. However, actually performing such planning for
connectivity between end-user terminals. Unfortunately, up to a practical network is infeasible due to prohibitive overheads.
this day, several key engineering questions remain unresolved, Therefore, we employ a simplification following the ideas used
becoming the limiting factors of the existing models relying on by the IEEE 802.11 protocols. We assume that (i) the transmit
proximal connectivity. The primary concern is the efficiency of power is fixed and (ii) the background noise never exceeds
discovery and connection management, since it is extremely some fixed threshold N0 . Each time this condition does not hold
difficult to implement fast and effective neighbor/service dis- on the receiving end (or would not hold on one of the other
covery mechanism in a distributed network. Augmenting the receivers), the link backs off from transmission and leaves the
current technology, where multi-radio user equipment can al- D2D system.
ready establish simultaneous cellular and WLAN connections, This procedure essentially matches the carrier sensing mech-
we propose a measure of cellular network management for anism of WFD and also guarantees that the interference caused
unlicensed-band D2D connections. by a particular transmission on any given receiver will never
Generally, a D2D connection that is not yet established exceed N0 . However, what it does not guarantee is that the sum
cannot be represented or managed in any conventional way. of many interferences from all running transmissions combined
Consequently, new entities should be introduced into the cel- does not exceed N0 . To account for cumulative interference, we
lular network that would handle the tracking of content and also introduce a specific link budget reserve factor K in (8). The
security, as well as D2D link management. Therefore, a proper practical value of K can be estimated as the maximum number
separation has to be made, and the most natural point, it of potentially interfering links in the vicinity of the receiver.
appears, is between the features specific to the link management Our study shows that K = 6 provides sufficient protection
(handled by what we call a D2D server) and the features specific against aggregate background interference.
to content tracking (handled by what we call an application
server). One of the most notable advantages of such solution IV. A NALYSIS OF D2D N ETWORK
is the ease of its integration into the existing 3GPP LTE archi-
tecture [45]. Below we discuss how our proposed methodology In this section, we provide a summary of our analytical find-
corresponds to the practical wireless technologies. ings to evaluate the primary D2D-related performance metrics.
As per Assumption 1, the proposed model can actually mimic The most important results are formulated as theorems, while
the dynamic interworking between 3GPP LTE and WiFi-Direct. auxiliary derivations are presented as propositions.
However, the main derivations are more general and may very
well be extended to, e.g., accommodate D2D operation in
A. Stochastic Model
licensed bands. More specifically, our assumption about the
exponential holding times for new data sessions is only made We begin by introducing our generic analytical approach by
for the sake of clarity. All our derivations can be generalized example of the D2D network and discuss its applicability. In
for an arbitrary session length distribution. To explicitly model the following section, this approach is employed for the cellular
interactions between LTE and WFD, we need to assume that system. Accordingly, the D2D network is observed at the partic-
the system users are multi-radio terminals and have capability ular moments t of session (user) arrivals and departures. System
of using both wireless technologies. We further require that a behavior is represented by a stochastic Markov process S(t),
user constantly maintains a (signaling) connection with the BS, where the future process evolution is determined solely by the
which controls the offloading procedure. set of ongoing sessions that are served by the network. Provided
According to Assumptions 2 and 3, Shannon’s capacity that the state of the process depends on the set of current
theorem is used as the power/rate mapping. We have recently sessions, it is represented as a vector with the variable number
shown that it alone may serve a reasonable approximation of of elements (see process diagram in Fig. 4). For convenience,
current wireless networks [46]. However, to make our model we let (ω1 , . . . , ωn ) denote the vector of abstract transmission
even more realistic, we apply several additional restrictions characteristics for the set of sessions of size n.
imposed by the modulation and coding schemes of LTE and Let Qn+1 denote the probability of an event when the newly
WFD. In particular, transmitting users are not allowed to exceed arrived session is rejected by the system given that there are

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ANDREEV et al.: OFFLOADING OF CELLULAR USER SESSIONS ONTO D2D LINKS IN UNLICENSED BANDS 73

Then, the following theorem can be formulated.

