www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.

co

POWER ELECTRONICS (FORMULA NOTES)

Charge stored in depletion region:

Let QR be the charge stored in depletion region of power diode.
1
QR = .I .t
2 RM rr
2QR di  di 
IRM = = t a. = 2QR .  
trr dt  dt 

2QR
If t a  trr , trr =
di / dt
di  di 
IRR = trr . = 2QR  
dt  dt 
trr  QR

QR  If ,
trr  If
IRM  If

Relation Between α and β:

IC IC
= =
IE IB

IE I
=1+ B
IC IC

1 1
=1+
 

 
= =
 +1 1+ 

1 2

www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.co

Vs = Vbm + (n − 1)R11 − (n − 1)RIb [ Ib = Ibmx −bmn ]

Design of Snubber circuit: AS, RI1 = Vbm
For Inductor (L ) : Vs = Vbm + (n − 1) Vbm − (n − 1) RIb
 di  Vs
 dt  = L Vs = nVbm − (n − 1) R.Ib
 max
Vs
L= nVbm − Vs
( di dt )max Rs =
(n − 1) − Ib
For resistor (R s ) :
‘Rs’ is the static equalizing resistance.
 dva   di 
  = Rs   Parallel Operation of Thyristors:
 dt max  dt max
L  dva  When current required by the load is more than the rated current of a single thyristor, SCR’s
or R s =  
Vs  dt max are connected in parallel in a string.
For Capacitor ( Cs ) : Class A Commutation (Load Commutation)
2
 2ξ  C 
Cs =   L where 0.5 < ξ < 1 I(t) = Vs sinω0t Conduction time of thyristor, t0 = =  LC
 Rs  L 0
Design of Snubber circuit: 1
where, ω0 = resonant frequency
Actual voltage/current rating of string. LC
String efficiency =
n×individual voltage/current rating of SCR Class B Commutation:
where n is the number of SCR in string.
C
• Resonant current dIC = −Vs sin 0 t
Derating factor, DRF=1- string efficiency. L
Series Operation of Thyristors: C
• Peak resonant current Ip = Vs
Consider n thyristor connected in series as shown in figure. Let SCR1 has minimum leakage L
current Ibmn. SCR with lower leakage current blocks more voltage. • Voltage across capacitor Vc = Vs cos ω0t
Remaining (n-1) SCRs have the same leakage current Ibmx Vab
• Circuit turn-off time for the main thyristor (T1 ); tc = C
Ibmx > Ibmn I0
Here Vbm is the maximum permissible blocking voltage as SCR1. • Reverse voltage across the main thyristor (T1)
I = I1 + Ibmn Vsb = Vs cos 0 (t3 − t2 )
I1 = I - Ibmn
Where t3 = time when the main thyristor is turned off
I = I2 + Ibmx
t2= time when auxiliary thyristor is burned off
I2 = I - Ibmx
I 
Where, I = total string current 0 (t3 + −t2 ) = sin−1  0  and
I 
 p
Voltage across SCR1 is Vbm= I1R
Class C Commutation:
Voltage across (n-1) SCRs =(n-1) I2 R
When T1 is turned on at t=0
For a string voltage (Vs), the voltage equation for the series circuit is
Vs
Vs= I1 R+(n-1)I2R=Vbm+(n-1)R(I-Ibmx) • The charging current Is = . e− t /R2 C
Rz
=Vbm+(n-1)R(I1+Ibmn-Ibmx)
• Voltage across capacitor
= Vbm+(n-1)R[(I1-(Ibmx-Ibmn)]

3 4
www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.co

Vc (t) = Vs (1 − e− t /R2 C ) • Average value of output voltage,

When T1 is to be turned-off, T2 is turned-on at T1 • Power delivered P = I20 rmz . R

2V Power delivered to load

• The charging current Ic (t) = − S . e− t /R1C I0 rms = rms value of load current =
R1 Input VA

• The Voltage across capacitor V0 rms. I0 rms

• Input power Factor = = 0.707
Vc (t) = Vs [2e− t /R1C − 1] Vs − I0 rms

• Maximum current though thyrisor T1 With L load:

