Lecture - 03 Anatomy of plant cells

In this introduction to Anatomy of plant cells, different organelles of plant cells, the functions of those organelles will be
discussed. The different plant cell types which you can come across in a whole plant, and the different functions of those
plant cell types or plant tissue types will also be discussed.
The different kinds of major organelles which can be found in
different eukaryotic organisms are mitochondria, plastids,
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, nucleus, ribosomes,
microbodies and vesicles. Exclusive to plant cells, there are
peroxisomes and vacuoles.

Organelles present in plant cell

 Cell Wall - Like their prokaryotic ancestors, plant cells have a rigid
wall surrounding the plasma membrane. It is a complex structure
and provides support and protection.
 Chloroplasts - The most important characteristic of plants is their
ability to photosynthesize, to make their own food by converting
light energy into chemical energy. This process is carried out in
specialized organelles called chloroplasts.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network
of sacs that manufactures, processes, and transports chemical
compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is connected to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a
pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. In plants, the endoplasmic reticulum also connects between cells via the
plasmodesmata.

The different functions of these organelles are as follows. Cell walls are found in plants as well as in bacteria
and fungi. The cell wall composition in bacteria and fungi are different from the plant cell wall. The plant cell
wall contains cellulose which is present only in plant cells.
Further, other components of the plant cell wall are hemicelluloses, lignin and pectin. Plant cell wall is
divided into primary cell wall and secondary cell wall. Every cell wall will have the primary cell wall, but not all
plant cells will have secondary cell wall structure. So, we will be talking in detail giving some idea about how
the primary cell wall is different from the secondary cell wall.
Cell wall is a component layer surrounding the cytoplasm or protoplasm. Now, protoplasm is composed
of cytoplasm and the nucleus which is everything of the cell apart from the cell wall.
The function of the cell wall is to protect the plant cell. Now, depending on the various stages of the plant
development, the cell wall composition is modified. Now, let us talk about the chloroplast. Chloroplast is a
distinctive feature in plant cells, which can also be found in many microalgaes as well, but in majority all the
plant cells have chloroplast.
The function of chloroplast: These are organelles originating from plastids. Proplastids, on further
differentiation, form different kinds of plastids with specialized function. Now, there are many different types
of plastids namely chromoplast, amyloplast, leucoplast, elaioplast, proteinoplast. They are named on the basis
of their specialised function, in development and growth of the plant. For example, chromoplast is the most
common plastid which you must have heard. Chromo, is where the coloured pigments are stored. Chloroplasts
are the most abundant plastids found in plants. Now, their purpose primarily is to carry out photosynthesis. In
photosynthesis, there are light reactions and dark reactions. So, we will discuss dark and light reactions when
we come to photosynthesis. These chloroplasts are responsible for capturing sunlight and helping the plant in
manufacturing the food which is synthesis of carbohydrates.
Then endoplasmic reticulum, we all know the function it plays in the cell. Endoplasmic reticulum is a
connection between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. And it helps in manufacturing, processing, transportation
of various proteins, fats and other molecules. Now, there are smooth endoplasmic reticulum and rough
endoplasmic reticulum. Rough endoplasmic reticulum is differentiated from smooth in terms of ribosomes,
sites for protein synthesis. So, it acts like a bridge between a double layered nuclear envelope and the
cytoplasm. So, it is a connection between the two.
Now, what are peroxisomes? Peroxisomes play a role in photorespiration.

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 Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm, roughly
spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but peroxisomes are
the most common.
 Plasmodesmata - Plasmodesmata are small tubes that connect plant cells to each other, providing living
bridges between cells.
 Plasma_Membrane -All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In prokaryotes
and plants, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall. These
membranes regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells. Composed of lipids (phospholipids)
and proteins. Acts as a permeability barrier allowing some molecules to pass but not others
 Ribosomes - Tiny organelles composed of approximately 60 percent RNA and 40 percent protein.
Responsible for protein synthesis.