Theorem 1: If admission control is performed according
to (8) and, in particular, accounting for (14), then the reject
probabilities Qn+1 can be closely approximated by:

Qn+1 = 1 − Pr{accepted | arrived} =

   2n−1   
N0 θ0
= Fγ 1 − Fγ , (15)
pmax pmax
r
where θ0 = KN0 (e w − 1) and the cumulative distribution func-
tion (CDF) for SNR per power unit γ is given as:
Fig. 4. General state diagram.
4 2
G4 γ− k G2 γ− k Gk
already n running sessions. Then, transitions from the state Fγ (γ) = 1 + − ln 2, if ≤ γ ≤ γmax ,
8R4 R2 (2R2 ) 2
k
(n; ω1 , . . . , ωn ) to the state (n + 1; ω1 , . . . , ωn , ωn+1 ) and back-
wards have the following rates:  4

1 G4 γ− k 2 4R 2 γ 2k
Fγ (γ) = 1 − 2 + G2 γ− k ln ,
λ(1 − Qn+1 ) and (n + 1)µ. (12) R 8R2 G2

Gk Gk KN0  rmax 
B. Steady-State Distribution if ≤ γ ≤ ; γmax = e w −1 .
(2R)k k
(2R2 ) 2 pmax
Due to uncountable number of states in the considered sys-
tem, it is complicated to derive the steady-state distribution The average number of sessions in service is given as:
straightforwardly. However, the corresponding Markov chain ∞
may be simplified by employing the state aggregation tech- E[Nsessions ] = ∑ nπn , (16)
nique. Hence, we aggregate states {(n; ω1 , . . . , ωn )}ω∈Ω by n n=0
(where Ω is the space of all possible vectors (ω1 , . . . , ωn ),
where {πn }, n ≥ 0 are the steady-state probabilities.
n ∈ N) and formulate the following proposition.
Proposition 1: The steady-state distribution {πi }∞ i=0 of the
considered process S(t) with the transitions in (12) can be C. Power and Energy Consumption
closely approximated by:
Using the results of Theorem 1, we can obtain the average
λn ∏n (1 − Qn ) power and energy consumption for a typical data session. The
πn = π0 n i=1 , (13)
µ n! expected value of the user power consumption can be calcu-
lated as:
where
∞
 −1
∞
λn ∏ni=1 (1 − Qn )
E[ptotal ] = ∑ p(n) πn , (17)
π0 = ∑ µn n!
, n=1
i=0
where p(n) is the average power consumption in the state n and
and Qn+1 is the reject probability on the transition from the state πn are the probabilities given by the steady-state distribution
n to the state n + 1. as obtained above. We note that the power consumption in
We note that the key assumption here is that we disregard the state n = 0 is 0 since we only focus on the ongoing
the history of the process from the perspective of the ongoing sessions.
sessions, i.e., at each point we examine an arbitrary set of The power consumption of the system in the state n may be
respective random variables. If the reject probabilities Qn+1 are easily estimated as:
known, we can easily obtain the sought steady-state distribution   n n  
by using (13). Therefore, further we concentrate on calculating pmax r r
(n)
p = + pc ∑ max + ∑ 1 − max pa . (18)
the value of Qn+1 . Our result is summarized by Theorem 1, η i=1 ri i=1 ri
which exploits the distributions of random variables γi, j and di, j .
The latter can be derived after laborious transformations which Then, the average power consumption in the state n is given by:
are omitted here due to space limitations.   n 
pmax r
First, we consider D2D admission control as it has been E p(n)
= + pc − pa ∑ E max |n sessions + npa ,
described in Section III-C. Let n sessions already exist in the η i=1 r i
network. Hence, for all i = 1, n we require the following target (19)
data rate condition to hold: where E[ rmax r
|n sessions] is the expected value of a random
   r  r
i
pmax γi,i variable rmax conditioning on the fact that n sessions are already
r ≤ w log 1 + ⇔ pmax γi,i ≥ KN0 e w − 1 . (14) i
KN0 accepted, which is given in the Appendix.

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74 IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

Further, we can establish the total energy consumption of a and Theorem 3 for the FU policy allowing us to establish
typical session in the D2D network by using (10): approximations for all reject probabilities Qn+1 .
∞ Theorem 2: For the MR policy, the reject probabilities
∑ p(n) πn Q1 , Q2 , . . . , Qn+1 can be obtained as follows:
n=1
E[ε] = , (20) a. For n = 0, we directly use the distribution function of the
λPa r
random variable q = w log(1+p max γ)
and establish:
where the D2D network accept probability Pa is determined by  1 2
the law of total probability: k
Gpmax  r − 2
k
∞ ∞ Q1 = 1 − e wq0
− 1 , (22)
Pa = 1 − ∑ Pr {rejected|arrived} πn = 1 − ∑ Qn+1 πn . (21) R 2