1 2 Vm
IT1 (max) = Vs  − • Output current I0 = (1 − cos t)
 L
 R1 R2 
2Xm
• Maximum current though thyrisor T2, • Maximum value of current I0 =
L
2 1
IT2 (max) = Vs  +  Imax
 R1 R 2  • Average value of current I0 =
2
Circuit turn-off time t c1 for thyristor T1 • RMS value of fundamental current

t c1 = R1C In(2) I0
I1 rms =
2
Circuit turn-off time t c2 for thyristor T2
• Output voltage V0 = Vm sin t = Vs
t c2 = R2C In(2)
• Average value of current voltage V0 = 0
Class D Commutation: With C Load:
• Capacitor current • Output voltage V0=Vm sin ωt = Vs = Vc
C • Diode voltage VD = Vm (sin ωt – 1)
Ic = Vs sin ω0 t = Ipsin ω0 t
L
• Output current I0= ωc Vm cos ωt
• Circuit turn-off time for main thyristor (T1) • Average value of diode voltage VD = Vm
Vs • RMS value of diode voltage
tc = C
I0
Vrms D = 1.225 Vm
• Circuit turn-off time for main thyristor (TA) Single-Phase Full wave Mid-point Diode Rectifier:
 Average output voltage,
t c1 =
20 
1
π 0 m
V0 = V sin ωt d(ωt)
Single Phase Half Wave Diode Rectifier:
With R Load:
2Vm
• RMS value of output voltage V0 =
π
V
V0 rms = m Average output current,
2
Vm= Maximum value of source voltage (Vs) V0
i0 =
π
• Average value of output voltage,
Rms value of load voltage,
Vm
V0 DC =


5 6

www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.co

1  2  Single phase half wave-controlled rectifier with RL load:

V0(rms) =   Vm sin ωt d(ωt) Average output voltage,
2 0 
Vm Vm
V0(rms) = = Vs V0 = (cos  − cos )
2 2π
Average output current,
Rms value of load current,
Vm
V I0 = (cos  − cos )
I0(rms) = s 2πR
R
Rms value of output voltage.
Power delivered to load = V0(rms) I0(rms)
1

V0(rms)I0(rms) Vm  1 2
 Input power factor = Vor = ( − ) − 2 (sin2 − sin2)
VsI0(rms) 2 π 

Single-Phase Full wave Diode Bridge Rectifier: Commutation time or turn off time for the thyristor,

Average value of diode current, 2π − β

tc = sec
ω

1 I
2π 0 m
ID = I sin ωt.d(ωt) = m Single phase half wave-controlled rectifier with RLE load:
π
The minimum value of firing angle at which thyristor can be triggered is
Rms value of diode current,
 E 
1  2  θ1 = sin−1  
ID(rms) =   Im sin ωt.d(ωt)
2
 Vm 
 2π 0
Average output current,
Im 1
ID(rms) = I0 =  V (cos  − cos( + a)) − E 
2 2πR  m
Single phase half wave-controlled rectifier with R Load Average output voltage,
Average output voltage, 1
V0 =  V (cos  − cos ) + E(2 +  − )
Vm 2π  m
V0 = (1 + cos )
2π Input power factor,
Average output current, (I2orR + EI0 )
p.f. =
V VsIor
I0 = m (1 + cos )
2πR
Commutation time or turn off time of thyristor,
Rms value of output voltage,
2π − β
1/2
tc = sec
Vm  1  ω
Vor = (π − ) + 2 sin2 
2 π  Three Phase Half Wave Diode Rectifier:
Commutation time or turn off time of the thyristor, The peak inverse voltage (PIV) = 3 Vmp for each of the three diode D1, D2 and D3. The average
 output voltage.
tc = sec

Input power factor of the converter,
1/2
Vor.Ior 1  1 
p.f. = = π −  + 2 sin2 
Vs.Ior 2π  

7 8
www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.co

5  /6
1 3 3
V0 =
2π/3  Vmp sin ωt d(ωt)  Vmp cos  ;for 0    30
 /6 Vo =  2π
 3 V 1 + cos  + 30
 2π mp ( ( ))
3 3 ;for 30    150
= V
2π mp