“Peroxy”- because of photorespiration there is a generation of a lot of peroxy radicals. So, plants have to have
a mechanism of getting rid of these highly reactive species that can cause damage to cellular membranes and
cellular components. So, continuously the plant cell is working on to counter this damage.
Plasmodesmata: Plant cells have a tendency to grow as aggregates, they are almost always found in
clumps. Plant cells are found to be attached to each other. There are holes in the cell wall which you can
clearly see through a light microscope and these holes are called pits. They are formed as the result of thinning
of the cell wall during the plant cell division.
The cell wall, while dividing, if it does not get divided completely, gets compressed. Now, these thinner
regions then therefore become the continuity between the two daughter plant cells or the plant cells in
connection.
This continuity is not only just a simple gap, but it causes a live bridge between the two plant cells. So,
there is a cross talk between the cells and this is how the plant cells are found to be connected to each other.
This is called as plasmodesmata or plasmalemma, -the continuity, the live bridge between the adjacent plant
cells.
The plasma membrane acts like a semi permeable membrane.
It means that there is regulation of movement of molecules inside and outside the cell. This regulation
can be active where these transport proteins, at the cellular membrane, help in the to-and-fro movement.
During metabolism, during plant growth or during survival, cells may need to secrete out certain molecules,
and may need to take up certain molecules. So, plasma membranes help and it also forms a barrier.
Ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis, 60 percent is RNA and 40 percent is protein.

 Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information processing and
administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major functions: it stores the cell's hereditary
material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary metabolism,
protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
 Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles found in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells.
In plant cells, they break down carbohydrate and sugar molecules to provide energy, particularly when
light isn't available for the chloroplasts to produce energy.
 Vacuole - Each plant cell has a large, mostly single vacuole that stores compounds, helps in plant growth,
and plays an important structural role for the plant.
 Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's chemical
products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them for export as
outside of the cell.
Nucleus is a double layered organelle, and it is the brain centre of the cell. It regulates all the different
functions - cell division, cell metabolism, growth, and protein synthesis. Nucleus is the site for genetic material
storage.
Mitochondria is the energy centre of the cell. Now, in plant cells when light energy is not available,
mitochondria is the organelle which caters to energy generation. In the presence of light, the majority of
energy generation comes from chloroplast. Photosynthesis, and ATP generation are carried out, which is then
utilized for synthesis of carbohydrates in dark reactions.
Then, vacuole is a distinctive feature in plant cells. Vacuoles in younger plant cells are small in size and
many in numbers. But as the plant cell matures, it grows in size. The matured plant cells generally have single
vacuole- all clubbed together, and they can occupy as far as 80 percent of the cell volume. The turgor pressure
causes the cell to maintain the cell turgor and the vacuole when it extends, will prevent plasmolysis. The other
added advantage would be if there is good turgor pressure then all the cell organelles will be extended and
pushed towards the cell membrane. Hence, the chloroplast is exposed on the surface, and they can capture as
much sunlight as possible.
Vacuole can degrade toxic molecules, waste products or can even act as a site of storage for
intermediate molecules like higher secondary metabolites or even toxic secondary metabolites which can be
toxic to the plant cell itself. In case of herbivore attack or a pathogen attack they rupture and the secondary
metabolite which is toxic, is released, because the vacuoles are extended big in size. It is done to prevent the
neighbouring cells from further damage.
Golgi apparatus is also generally present in all eukaryotic cells. It is used for processing and shipping.
Processing means transport conjugated with certain molecules. Transport proteins are conjugated and that
will help it to cross the cytoplasm and be transported outside the cell membrane.
The Protoplast
 All of the plant cell which is enclosed by the cell wall.
 It consists of the nucleus plus the cytoplasm.
 Cytoplasm contains a variety of organelles - each with a specific function
What is protoplast? Protoplast is nothing but the nucleus plus the cytoplasm .