n=0 n=0
where q0 = min (qmax , 1).
b. For the reject probability when a session arrives in the
state 1, we have:
V. A NALYSIS OF C ELLULAR N ETWORK
 1 2
r  r 2
In this section, we focus on the steady-state distribution k
Gpmax q0 e wq1 e w min(qmax ,1−q1 ) − 1 k
in the cellular network and obtain the related performance Q2 = 1− dq1 . (23)
R2  r  k+2
metrics. Generally, this analysis follows similar methodology k
0 q1 e − 1
2 wq1
as the respective D2D network analysis and we only highlight
important differences below. c. The probabilities Qn+1 , n≥2 are closely approximated by:
 1 2 ⎛ ⎞
A. Stochastic Model (z −mn−1 )2
k
Gpmax q0⎜b − n−12σn−1 r
⎟
Qn+1 = 1− ⎜ e e wqn
dqn⎟
Recall that arrivals on the integrated system (see Fig. 3) φ0 ⎝  r
 k+2
k
⎠dzn−1 ,
follow a PPP. Therefore, the flow of points on the cellular 0 0 qn e n −1
2 wq

network is a Pa -thinned Poisson process and has the rate of (24)

λ(1−Pa ). Similarly to the previous section, the system behavior   
(n−1)qmax −mn−1
can be described by a Markov process S(t) at the moments t of where φ0 = R2 2π(n − 1)σn−1 Φ σn−1
session arrivals and departures. State transition rates are defined    x − x2
−mn−1
as they have been given by (12), but with the corresponding −Φ σn−1 , Φ(x) = √2π −∞ e 2 dx, and other
1

cellular network parameters. We note that for the cellular parameters (mn−1 , σn−1 , qmax , q0 , b ) are given in the
system, the characteristics of a data session are fully defined Appendix.
by the transmitting user location. We continue with the FU policy and recall that the maximum
data rate rimax , ∀ i = 1, n is defined as:
B. Steady-State Distribution rimax = min [w log(1 + γi pmax ), rmax ] ≥ ri ,
Aggregating the states of the corresponding Markov chain
where rmax is the maximum feasible data rate restricted by a
similarly to Section IV-B and substituting the cellular arrival
particular wireless technology in (11).
rate λ(1 − Pa ), we can obtain the steady-state distribution
Theorem 3: For the FU policy, the reject probabilities Qn+1
{πi }∞
i=0 by using (13). can be calculated from the distribution of the random variable
Further, we base on the distributions of random variables
rimax = w log(1 + γi pmax ) as follows:
γi and di , which may be derived by taking into account the
uniform distribution of locations similarly to our calculations ⎡ ⎤2
2 k
rn
for the D2D network. To establish the steady-state distribution, G2 pmax
k
⎢ e w −1 ⎥
we find the reject probabilities Qn+1 for a particular admission Qn+1 = 1 − ·⎣ 2 ⎦ , (25)
R2 rn+n
control discipline. e w −1
In particular, for the state n we need to consider the distribu-
tion of a random variable zn = ∑ni=1 rmax r
. Due to the complexity where the distribution of the random variable rimax follows from
i the distribution of γi .
of straightforward derivation, we do not calculate the convolu-
r Here, we take into account the condition ri ≤ rimax by con-
tions of random variables qi = rmax and approximate zn , n > 2
i sidering the limitation on the number of ongoing sessions, i.e.,
as follows. We split the sum zn into two components zn = n ≤ qmax
1
, where qmax has been given above. We also highlight
zn−1 + qn , where qn is the random variable corresponding to a that for the FU policy we do not offer an approximation, as the
new session. Then, we approximate zn−1 by the random variable obtained solution is exact for the considered model.
distributed according to the truncated normal distribution over
[0, min(qmax , 1)] with mean mn−1 and variance σn−1 . Here, the
variable qmax = w log(1+p r (G/R)k ) is the maximum value of C. Power and Energy Consumption
max
the random variable qi on the edge of the cell. Accounting As in Section IV-C, the expected value of the user power
for that fact, we can formulate Theorem 2 for the MR policy consumption is given by (17). For a particular set of n ongoing

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ANDREEV et al.: OFFLOADING OF CELLULAR USER SESSIONS ONTO D2D LINKS IN UNLICENSED BANDS 75

sessions, the power consumption can be calculated as: A. Simulator Structure and Operation
n   n  
r pi r As suggested by our evaluation methodology, we use 3GPP
p(n) = ∑ + pc + ∑ 1 − pa , LTE and IEEE 802.11 for infrastructure and D2D transmissions
i=1 ri η i=1 ri
respectively. For the LTE system, the simulation captures the
where pi is the transmit power of the user i. following practical features (as opposed to the analytical model
The average power consumption p(n) in the state n for the in Section III): data frame structure, bandwidth requests, and
MR policy is given as: scheduling by the BS. For the D2D system, the simulation is
  n n
 largely based on IEEE 802.11 medium access control procedure
pmax r r with carrier sensing. However, to match the capabilities of the
E p (n)
= + pc − pa E ∑ max | ∑ max ≤ 1 + npa ,
η i=1 ri i=1 ri
analytical model (see Section III-C), the following modifica-
(26) tions were applied to the real system.
 1) The medium access procedure assumes that the chan-
n n
where the component E ∑ rmax r
| ∑ rmaxr
≤ 1 is given in the nel quality between all users is known in advance.
i=1 i i=1 i This assumption is feasible given the network-assisted
Appendix.
operation where the BS can act as database for such
The average consumed power in the state n for the FU policy
information.
is the following:
2) For simplicity, we assume that a user transmission re-

