SOCY 323

Social Research Methodology

Study section 2.1

The nature of quantitative research

Dr Mupambwa
Test 1

Date: Monday, 26 August 2024

Time: 11:00-12:45
Venue: E3 B12; E8-B39; E8-B40
Content: Study Unit 1: Study sections 1.1-1.6
Group Assignment

Date: Friday, 6 September 2024

Submissions:
• Submit printed copy to A13 114 by 13:00.
• Submit electronic copy on eFundi by 23:55. This
assignment should be completed in groups
consisting of three (3) to five (5) members.
Group Assignment
CASE STUDY:

The employability of university students has become a significant

concern for educational institutions, employers, and students
themselves. You are targeted by the North-West University to conduct
research among their undergraduate students at all three campuses to
explore students' perceptions regarding their employability. You also
need to determine how the students’ perceptions differ in terms of their
gender, race and faculty of study. The sample size is 1500 students. You
are required to publish the findings of your research in a research report
and present it to the North-West University by 30 November 2024.
Group Assignment
Question 1 (5 marks):
Conduct a narrative literature review and explain the concept employability in
200-250 words. Cite at least three sources in the text and include the sources
in the reference list using the Harvard referencing method. (200-250 words)

Question 2 (10 marks):

Find two research articles that focused on investigating the employability
among undergraduate students in a university context and provide a summary
in 200 to 250 words of the main findings of these two articles. Cite the two
sources in the text and include the sources in the reference list using the
Harvard referencing method. (200-250 words)

Question 3 (2 marks):
Formulate an appropriate topic for the research.

Question 4 (8 marks):
Formulate a main research question and objective for the research as well as
three specific research questions and objectives.
Group Assignment
Question 5 (10 marks):
Critically discuss the ontological and epistemological foundations applicable to
the research methodology that you will follow in 300-400 words. Cite at least
three sources in the text and include the sources in the reference list using the
Harvard referencing method. (300-400 words)

Question 6 (10 marks):

Select and explain the appropriate research design for this study in 200 to 250
words. Cite at least two sources in the text and include the sources in the
reference list using the Harvard referencing method. (200-250 words)

Question 7 (5 marks):
Select and explain the sampling technique suitable for this study in 100 to 150
words. Also discuss the possible limitations of the sampling technique. Cite at
least two sources in the text and include the sources in the reference list using
the Harvard referencing method. (100-150 words)
Group Assignment
Question 8 (10 marks):
Select and critically discuss one data collection method suitable for this study
in 200-250 words. Also elaborate on the possible limitations of the chosen
method. Cite at least two sources in the text and include the sources in the
reference list using the Harvard referencing method. (200-250 words)

Question 9 (10 marks):

Identify and critically discuss the ethical considerations inherent in the
research project in 200-250 words. Provide examples to substantiate your
discussion. Cite at least two sources in the text and include the sources in the
reference list using the Harvard referencing method. (200-250 words)

Question 10 (30 marks):

Draft a questionnaire consisting of three biographical variables and one
variable consisting of 10 indicators measuring the employability of
undergraduate students. Your questionnaire should include a cover letter.
Outcomes
Study Unit 2
On completion of this study unit you should be able to:
• critically explain the main characteristics of quantitative social research including its
main features, main steps, the development of measures for concepts, procedures
for checking the reliability and validity of the measurement process, and some
criticisms.
• critically discuss the rationale and principles of sampling in quantitative research;
• differentiate critically between probability and non-probability sampling;
• apply sampling methods and techniques to given case studies;
• critically discuss the nature and extent of structured interviews and self-completed
questionnaires;
• apply the theoretical knowledge in practical assignments by compiling structured
interviews and self-completed questionnaires;
• critically explain the considerations involved in asking the questions that are used in
structured interviews and questionnaires and apply them to given case studies; and
• identify, explain and apply some of the most used methods for analysing quantitative
data.
Outcomes
Study Unit 1

Study Unit 1 Focus

Study section 2.1 The nature of quantitative research
Study section 2.2 Sampling in quantitative research
Study section 2.3 Data collection in quantitative research
Study section 2.4 Quantitative data analysis
Outcomes
Study Unit 2.1

On completion of this study unit you should be able to:

• critically explain the main characteristics of quantitative social research
including its:
o main features;
o main steps;
o the development of measures for concepts;
o procedures for checking the reliability and validity of the measurement
process; and
o and some criticisms.
Prescribed readings /
Voorgeskrewe leeswerk

Clark, T., Foster, L., Sloan, L. & Bryman, A. 2021.

Bryman's Social Research Methods. Cape Town:
Oxford University Press. Chapter 6.

Bryman, A. 2012. Social research methods. 4ed. New

York: Oxford University press. Chapter 7.
Introduction
 What is quantitative research?

• Takes a deductive view of the relationship between

theory and research (theory drives the research)

• Has a preference for the natural science approach

• Has an objectivist conception of social reality (social

phenomena and their meanings have an existence that
is independent of social actors)

Section 7.2 What is quantitative research?