Distinctive features
 A cell wall composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and lignin: different from bacteria and fungi.
 Specialized cell-cell ommunication pathways called plasmodesmata, pores in primary cell wall through
which the plasmalemma (plasma membrane) and endoplasmic reticulum of adjacent cells are continuous.
  Plastids, most notable being chloroplasts containing chlorophyll used for absorbing sunlight in the process
of plants making food for themselves through photosynthesis. Other plastids like amyloplasts,
chromoplasts, etc for various specialized functions.
 A large central vacuole: water filled, enclosed by membrane called tonoplast. Maintains cells turgor,
controls movement of molecules, digests wasteproducts.
Now, distinctive features: One is that the cell wall is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and lignin.

such linkage is 𝛃- linkages of D-glucose units. But if you see SEM images of these cellulose, you will find them
Cellulose is a polysaccharide made up of simple chains of D-glucose. There are many kinds of linkages. One

as fine thread-like structures, highly complex matrices and very multi-layered. Each of those fibrils themselves
are composed of thousands of chains of D-glucose. So, this is the reason why cellulose is crystalline and hard
in nature.
Hemicellulose is a heteropolymer. It is amorphous in nature and weaker. It is made up of many different
kinds of sugar units such as xylose, galactose, etc.
Pectin is again a heteropolymer which glues the plant cells and plant cell wall components together. The
middle lamella which is above the primary cell wall is rich in pectins.
Plastids are not only for photosynthesis or storage, but sometimes in secondary metabolism you will find
that they are sites of synthesis of certain intermediates of biosynthetic pathways. If you see certain
biosynthetic pathways like alpha tocopherol or vitamin E biosynthetic pathway, you will find some part of the
secondary metabolic pathway is carried out in plastids. So, plastids are not only for storage, but also for the
site of synthesis.
Cell Wall
 Found surrounding plant cells not animal cells
 Surrounds all the other parts of the cell (other parts called the
protoplast)
 Plant cell walls may consist of one or two layers
called primary and secondary wall
 Middle Lamella is a layer rich in pectins. This
outermost layer forms the interface between
adjacent plant cells and glues them together.
The cell wall middle lamella that is above the primary
cell wall is rich in pectins. Those yellow threads that
are shown in the picture are pectins.
Primary Wall
 The first wall layer is the primary wall
 Composed of cellulose and other polysaccharides
 It is flexible and extensible layer formed while the cell is growing. It is formed early in the life of a plant cell
 The major carbohydrates are cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
All the plant cells will have primary cell walls, not all plant cells will have secondary cell walls. The function of
the primary cell wall is to provide protection and support to the plant cells, but it is still flexible in nature. They
are flexible because the cells still need to grow and the cell walls are flexible to allow for increase in size,
stretch, and become elongated.
Wall Structure
 The cellulose is in the form of fibrils, extremely fine fibers, which can only be seen with an electron microscope.
 The fibrils are embedded in a matrix of other polysaccharides.
So, I have already spoken about the major carbohydrates in the primary cell wall. Cellulose under SEM looks
like this.

Secondary Wall
 A thick layer formed inside the primary cell wall after the cell is
fully grown. It is not found in all cell types.
 Now, the secondary cell wall is under the primary cell wall. Its major function is to prevent the attack from
herbivores and to give rigid support to the well grown plant organelles. So, secondary walls are richer in lignin.
Lignin is very hard to degrade, which means that its purpose in nature must have been to protect and support
the full grown plant. So, this secondary wall structure appears in cells which are already matured, and now
higher specialised function is not the growth, but to protect the cell.

Wall Openings
 Cell wall is not a solid structure
 Minute pores exist called pits
 Some pits are large enough to be seen with the light microscope.
 Pits allow for the transfer of materials from cell to cell through cytoplasmic connections called plasmodesmata.
Now, cell wall openings - these are pits, which are holes in the primary cell wall and through which
the plasmalemma or the plasmodesmata passes. So, these are live bridges.
Plasmodesmata
It is formed when portions of ER are trapped across the middle lamella
as new cell wall is formed between two newly divided plant cells. This
eventually becomes the cytoplasmic connection between cells. These
depressions/thin areas formed in the cell wall are called as pits which
pair up in adjacent cells.
So, this is how plasmodesmata is formed. It is formed when the portions
of the endoplasmic reticulum get trapped across the middle lamella.
You remember the middle lamella which forms above the primary cell
wall as the cell is dividing. The plant cell wall is made in
continuity with the adjacent cells through plasmodesmata. Those compressed regions of endoplasmic reticulum
then become the continuity or we can call them as holes among the adjacent plant cells.