1 r 1 1  rn  serves the channel for its entire duration, unlike in the
E p (n)
= E pi | ≤ + pc + (n − 1)pa = e w −1
η ri n η real protocol where a reservation is made only when there
  k max
 is data to be sent. Such reservation protocol may serve
1 1 R p as a pessimistic performance estimate, but it also guar-
·E | ≤ max , rn + pc + (n − 1)pa ,
γi γi Gk e w − 1 antees that whenever a D2D connection is established it
(27) can reliably serve the target bitrate within its capacity
limit.
where the expression for E[.] is detailed in the Appendix. 3) When the connection is established, the entire trans-
The total energy consumption of a typical session in the mission is fragmented into fixed-size packets (we use
cellular network is given by (20) using the corresponding value 1000 bytes) and those fragments are sent with regular
of session blocking probability as: intervals, which are adjusted to match the required bitrate
∞
for as long as the session is active.
Pb = ∑ Qn+1 πn . (28)
n=0
B. Example Scenario
Here we summarize our test scenario that mimics LTE-
VI. S IMULATION E NVIRONMENT AND R ESULTS
assisted offloading of user sessions from cellular onto WiFi-
To complement our analytical study, we have also developed Direct. This scenario concentrates on an area of interest [48],
an advanced system-level simulator (SLS) based on up-to-date in which co-located cellular and D2D networks cover a limited
3GPP LTE evaluation methodology (3GPP LTE Release-10 region with many users requiring service (e.g., shopping mall,
FDD) and current IEEE 802.11 specifications (IEEE 802.11- business center, etc.). In particular, we consider an isolated
2012 supporting WiFi-Direct features). Unfortunately, neither circle cell of radius R = 100 m and disregard interference
free nor commercially-available simulation tools are readily ap- coming from the neighboring cells as assumed in Section III-B.
plicable for evaluating D2D connectivity as they are missing the In this area, the users need to exchange small multimedia
necessary features, as well as lacking scalability to adequately fragments with the required bitrate of r = 4.8 Mbps. Given
capture the dependencies between the studied variables. By that the session duration is distributed exponentially with the
contrast, our SLS is a flexible tool designed to support diverse mean of µ−1 = 3 seconds, an average transmission carries about
deployment strategies, traffic models, channel characteristics, 2 megabytes of information.
and wireless protocols (see details in [47]). As assumed in Section III-A, the session inter-arrival times
It models all of the conventional LTE/WiFi infrastructure are exponential with λ new sessions arriving every second
and user deployment choices (hexagonal vs. square cells, en- and requesting service. All sessions have specific destinations
vironment with or without wraparound, uniform vs. clustered within the considered area of interest. However, a particular
user distribution, etc.). Further, to optimize the performance of transmitting user may either be successfully accepted by the
our SLS, we make several simplifications of realistic wireless D2D network, or rejected and need to attempt the LTE BS
systems, yet we attempt to mimic the most important mech- instead. If cellular resource is insufficient to admit this user, it
anisms and dependencies explicitly. With its help, we have is blocked permanently. For clarity, below we only consider the
already demonstrated how network-assisted unlicensed-bands MR transmission policy on LTE when all users transmit at their
D2D communications allow users to benefit from higher data maximum power levels. The other power-related parameters are
rates over shorter distances without compromising their battery specified in [49] for WiFi and in [50] for LTE, whereas the rest
life [11], [12]. of the system settings are summarized in Table I.