© Oxford University Press, 2021 13

Criteria of quantitative research
1. Use of empirical methods 9. Replicability
2. Objectivity 10. Representativeness and
generalisation
3. Value neutrality (researcher
remains objective; subjective 11. Strict reliance on methods
views should not influence and their results
research process)
12. Rigorous, disciplined,
4. Clarity in design and systematic and reality-bound
procedure procedure
5. Distance between researcher 13. Strict research design
and subjects of research constructed before research
begins
6. Measurement and
quantification 14. Ethical considerations
7. Accuracy and precision
8. Validity and reliability
 The main methods of
quantitative data collection
Questionnaires and surveys

Quantitative content analysis

(evaluates documents and texts)

Secondary data analysis

(evaluates data collected by others)
Structured observation
(systematically observing and recording
behaviour)
© Oxford University Press, 2021 15
Technological innovations have affected
quantitative research
Big Data (e.g., Twitter,
Software to produce self-
Facebook, Instagram) –
completion surveys (e.g.
difficult to process,
Google forms)
analyse

Software for Access to large samples

sophisticated analysis across the globe

Section 7.2 What is quantitative research?

© Oxford University Press, 2021 16

Preoccupations
of quantitative
research
 The main preoccupations
of quantitative research

Measurement Causality

Generalization Replication

Section 7.3 The main preoccupations of quantitative research

© Oxford University Press, 2021 18

The main preoccupations of quantitative research

Measurement
• Allows researchers to systematically quantify variables and
analyse relationships between them
• To identify differences consistently and to provide
estimates of relationships between concepts

Causality
• To explain why things are the way they are (not only
describing how things are)
• Cause and effect
• DV’s and IDV’s
Section 7.3 The main preoccupations of quantitative research
• Experimental design / Longitudinal design / Cross-
sectional designs – Internal validity (confident about
causal
© Oxford inferences)
University Press, 2021 19
 The main preoccupations
of quantitative research
Generalization
• To generalize the findings beyond the sample
• External validity
• Probability sampling – generalised results

Replication
• To minimize bias
• Important that researchers clearly present their
procedures so they can be replicated by others

Section 7.3 The main preoccupations of quantitative research

© Oxford University Press, 2021 22

Steps in
quantitative
research
The main
• One-way
steps in • Separate and independent
steps
quantitative • Precise and detailed
research • Rigid, non-flexible
• Objectivity (scientific
claims, methods,
researcher, not influenced
by personal or contextual
perspectives/beliefs etc.)

Section 7.4 The main steps in quantitative research

© Oxford University Press, 2021 24

Concepts and
their
measurement
 Concepts and their measurement
Concepts

• Building blocks of theory

• Labels that we give to elements of the social world
• E.g. social capital, cultural capital, employability,
gender values, job satisfaction
• Measures need to be developed to be quantified
• Concepts take the form of IVs and DV’s
• E.g. Gender (IV) and Employability (DV)

Section 7.5 Concepts and their measurement

© Oxford University Press, 2021 26

Concepts and their measurement
Concepts and their measurement
 Concepts and their measurement

Measurement

• Measurement is the process of systematically assigning

numerical values or symbols to variables according to specific
rules or standards
• Key aspects:
o Operationalisation (define the exact criteria or procedures to
represent abstract concepts numerically)
o Choose the right scale (nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio) to
measure variables
o Reliability and validity: Ensure that the measurement tool
accurately reflects the concept (validity) and consistently
provides similar results under the sameSection
conditions (reliability)
7.5 Concepts and their measurement

© Oxford University Press, 2021 29

 Concepts and their measurement
Measures

• Measures refer to the instruments or tools

(survey, scale) used to collect data during the
process of measurement
• Are directly quantifiable
• Refers to things or quantities that can be
relatively unambiguously counted, e.g. income,
age, number of children

Section 7.5 Concepts and their measurement

© Oxford University Press, 2021 30

 Concepts and their measurement

Indicators

• Tap into concepts that are less directly quantifiable

• E.g. indicators that measure the concept
‘employability’ (labour market, field of study,
university reputation, self-belief)
• The indicators will allow concepts (e.g.,
employability) to be measured
• The resulting quantifiable information can be
treated as a measure
Section 7.5 Concepts and their measurement

© Oxford University Press, 2021 31

 How are indicators devised?
Asking questions
(Questionnaire – employability)

Observing behaviours
(Structured observation schedule)

Examining media content

(Content analysis – examine depictions of
gender on television programme)
Using official statistics
(Crime statistics to measure criminal
behaviour)
© Oxford University Press, 2021 32
Why use multiple-indicator measures?

• A single indicator may incorrectly classify individuals

• A single question may be too general or too limited in

scope

• Multiple questions allow researchers to make much

finer distinctions

• Likert scales = multiple-indicator or multiple-item

measure
Section 7.5 Concepts and their measurement

© Oxford University Press, 2021 34

Concepts and their measurement
Dimensions of concepts
• The dimensions of a concept are identified with reference to the
theory and research associated with it.