Vacuole
 It is a membrane (tonoplast) bound organelle. They are filled with water
containing inorganic and organic molecules. No basic shape or size; the structure
varies according to the needs of the cell. Most mature plant cells have one large
vacuole which can occupy as much as 80% of the cell volume as per requirement/
conditions.
 It is mainly involved in regulating cytoplasmic pH, movements of ions, degradation
of waste-products, and isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the
cell.
  Maintains turgor pressure through active transport of water to prevent plasmolysis, exposes chloroplasts
to sunlight by forcing the cytoplasm against the cell membrane, protection against herbivory through
stored compounds.
Now, vacuoles are very interesting organelles in plant cells. They help in maintaining cell turgor. Then it helps
in storage. It also helps in maintaining the cytoplasmic pH. So, how do you think it can do all these functions
selectively based on the molecules stored in? It has some degrading enzymes stored in which will be useful in
degrading the waste-products and toxic molecules.
What is helping the vacuole in carrying out all this function?
It has a membrane called the tonoplast. So, tonoplast is rich in a number of diverse proteins. Now, these
proteins are transport proteins, through which active transport can take place. So, there are many different
kinds of proteins in this tonoplast which is a single layer around the vacuole which helps in the selective
movement of the molecules from the cytoplasm to inner. The tonoplast also helps in the maintenance of an
electrochemical gradient and helps in maintaining the pH of the cytoplasm. And you will find that the vacuole
pH is acidic in nature. Why do you think it is acidic in nature? Many of these enzymes which are present inside
are active at acidic pH.
Plastids

 Plastids carry out photosynthesis, the storage of products like starch

and the synthesis of many classes of molecules such as fatty acids and
terpenes.
 They are derived from proplastids, which are present in the
meristematic regions of the plant. Proplastids divide by binary fission.
 Plastids may differentiate into several forms, depending upon which
function they play in the cell.
Now, plastids, there are many different kinds of plastids. Chromoplasts
are the kind of plastids which can store coloured molecules. Chloroplast
for photosynthesis, leucoplast is for storage of many different kinds of
molecules where they are further divided into amyloplast. Amyloplast is
for starch, Elaioplast for oils, granules, and proteinoplast for proteins.

• THE THREE BASIC TYPES OF PLANT CELLS ARE

 PARENCHYMA
 COLLENCHYMA
 SCLERENCHYMA
Now, there are three different kinds of plant cells- parenchyma, sclerenchyma and collenchyma. Parenchyma
cells are the majority of cells present in the plant. They form the mass of the cells of the plant.
PARENCHYMA CELLS
A. THE MOST ABUNDANT AND LEAST STRUCTURALLY SPECIALIZED CELLS
B. PARENCHYMA CELLS ARE USUALLY LOOSELY PACKED CUBED-SHAPED
OR ELONGATED CELLS THAT CONTAIN A LARGE CENTRAL VACUOLE
AND HAVE THIN, FLEXIBLE CELL WALLS.
C. CELLS OCCUR THROUGHOUT THE PLANT AND HAVE MANY
FUNCTIONS, INCLUDING PHOTOSYNTHESIS, FOOD STORAGE, AND
GENERAL METABOLISM (SECRETION OF DEFENSE AND OTHER
COMPOUNDS)
D. AN IMPORTANT CHARACTERISTICS OF PARENCHYMA CELLS IS THAT
THEY CAN DIVIDE AND BECOME SPECIALIZED FOR VARIOUS
FUNCTION. MAY REMAIN TOTIPOTENT THROUGHOUT THEIR LIVES.
Now, parenchyma cells are those totipotent cells which we keep referring to. They form the mass of the plant
and they remain totipotent for their entire lifetime. Totipotent means they have the ability to organize
themselves into a specialized function, and again redivide and come back to totipotent stage, and again
redirect their metabolism to carry out another specialised function. Generally, you will find them in all growing
parts in photosynthetic cells, spongy cells, mesophyll cells which are involved in photosynthetic processes in
leaves. They have primary cell walls as they are present in the young cells which are growing. So, the cell wall
needs to be flexible. So, in all parenchyma types of cells you will find there is only a primary cell wall. You will
find them square shaped generally, but the shape can change to some extent.