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76 IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

TABLE I
S IMULATION PARAMETERS

Fig. 6. Session blocking/reject probabilities.

both systems. For the D2D system, at low loads the blocking
is primarily caused by the link length, whereas as the load
increases the probability of a blocking due to interference
becomes dominant.
Contrary to the intuition, in the LTE system the blocking
is not a hard-threshold like one would expect of a scheduled
system. In fact, the cellular system never reaches the 100%
blocking in the given scenario. This is explained by the fact
that instead of discarding all the links it simply accepts those
still fitting into the schedule, thus giving priority to higher-rate
Fig. 5. System capacity (in number of sessions) and user energy consumption. links under high loads (see Fig. 7 for more information).
To detail the effects we have just noted, let us take a closer
C. Simulation Results and Discussion
look at the quality of the links in our system. When the cellular
Following the description of the system operation in system is empty, it can afford accepting all links, no matter
Section III-D, we model the integrated system as shown in the quality. Under such conditions, the link quality for arrivals
Fig. 3 and compare its performance against the cellular baseline and accepted links is similar, and there are almost no discards
without any D2D support. (see Fig. 8, left). When the cellular system becomes loaded,
One of the primary metrics of interest in our system is its however, we see that it takes only shorter links in—as those
capacity, as in how many sessions can be served at the same have significantly better chances to fit into the schedule (refer
time (16). Fig. 5 contrasts the LTE baseline against the D2D- to Fig. 8, right).
enhanced network to confirm the considerable benefits (about An empty D2D system cannot afford such luxury—the links
20% improvement) provided by D2D connections. Hereinafter, are overall much worse, and it has to be very selective to ensure
continuous lines indicate simulation data (S), whereas symbols connectivity. One can see that irrespective of the arrival rate,
correspond to analytical values (A). Clearly, the overall trend is the D2D system consistently remains highly selective to the
the increase in the expected number of running links, up to the links based on their length, with almost identical distributions
saturation point which depends on the deployment, scheduling, for both empty and overloaded conditions. The reason for this
and multiplexing methods used. is that the survival of a D2D link is primarily determined
In close connection with the capacity goes the blocking by its interference at higher loads. Indeed, shorter links have
probability (see Fig. 6), or the proportion of service requests somewhat better chances of not getting blocked, but combined
that cannot be served by the network. We demonstrate how with other effects it does not reflect in the final statistics.
system blocking probability Pblock (9), D2D reject probability Finally, one can observe user energy consumption (20) in the
(21), and blocking probability by the LTE baseline (28) evolve LTE and the integrated LTE-D2D system also in Fig. 5. It can
with increasing load on the network. be clearly seen that at low arrival rates the D2D connections
We also remind that a cellular session is blocked if it cannot have very high impact on the energy efficiency of the system,
fit into the schedule at the time of arrival, whereas for the improving it by up to 14%. However, as the system gets loaded,
D2D network we differentiate between session rejections due the D2D can no longer take over any significant portion of the
to (i) prohibitive interference from the existing transmissions links, and the energy savings become less significant.
and (ii) excessive link length to support the required bitrate Of course, the energy consumption reduction effects are
(given that the interference constraint has been satisfied). It is largely dependent on the specific parameters of the transmitter.
important to analyze the structure of the blocking processes for Therefore, our analytical approach may be extremely useful

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ANDREEV et al.: OFFLOADING OF CELLULAR USER SESSIONS ONTO D2D LINKS IN UNLICENSED BANDS 77

Fig. 7. Distribution of the number of links, LTE (left) and D2D (right).

Fig. 8. Link quality (left) and length distribution (right).

when it comes to evaluation of the energy consumption, as the Whereas the current cellular networks are generally expected
solutions for arbitrary power models can be obtained quickly to soon meet their capacity limits, we reiterate the important
and over a large range of arrival rates. We generally conclude fact that occasionally they may also be substantially under-
that network-assisted offloading of LTE data onto WiFi-Direct utilized. Consequently, our research methodology suggests as-
D2D connections may significantly improve session blocking sessing dynamic session-level network operation. Along these
probabilities, as well as boost energy efficiency of wireless lines, we have demonstrated that the locations of the network
transmitters. users relative to each other highly impact the resulting system
performance. Indeed, given that users are not regularly spaced,
there may be a high degree of spatial randomness which needs
VII. C ONCLUSION AND F UTURE W ORK
to be captured explicitly. We thus adopt a random spatial model
While industry has finally completed fourth generation where user locations are drawn from a particular realization of
broadband technology, many believe it will still be insuffi- a Poisson point process. Coupling such topological randomness
cient to meet the anticipated demand in mobile traffic over with system dynamics requires a fundamental difference in
the coming years. Generally, the most efficient way to cope characterizing user signal power and interference.
with traffic acceleration is to reduce cell size; and this can be Further, to estimate the practical benefits of network-assisted
done in several ways. A promising recent approach, avoiding D2D communications, we have constructed several important
high associated costs and offering an entirely new perspective, scenarios based on modern urban conditions and tailored our
involves offloading cellular traffic onto direct D2D connections analytical results correspondingly. As an example, in this paper
whenever the communicating users are in proximity. In this we considered one of the standard ITU/3GPP scenarios (known
work, we have deeply explored proximate D2D communica- as urban microcell), with a relatively high user density. We
tions and revealed the underlying performance limitations of chose this dense deployment as a reference to recreate con-
network-assisted direct connectivity. ditions where D2D would be most needed and useful. Our