=
3 6
V
2π ph
( Vmp = 2 Vph ) If Vml is the peak value of line voltage, average output voltage,
3Vml
V0 = cos 
=
3
2π
Vml ( Vml = 3 Vmp = 6 Vph ) π
If I0 is the load current, average value of source current,
Rms value of output voltage,
2
3 5  /6
 Is = I0
3

2
V0(rms) =  Vmp sin2 ωt d(ωt)
 2π 6 
Average value of thyristor current,
V0(rms) = 0.84068 Vmp 1
Is = I0
3
Three-Phase Mid-point 6-Pulse Diode Rectifier:
EFFECT OF SOURCE INDUCTANCE IN SINGLE PHASE RECTIFIER
Average output voltage,
2  /3
1. It reduces the average output voltage.
1
V0 =
π/3 
 /3
Vmp sin ωt d(ωt) 2. It limits the maximum firing angle,

max = 1800 − (ωtq + μ0 )

3Vmp
V0 =
π where, ωtq = device turn-off time (in degrees)

Rms value of output voltage, µ0=overlap angle at α =0

3. Displacement angle, θ1=-(α+μ/2)
 1 2 /3 
 (Vmp sin ωt) d(ωt)
2
V0(rms) =  4. Fundamental displacement factor,
 π/3  /3 
 
V0(rms) = 0.9558 Vmp Fundamental Displacement Factor = cos   + 
 2

THREE PHASE DIODE BRIDGE RECTIFIER 5. Current distortion factor (g) increase because the waveform is smoother than without
Average Value of load voltage, Ls waveform
2  /3
1 1 
1/2
V0 =
π/3  Vmls in ωt (dωt) Total Harmonic Distortion =  2 − 1 
 /3
g 
3Vml 6. Power factor (F.F.) = current distortion factor x fundamental displacement factor
V0 =
π Vm ωL s
7. Average reduction voltage = [cos  − cos( + )] = I
Rms value of output voltage, 2π 2π 0
DC DRIVES
 1 2 /3 2 
 Vml sin ωt d(ωt)
2
V0(rms) = 
 π/3  /3 ZNP P
 Ea = = Zn   ωm = 2πn
60A A
V0(rms) = 0.9558 Vml
ω  P   Z P 
Ea = Z  m    =  .  ωm  Ea = Kaωm
THREE PHASE HALF-WAVE-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER:  2π   A   2π A 

If Vmp is the peak value of phase voltage, the average value of the output voltage,

9 10

www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.co

Z P If VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage ΔV C = 2V0, which gives
Where, K a =
2π  A  
the critical value of the capacitor CC as CC =
2fR
EaIa (Electrical power) = Teωm (Mechanical power)
Buck Boost Converter:
EaIa
Te =  Te = KaIa VS TON −V0 TOFF
ωm I = =
L L
Buck Converter:
where ΔI = I2 – I1 is the peak to peak ripple current of inductor L.
In Buck regulator, the average output voltage V 0 is less than the input voltage VS.
VS 
The average output voltage is, V0 = −
I =
( VS − V0 ) TON 1−
L
VS 
V0 TOFF T The peak to peak current ripple is, I =
I = V0 = VS ON = VS  fL
L T
I0 
Where ΔI = I2 – I1 is the peak to peak current ripple of the inductor L. peak to peak ripple voltage of the capacitor is, VC =
fC
VS  (1 −  )
The peak to peak ripple current is I =
fL
VS  (1 −  )
The peak to ripple voltage of the capacitor is VC = Condition of continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage:
8LCf 2
If VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage, ΔVC = 2V0, which gives
Condition for continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage:

If IL is average inductor current, the inductor ripple current ΔI = 2I L, which gives the critical the critical value of the capacitor CC as CC = .
2fR

value of the inductor LC as L C = L =

(1 −  ) R
2f
Inverters
If VC is the average capacitor voltage, the capacitor ripple voltage ΔVC = 2V0, which gives
Series Inverters: In a series inverter, the commutating elements L and C are connected
1−
the critical value of capacitor CC as CC = C = in series with the load resistance R. The load resistance R can also be in parallel with C.
16 Lf 2
The value of L and C are such that those form an underdamped circuit i.e.
Boost Converter:
4L
R2<
VT
I = S ON =
( V0 − VS ) TOFF C
L L
 1 
f = 
where ΔI = I2 – I1 is peak to peak ripple current of the inductor L.
 2  T + Toff  
The average output voltage,   2  

T  1  The frequency of output voltage.