COLLENCHYMA CELLSA. PLANT CELLS THAT SUPPORT THE GROWING PARTS OF PLANTS. B. THE CELL WALLS OF
COLLENCHYMA CELLS ARE THICKER THAN THOSE OF PARENCHYMA CELLS. COLLENCHYMA CELL WALLS ARE
ALSO IRREGULAR IN SHAPE. THE THICKER CELL WALLS PROVIDE MORE SUPPORT FOR THE PLANT. C. THEY
HAVE THICK WALLS, STRETCHABLE CELL WALLS THAT PROVIDE FLEXIBILITY SUPPORT. MADE OF ONLY
PRIMARY CELL WALL IMPREGNATED WITH PECTIN AND HEMICELLULOSE. Iregularly Thickened Primary Cel
WallD. COLLENCHYMA CELLS ARE USUALLY GROUPED IN STRANDS, QUITE ELONGATED. THEY ARE SPECIALIZED
FOR SUPPORTING REGIONS OF THE PLANT THAT ARE STILL LENGTHENING.
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SCLERENCHYMA CELLS:A. SUPPORT THE NON-GROWING PARTS OF PLANTS. HARD AND TOUGH CELLS TO
PROVIDE MECHANICAL SUPPORT. EXTENSIVE SECONDARY CELL WALL (IMPREGNATED WITH LIGNEN) UNDER
THE PRIMARY CELL WALL. B. SCLERENCHYMA CELLS HAVE THICK, EVEN RIGID CELL WALLS THAN
COLLENCHYMA CELLS WHICH HAVE ONLY PRIMARY CELL WALL. THEY SUPPORT AND STRENGTHEN THE PLANT
IN AREAS WHERE GROWTH IS NO LONGER OCCURRING. C. THEY HAVE THICK, NONSTRECHABLE CELL WALLS.
D. THE CELLS WALLS ARE SO THICK THAT THE CELL USUALLY DIES AT MATURItY, PROVIDING A FRAME TO
SUPPORT THE PLANT. WHEN THEY MATURE, MOST SCLERENCHYMA CELLS ARE EMPTY CHAMBERS
SURROUNDED BY THICK WALLS.
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THERE ARE TWO TYPES OF SCLERENCHYMA CELLS: • FIBERS - CELLS UP TO 50 CM LONG THAT USUALLY OCCUR
IN STRANDS. FABRIC SUCH AS LINEN AND FLAX ARE MADE OF THESE FIBERS • SCLEREIDS - HAVE THICKER
CELLS WALLS THAN FIBERS, HAVE MANY SHAPES, AND CAN OCCUR SINGLY OR IN SMALL GROUPS. SCLEREIDS
CAUSE THE HARDNESS OF A PEACH PIT AND A WALNUT SHELL.

Evolution of plants

PLANT TISSUES
Tissue is a cellular organizational level, intermediate between cells and a complete organism. A tissue is an
ensemble of similar cells from the same origin that together carry out a specific function. Organs are then
formed by the functional grouping together of multiple tissues.
 THE FOUR BASIC PLANT TISSUES ARE
- DERMAL TISSUE - GROUND TISSUE - MERISTEMATIC TISSUE - VASCULAR TISSUE