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78 IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

findings indicate that our methodology accurately models dy- Here, the expression for function z(y) is given as:
namic interworking between 3GPP LTE and WiFi-Direct tech- ⎡ ⎤2/k
k
 2/k  −2/k
nologies as well as confirm significant gains after assisted
⎣ pmax G ⎦ pmax Gk r
z=   = e wy − 1 ,
offloading of cellular user sessions onto D2D links in unli- r
Kθ
Kθ e wy − 1
censed bands.
More broadly, studying the capacity of D2D-capable wire- and the introduced for simplicity auxiliary function ψ(y) is:
less networks still remains an open problem in the field of in-

2 r  wyr − 2 −1 r 1
2/k
formation theory and we firmly believe that stochastic geometry pmax Gk k
has the potential to shed light on it given that it can explicitly ψ(y) = e −1 e wy 2 .
Kθ kw y
capture new interference situations and hence the achievable
data rates. This should become an attractive objective of future
research in this area as it requires advanced mathematical B. Cellular Network: Maximum Rate Policy
techniques to interconnect and apply methods and tools coming Here, we provide description of all parameters and auxiliary
from the areas of point processes, probability theory, queuing expressions that we need for calculations in Theorem 2 and user
theory, and percolation theory, as well as modern engineering power consumption. For simplicity, we denote the upper bound
insights. for possible values of qi defined by the distance R as qmax and
lower bound defined by the maximum level of SNR as qmin ,
A PPENDIX letting q0 = min (qmax , 1):
In this appendix, we provide necessary explanations and de- r r
qmax =   , qmin = .
tails on auxiliary variables introduced in Theorems 1–3 for the w log 1 + G p
k w log(1 + SNRmax )
Rk max
steady-state distribution as well as expressions for the energy/
power consumption calculation. We note that for all three differ- The CDF for the random variable q is defined as
ent systems (cellular network under MR, FU policies and D2D  1 2
network) we use the following approach to estimate the reject Gp k
probabilities, as well as power consumption in certain states. Fq (q) = 
r
 2 , q ≤ qmax .
k
Knowing the distribution of user locations within a cell, we R2 e wq − 1
can obtain the distribution of distances between the transmitting
and the receiving user (or the BS). Then, following the different Then, the conditional probability density function:
in all cases limitations of admission control, we find the condi-  1 2  r 2
tional expectations of corresponding random variables if there Gp k e w −1
k
1
are currently n sessions in service. For the sake of brevity, we Fq (q|q ≤ 1) =   2 · Fq (1) =  r  2 , q ≤ 1,
r
only summarize the final expressions for the required variables R e −1
2 wq
k
e −1
wq
k

below.
where the probability density function fq (q|q ≤ 1) = dFq (q|q ≤
A. D2D Network 1)/dq.
For further calculations, we obtain the CDF of z = di,2 j as For derivation of all transition probabilities as well as energy
follows (the corresponding probability density function can be consumption in a certain state, we obtain the conditional expec-
trivially found via differentiation): tation E[zn |zn ≤ 1], n ≥ 1 calculated in what follows.
⎛ ⎞2/k Knowing the distribution of the random variable q, we find
z2 z p Gk the first moment:
Fz (z) = − 4 + 2 ln 2, ⎝  rmax  ⎠ ≤ z ≤ 2 R2 ,
max
8R R Kθ e w −1 1
 2  E[q|q ≤ 1] = qmin Fq|q≤1 (qmin ) + q fq|q≤1 (q)dq =
1 z 4R2
Fz (z) = 2 + z ln , 2R2 ≤ z ≤ 4R2 . qmin
R 8R2 z  r 2  r 2
e w −1
k
2r e w −1
k
1 r
We also introduce the following additional notation: e wq
= qmin  2 +  r  k+2 dq.
r kw
r N0 θ0 e wq −1
k
qmin q e wq −1
k
ymin = , z1 = , and z0 = .
w log(1 + SINRmax ) pmax pmax
The second moment of q may be obtained as:
Then, using the distribution of the random variable di2 we
calculate the average power consumption for D2D network as: 1
 E[q |q ≤ 1] =
2 2
qmin Fq|q≤1 (qmin ) + q2 fq|q≤1 (q)dq =
r
E |n sessions qmin
ri  2  r 2
⎡ ⎤−1 r
e w −1
k
2r e w −1
k
1 r
1 2 e wq
= qmin  2 +  k+2 dq.
= [Fz (z1 )]1−n ⎣1 − Fz (z0 ) yψ(y) fz (z(y)) dy⎦ . r k kw  r
k
ymin
e wq −1 qmin e wq −1