V0 = VS = V
TOFF  1 −   S T
Where, is the time period of oscillations.
2
VS 
The peak to peak current ripple is, I =
fL Toff is the time gap between turn-off one thyristor and turn-on of the second thyristor.

I0  T 
The peak to peak ripple voltage of capacitor, VC = =
fC 2  1 R2 
 − 2
Condition of continuous inductor current and capacitor voltage:  LC 4L 

The period of oscillation

11 12
www.gradeup.co www.gradeup.co

Parallel Inverter: During the working of this inverter, capacitor C comes in parallel with VDC
V̂kg1 = ma
the load 2

  n2r   1
Vkg1 = ma VDC
Vc = 2Vs 2 exp  −  − 1 2 2
  2RC  
the fundamental line-line voltage is given by
N2
Where, n = (turns ratio)
N1 3
VLLO1 = ma VDC
2 2
n2.t c
C= Available output voltage:
4R In 2
Assuming that the DC voltage is created using a diode rectifier and capacitor dc link, the maximum
Commutating capacitance,
available DC voltage is given by
Where, tc =Circuit turn-off time
Bridge Inverter: Bridge circuits are commonly used in DC-AC conversion. Moreover, an VDC = 2V LLS

output transformer is not essential in a bridge circuit. where VLLS is the line-line supply voltage. The maximum output using sinusoidal PWM (m a=1) is

2Vs 3 3
1φ Half Bridge Inverter - The output voltage volt V0 =  n
sin nt VLLO1 = 2V LLS = V .
2 LLS
n−1,3,5... 2 2
1φ Full Bridge Inverter- The output voltage
4Vs Resistive Load:


V0 = sin nt
n−1,3,5,...
n Vs
I(t) =
Where, n = order of harmonic R
ω=2nf, is frequency of the output voltage in red/sec where, Vs =DV voltage source
Key points: R=Load resistance
• The load impedance (Zn) at frequency R-C (Resistive-Capacitive Load):


−1/2
Vs − t /RC
1  
2
 I(t) = e
nf,Zn = R2+  nL −  R
  nC  
Vc (t) = Vs (1 − e− t /  )
 1  Where, Vc(t)=Voltage across capacitor at time t
nL − nC 
• Phase angle, (n ), n = tan−1   red
Where, Vc(t)=Voltage across capacitor at time t
R
Initial rate of rise of capacitor voltage:
V
• Output current or load current at the instant of commutation I0 = I0 = 0 or t =  rad
Zn  dVc  Vs V Vs
  = = s and time constant  =
 dt t =0 RC   dVc 
• Fundamental load power  
 dt t =0
(P01 ) P01 = I201 R = V01. I01 cos 1
R-L Load:
Amplitude Modulation Depth: vs
I(t) = (1 − eRt /L )
V̂m R
m0 =
V̂c VL = Vse−Rt /L ;VL = Voltage accros inductor

Where Vm, Vc are the modulating and carrier signal voltage, respectively.  dI  V
Initial rate of rise of current   = s
For sinusoidal PWM, the amplitude modulation depth must be less than 1.0  dt t =0 L

Output Voltages: L-C Load:

13 14

www.gradeup.co

I(t) = IP sin ω0t

C
Where, IP = Vs and
L
1
0 = = resonant frequency
LC

C
 I(t) = Vs sin 0 t
L
Key Points
• Voltage across inductor, VL=Vs (cos ω0t)
• Voltage across inductor, VL= Vs (1–cos ω0t)

t1 =  LC =
0

• Conduction time,
R-L-Load:
R 1
s2 + s+ =0
L LC
R
Damping factor,  =
2L
1
Resonant frequency 0 = rad/s
LC
Ringing frequency,
(or damped resonant frequency)

0 = 02 − 2

***

15