DERMAL TISSUE SYSTEMDERMAL TISSUE forms the skin (the outside covering) of a Plant, Covering all parts of
the roots, stems, and leaves. Consist of all kinds of cells. One kind of Dermal tissue is the EPIDERMIS, made of
Parenchyma Cells, which is the outer protective tissue of young plants and mature Non-woody Plants. Dermal
Tissue has different functions, depending on its LOCATION on the plant. Above the ground, Dermal Tissue
prevents the plant from drying out by reducing water loss from evaporation (Transpiration). This dermis tissue
also Secrets a waxy layer called cuticle - Below the ground, Dermal Tissue absorbs water. On the underground
parts of a plant, the Epidermis forms root hairs that absorb water and nutrients. - On leaves and stems
openings in the epidermis are called Stomata. Stomata regulate the passage of gases and moisture into and
out of the plant. - In woody stems and roots, the Epidermis is replaced by dead Cork Cells.

GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM

.
DERMAL TISSUE SURROUNDS THE GROUND TISSUE SYSTEM
GROUND TISSUE CALLED AS FILLER TISSUE. PARENCHYMA, SIMPLE TISSUE, MAKES UP MOST GROUND TISSUE,
A
GROUND TISSUE AS MANY METABOLIC FUNCTIONS, INCLUDING PHOTOSYNTHESIS, FOOD STORAGE AND
SUPPORT.
NON-WOODY ROOTS, STEMS, AND PRIMARILY OF GROUND TISSUE.
LEAVES
ARE
MADE
UP

VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM

• VASCULAR PLANTS HAVE SPECIALIZED TISSUE CALLED VASCULAR TISSUE. VASCULAR TISSUE CARRIES WATER
AND NUTRIENTS THROUGHOUT THE PLANT AND HELPS SUPPORT THE PLANT.
• THERE ARE TWO KINDS OF VASCULAR TISSUE: XYLEM AND PHLOEM
• BOTH KINDS OF VASCULAR TISSUE CONTAIN SPECIALIZED CONDUCTING CELLS

VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEMXYLEM: WHEN WATER AND MINERALS ARE ABSORBED BY THE ROOTS OF A PLANT,
THESE SUBSTANCES MUST BE TRANSPORTED UP TO THE PLANT'S STEMS AND LEAVES. XYLEM IS THE TISSUE
THAT CARRIES WATER AND DISSOLVED SUBSTANCES UPWARD IN THE PLANT. TRANSPORT OF WATER IS
CARRIED OUT ELEMENTS PRESENT IN THE XYLEM TISSUE, BYTRACHEIDSANDVESSELVESSEL ELEMENTS HAVE
OPENINGS AT BOTH ENDS THAT CONNECT INDIVIDUAL VESSEL ELEMENTS TO FORM A CONTINUOUS TUBULAR
VESSEL. HESE ND OPENINGS ARE CALLED ERFORATIONS OR PERFORATION PLATES. AT MATURITY THE
PROTOPLAST DIES AND DISAPPEARS, BUT THE LIGNIFIED CELL WALL PERSISTS. TRACHEIDS ARE ELONGATED
CELLS AND DO NOT HAVE PERFORATIONS, ALL TRACHEARY ELEMENTS DEVELOP A THICK LIGNIFIED CELL
WALL, AND AT MATURITY THE PROTOPLAST DISAPPEARS. IT CONTRIBUTES TO THE TRANSPORT SYSTEM AND
PROVIDES STRUCTURAL SUPPORT.

VASCULAR TISSUE SYSTEM

PHLOEM: SUGARS MADE IN THE LEAVES OF A PLANT BY PHOTOSYNTHESIS MUST BE TRANSPORTED
THROUGHOUT THE PLANT. PHLOEM TISSUE CONDUCTS SUGARS UPWARD AND DOWNWARD IN A PLANT. THE
PHLOEM IS COMPOSED OF LIVING CELLS (SIEVE-TUBE ELEMENTS PARENCHYMA CELLS AND SUPPORTIVE
CELLS) THAT TRANSPORT SAP.
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE PHLOEM IS DRIVEN BY POSITIVE HYDROSTATIC PRESSURES, A CCOMPLISHED Y A
PROCESS CALLED HILOEM LOADING AND UNLOADING
LOADING AND UNLOADING PATTERNS THE CONDUCTIVITY AND NUMBER OF MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
PROTEINS
ARE LARGELY DETERMINED BY PLASMODESMATA AND PLASMA
CELLS IN A SUGAR SOURCE AND SINK, "LOAD" AND "UNLOAD", THE SIEVE- TUBE ELEMENT BY ACTIVELY
TRANSPORTING SOLUTE MOLECULES INTO AND OUT OF IT, RESPECTIVELY