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ANDREEV et al.: OFFLOADING OF CELLULAR USER SESSIONS ONTO D2D LINKS IN UNLICENSED BANDS 79

The corresponding variance of the random variable q can be C. Cellular Network: Full Utilization Policy
obtained as:
For the calculation of the average power consumption, we
derive the following expression:
σ2q = E[q2 |q ≤ 1] − (E[q|q ≤ 1])2 . ⎡ ⎤
1 1 p
E ⎣ | ≤  nr ⎦
max
The expressions for the conditional expected value E[z2 |q ≤ γ γ e w −1
1] and conditional blocking probability Q2 = Pr{z2 > 1|z1 =   2 +1
q ≤ 1} can be summarized as follows: k pmax
nr
e w −1
k
2 pmax
= nr r max + nr . (29)
qmin r
k+2 e w −1 e w −1 k+2 e w −1
φ(qmin ) e wq1
E[q1 + q2 |q1 + q2 ≤ 1] =  r  k+2 dq1 We note that due to the space limitations we omit all proofs and
a k
0 q1 e − 1
2 wq1 distribution derivations. Beyond that, this appendix contains
all auxiliary variables required for system performance metrics
q0 r
estimation.
1 e wq1
+ φ(q1 )   k+2 dq1 ,
a r k
qmin q21 e wq1 −1 R EFERENCES
[1] 3GPP LTE Release 10 & Beyond (LTE-Advanced).
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80 IEEE JOURNAL ON SELECTED AREAS IN COMMUNICATIONS, VOL. 33, NO. 1, JANUARY 2015

[20] C.-H. Yu, O. Tirkkonen, K. Doppler, and C. Ribeiro, “On the performance [46] O. Galinina et al., “Capturing spatial randomness of heterogeneous cel-
of device-to-device underlay communication with simple power control,” lular/WLAN deployments with dynamic traffic,” IEEE J. Sel. Areas
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Device-to-Device (D2D) and cluster multicast concept for LTE and [49] AR4100 System in Package 802.11n—General Availability, Qualcomm
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Sergey Andreev received the Specialist degree and
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the Cand.Sc. degree from St. Petersburg State Uni-
communication in LTE cellular system,” in Proc. IEEE WCNC, 2010,
versity of Aerospace Instrumentation, St. Petersburg,
pp. 1–6.
Russia, in 2006 and 2009, respectively, and the Ph.D.
[25] S. Xu, H. Wang, T. Chen, T. Peng, and K. Kwak, “Device-to-device
degree from Tampere University of Technology,
communication underlaying cellular networks: Connection establishment
Finland, in 2012. He is a Senior Research Scientist
and interference avoidance,” KSII Trans. Internet Inf. Syst., vol. 6, no. 1,
in the Department of Electronics and Communi-
pp. 203–228, Jan. 2012.
cations Engineering, Tampere University of Tech-
[26] M. Jung, K. Hwang, and S. Choi, “Joint mode selection and power
nology. He (co-)authored more than 80 published
allocation scheme for power-efficient Device-to-Device (D2D) commu-
research works on wireless communications, energy
nication,” in Proc. IEEE VTC—Spring, 2012, pp. 1–5.
efficiency, heterogeneous networking, cooperative
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communications, and machine-to-machine applications.
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synchronous wireless networks,” IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. 59, no. 8, in applied mathematics from Department of Applied
pp. 2296–2305, Aug. 2011. Mathematics, Faculty of Mechanics and Physics,
[29] A. Mukherjee and A. Hottinen, “Energy-efficient device-to-device MIMO St. Petersburg State Polytechnical University,
underlay network with interference constraints,” in Proc. Int. ITG WSA, Russia. She is currently pursuing the Ph.D. degree in
2012, pp. 105–109. the Department of Electronics and Communications
[30] A. Osseiran et al., “Advances in device-to-device communications Engineering, Tampere University of Technology,
and network coding for IMT-Advanced,” in Proc. ICT-Mobile Summit, Finland. Her research interests include applied
Santander, Spain, 2009, pp. 1–8. [Online]. Available: http://research.nokia. mathematics and statistics, queueing theory and its
com/sites/default/files/AdvancesInD2DCommunicationsAndNetwork applications; wireless networking and energy effi-
Coding4IMTA.pdf cient systems, machine-to-machine and device-to-
[31] C.-H. Yu and O. Tirkkonen, “Device-to-device underlay cellular net- device communication.
work based on rate splitting,” in Proc. IEEE Wireless Commun. Netw.
Conf.—PHY Fundam., 2012, pp. 262–266. Alexander Pyattaev received the B.Sc. degree from
[32] N. Golrezaei, A. Molisch, A. Dimakis, and G. Caire, “Femtocaching and St. Petersburg State University of Telecommunica-
device-to-device collaboration: A new architecture for wireless video dis- tions, Russia, and the M.Sc. degree from Tampere
tribution,” IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 51, no. 4, pp. 142–149, Apr. 2013. University of Technology, Finland. He is currently
[33] LTE Direct: The Case for Device-to-Device Proximate Discovery, pursuing the Ph.D. degree in the Department of Elec-
Qualcomm Technologies, San Diego, CA, USA, Feb. 2013. tronics and Communications Engineering at Tam-
[34] C. Sankaran, “Data offloading techniques in 3GPP Rel-10 networks: pere University of Technology. He has publications
A tutorial,” IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 50, no. 6, pp. 46–53, Jun. 2012. on a variety of networking-related topics in interna-
[35] B. Xing, K. Seada, and N. Venkatasubramanian, “An experimental study tionally recognized venues, as well as several tech-
on Wi-Fi ad-hoc mode for mobile device-to-device video delivery,” in nology patents. His primary research interest lies in
Proc. IEEE INFOCOM Workshops, 2009, pp. 1–6. the area of future wireless networks: shared spectrum
[36] WiFi Alliance, Wi-Fi Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Specifications, v1.2. access, smart RAT selection and flexible, adaptive topologies.
[37] H. Kim and G. de Veciana, “Leveraging dynamic spare capacity in wire-
less systems to conserve mobile terminals’ energy,” IEEE/ACM Trans. Kerstin Johnsson received the Ph.D. degree in elec-
Netw., vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 802–815, Jun. 2010. trical engineering from Stanford and has more than
[38] K. Huang, V. Lau, and Y. Chen, “Spectrum sharing between cellular and 10 years’ experience in the wireless industry. She
mobile ad hoc networks: Transmission-capacity trade-off,” IEEE J. Sel. is a Senior Research Scientist in the Wireless Com-
Areas Commun., vol. 27, no. 7, pp. 1256–1267, Sep. 2009. munications Laboratory at Intel, where she conducts
[39] F. Baccelli et al., “On the design of device-to-device autonomous discov- research on MAC, network, and application layer op-
ery,” in Proc. Int. Conf. COMSNETS, 2012, pp. 1–9. timizations that improve the mobile client experience
[40] H. Dhillon, R. Ganti, F. Baccelli, and J. Andrews, “Modeling and analysis while reducing wireless operator costs. She is the
of K-tier downlink heterogeneous cellular networks,” IEEE J. Sel. Areas author of numerous publications and patents in the
Commun., vol. 30, no. 3, pp. 550–560, Apr. 2012. field of wireless communications.
[41] M. Erturk, S. Mukherjee, H. Ishii, and H. Arslan, “Distributions of trans-
mit power and SINR in device-to-device networks,” IEEE Commun. Lett., Yevgeni Koucheryavy received the Ph.D. degree
vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 273–276, Feb. 2013. from Tampere University of Technology (TUT),
[42] G. Li et al., “Energy-efficient wireless communications: Tutorial, sur- Tampere, Finland, in 2004. He is currently a Full
vey, open issues,” IEEE Wireless Commun., vol. 18, no. 6, pp. 28–35, Professor and a Lab Director with the Department of
Dec. 2011. Electronics and Communications Engineering, TUT.
[43] F. Baccelli and B. Blaszczyszyn, Stochastic Geometry and Wireless He is the author of numerous publications in the
Networks: Volume I Theory. Delft, The Netherlands: Now Publishers, field of advanced wired and wireless networking
2009. and communications. His current research interests
[44] Recommendation ITU-R M.2135-1. Guidelines for Evaluation of Radio include various aspects in heterogeneous wireless
Interface Technologies for IMT-Advanced, International Telecommunica- communication networks and systems, the Internet
tion Union, Geneva, Switzerland, 2009. of Things and its standardization, and nanocommu-
[45] S. Andreev, A. Pyattaev, K. Johnsson, O. Galinina, and Y. Koucheryavy, nications. He is an Associate Technical Editor of the IEEE Communications
“Cellular traffic offloading onto network-assisted device-to-device con- Magazine and an Editor of the IEEE C OMMUNICATIONS S URVEYS AND
nections,” IEEE Commun. Mag., vol. 52, no. 4, pp. 20–31, Apr. 2014. T UTORIALS.

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