TWO PATTERNS OF GROWTHPRIMARY GROWTH - THE ELONGATION (GROWTH IN LENGTH) OF STEMS AND
ROOTS IS CALLED PRIMARY GROWTH. ALL PLANTS EXHIBIT PRIMARY GROWTH, IT OCCURS WHERE PLANTS
GROW TALLER AND THEIR ROOTS GROW DEEPER. SECONDARY GROWTH - GROWTH THAT MAKE PLANTS
THICKER (GROWTH IN DIAMETER) IS CALLED SECONDARY GROWTH. OME SEED PLANTS HAVE SECONDARY
GROWTH IN WOODY PLANTS. THERE IS A MERISTEM (LATERAL MERISTEM) BETWEEN THE XYLEM AND
PHLOEM CALLED THE VASCULAR CAMBIUM THAT PRODUCES ADDITIONAL VASCULAR TISSUE.

GROWTH IN MERISTEMSPLANTS GROW DIFFERENTLY FROM ANIMALS. INSTEAD OF GROWING ONLY FOR A
LIMITED TIME, PLANTS GROW AS LONG AS THE PLANT IS ALIVE, INSTEAD OF OCCURRING THROUGHOUT THE
ORGANISM, PLANT GROWTH OCCURS ONLY IN SPECIFIC GROWING REGIONS. THE GROWING REGIONS OF
PLANTS ARE CALLED MERISTEMS, REGIONS WHERE CELLS CONTINUOUSLY DIVIDE. MERISTEMS ARE LOCATED
AT THE TIPS OF STEMS AND BRANCHES, AT THE TIPS OF ROOTS (APICAL), AND IN JOINTS WHERE LEAVES
ATTACH TO STEMS (AXILLARY).

GROWTH IN MERISTEMS•IN WOODY PLANTS (TREES), THERE ARE MERISTEMS BETWEEN THE XYLEM AND
PHLOEM, THE TYPE OF TISSUE FOUND IN MERISTEMS IS CALLED MERISTEMATIC TISSUE. •MERISTEMATIC
TISSUE PRODUCES NEW CELLS BY MITOSIS.THESE NEW CELLS ARE ALL ALIKE AT FIRST, BUT EVENTUALLY THEY
CHANGE (DIFFERENTIATE) INTO VASCULAR TISSUE, DERMAL TISSUE, OR GROUND TISSUE.

GROWTH IN MERISTEMS
Apical Meristems -> Primary growth Lateral Meristems Secondary growth Vascular cambium Cork cambium
Intercalary Meristems (found in the nodes of grasses)
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CAMBIUM
.
A LATERAL MERISTEM IN VASCULAR PLANTS, INCLUDING THE VASCULAR CAMBIUM AND CORK CAMBIUM,
THAT FORMS PARALLEL ROWS OF CELLS RESULTING N SECONDARY TISSUES.
- THE VASCULAR CAMBIUM, LOCATED BETWEEN THE XYLEM AND PHLOEM, PRODUCES ADDITIONAL
VASCULAR TISSUES.
- THE CORK CAMBIUM, LOCATED OUTSIDE THE PHLOEM, PRODUCES CORK. CORK CELLS REPLACE THE
EPIDERMIS IN WOODY STEMS AND ROOTS, PROTECTING THE PLANT. CORK CELLS ARE DEAD CELLS THAT
PROVIDE PROTECTION AND PREVENT WATER LOSS

Diffusion and Osmosis How things move in and out of cells

• Cells constantly exchange materials with their environment. One way this occurs is by diffusion.
• Diffusion is the movement of particles or molecules from areas of higher concentration to lower
concentration

Osmosis
• The diffusion of water across cell membranes is called osmosis
• Water can move freely through membranes.
• The direction the water molecules move is dependent upon the relative concentrations of substances on
either side of the membrane, moving from high concentration to low

Osmosis
If you place a cell in a highly concentrated solution of salt or sugar, water will leave the cell,
•
The water is actually diffusing from an area concentration to an area of lower concentration
of high
•
If cell is left in a hypertonic solution, for any length of time, so much water will leave that the protoplast
actually shrinks away from the cell wall.
•
When this happens the cell is said to be plasmolyzed. In a wilted leaf many of the cells would be plasmolyzed

Osmosis
On the other hand, if you place a cell in distilled water, water will enter the cell. Again the water is moving
from higher (outside the cell) to lower concentration
When a plant cell is in a hypotonic, solution, water will enter until the vacuole is fully extended pushing the
cytoplasm up against the cell wall. Such cells look plump, or turgid; this is the normal appearance of cells in a
well- watered plant.
When the cell is placed in a solution of the same concentration, isotonic, there is no net movement of water
and the cell is not turgid

Membrane Transport
• Diffusion take place when molecules move along a concentration gradient.
• Cells can also move substances against a concentration gradient - Called active transport - Requires energy
by the cell - Membrane proteins transport these substances across the membrane

THE TRANSPORT OF WATER

https://www.slideshare.net/bchiam/transport-in-plant-slides

THE TRANSPORT OF WATER.THE TRANSPORT OF WATER AND MINERAL NUTRIENTS OCCURS IN THE XYLEM OF
ALL PLANT ORGANS. THE THEORY OF WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANTS TODAY IS KNOWN AS THE COHESION-
TENSION THEORY. ACCORDING TO THIS THEORY, WATER MOVEMENT IN PLANTS IS DRIVEN BY
TRANSPIRATION. .TRANSPIRATION IS THE EVAPORATION OF WATER FROM THE PARTS OF A PLANT EXPOSED
TO THE AIR. AS WATER EVAPORATES FROM THE CELLS OF A LEAF OR STEM, REPLACEMENT WATER IS PULLED
FROM THE XYLEM TISSUE, MORE WATER ENTERS THE ROOTS FROM THE SOIL TO REPLACE THE LOST WATER.

The Movement of sugars in Phloem is best explained by the PRESSURE-FLOW HYPOTHESIS

https://biologyjunction.com/plant-structure-function-bi/

Leaf Structure
LEAF FUNCTIONSLeaves are the primary site of photosynthesis in most plants.Mesophyll Cells in Leaves use
Light Energy, Carbon dioxide, and Water to make Carbohydrates. Light Energy is also used by Mesophyll Cells
to synthesize amino acids, fats, and a variety of other organic molecules Carbohydrates made in a leaf can be
used by the leaf as an Energy source or as building blocks. They also may be transported to other parts of the
plant, where they are either used or stored. A major limitation to plant photosynthesis is insufficient Water
due to transpiration. About 98 percent of the water that is absorbed by the roots is lost through transpiration.
Transpiration may benefit the plant by cooling it and speeding the transport of mineral nutrients through the
Xylem.

What is Photosynthesis?
Photosynthesis is the process by which autotrophic organisms use light energy to make sugar and oxygen gas
from carbon dioxide and water
https://guidancecorner.com/photosynthesis/

Why are plants green?

Chloroplasts absorb light energy and convert it to chemical energy The thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast
is impregnated with photosynthetic pigments (i.e., chlorophylls, carotenoids).

Solar energy gets converted to light energy during light reactions to produce ATP and NADPH • Sugar is
produced from C02 in the Calvin cycle • ATP, generated by light reactions supply energy and NADPH that is
produced supplies the electrons for sugar synthesis in the dark reaction