• E.g. Pierre Bourdieu, a French sociologist, developed the concept of

"capital" as part of his broader theoretical framework to explain
social life and inequalities
o Economic capital
o Cultural capital
o Social capital
o Symbolic capital

• E.g. Seeman’s (1959) assertion that there are five dimensions of

alienation:
o Powerlessness
o Meaninglessness
o Isolation, and
o Self-estrangement
Reliability and
validity of
measures
 What is reliability?
Reliability is concerned with the consistency of measures.
You should take the following factors into account:

Stability
• Is the measure stable over time?
• If we administer a measure to a group and then re-administer it, there
should be little variation over time in the results obtained.
Internal reliability
• Are the indicators consistent?
• Are respondents’ scores on any one indicator related to their scores on
the other indicators?
Inter-rater reliability Section 7.6 Reliability and validity
• Is the measure consistent between observers?
© Oxford University Press, 2021 38
 What is validity?
Measurement validity is concerned with whether a measure of a concept
really measures that concept. There are different types of validity.
Validity Description
Face Does the measure reflects the content of the concept – ask
experts?
Convergent Is the measure supported by results from other methods?
E.g., if you are measuring a concept like "intelligence," different
tests (such as an IQ test and a cognitive skills assessment) should
show a high correlation if they both accurately measure
intelligence
Concurrent Is the measure supported by relevant criterion today?
(=existing at the E.g, How well a measure of job satisfaction correlates with
same time) absenteeism at the same point in time
Predictive Is the measure likely to be supported by relevant criterion in the
future?
E.g., How well can a measure of job satisfaction predict future
absenteeism in employees Section 7.6 Reliability and validity
Construct Evaluates how well the measure conforms to theoretical
expectations
© Oxford University Press, 2021 39
Measurement validity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kkjjZtFV9ZE
Measurement validity

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LbtBOvrG6do
Improving reliability of measurements

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_1tLkRmQbuU
Critique of
quantitative
research
The critique of quantitative research

• Researchers treat people and social institutions in the

same way as the world of nature

• The measurement process involves an artificial sense of

precision and accuracy

• The reliance on instruments and procedures limits the

connection between research and everyday life

• The analysis of relationships between variables creates

a static view of social life that is independent of
people’s lives
Section 7.7 The critique of quantitative research

© Oxford University Press, 2021 44

Critique of quantitative research

Researchers treat people and social institutions in the same way as the
world of nature
• Thus, ignoring the fact that people interpret the world around them
• Whereas this capacity for self-reflection cannot be found among the objects
of the natural sciences (‘molecules, atoms, and electrons’).
• In practice, a recognition that people interpret the world around them should
be a key focus of all research in the social sciences, not just qualitative
research.

The measurement process involves an artificial sense of precision and

accuracy
• The measurement process may be seen as flawed in that it presumes that
respondents interpret the key terms in questions similarly.
• However, this is not necessarily the case.
Critique of quantitative research

The reliance on instruments and procedures limits the connection

between research and everyday life
• This issue relates to the question of ecological validity.
• Many methods of quantitative research rely on administering research
instruments to participants (e.g. structured interviews and self-completion
questionnaires) or on controlling situations to determine their effects (as in
experiments).
• However, as Cicourel (1982) asks, how do we know if survey respondents
have the necessary knowledge to answer a question, or whether they are
similar in their sense of the topic being important to them in their everyday
lives?
Critique of quantitative research

The analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of

social life that is independent of people’s lives
• Blumer (1956: 685) argued that studies that aim to bring out the
relationships between variables omit ‘the process of interpretation or
definition that goes on in human groups’.
• Thus, quantitative research ignores the meaning of events to individuals
and that we do not know how such findings connect to everyday contexts—
but adds a further element: that it creates a sense of a static social world
that is separate from the individuals who make it up.
• Quantitative research is seen as carrying an objectivist ontology that reifies
the social world.
 Sarantakos
Quantitative research: Critique (p. 34-36)

Reality Not objective but open to interpretation

Hypotheses Hypotheses formed before the research commences
restrict research options forcing upon the respondents
opinions or intentions that they might otherwise have not
expressed.
(A proposed explanation for some observed phenomenon)
E.g. Employees are motivated by pay and benefits.
Experience QtM restrict experience by:
• directing research to what is perceived by the senses
(no room for interpretation)
• employing only standardized tools focusing on
quantifiable data.
Status quo QtM employs a theoretical perspective and type of
research that supports the status quo.
Methods In QtM, the methods dictate the research - reality is
adjusted to the methods and not the methods to the
reality.
 Sarantakos
Quantitative research: Critique (p. 34-36)

Researcher • Depersonalised and neutralised.

• Distance between the researcher and respondents.
• The researcher becomes a ‘technician’ who serves
technocratic goals.
• The respondents are turned into units or objects and
are treated as such.
• The researcher control the respondent.
Objectivity • Objectivity is not possible, necessary or useful.
• The perceptions and interpretations of the researcher
penetrates the research process in many ways.
Research • Employs a strict research design and specific order.
procedure • This restricts the options of the research process and
inhibits the initiative and motivation of the researcher.
• This limits the effectiveness of the research process
and produce data that do not reflect reality as a whole.
 Is it always like this?
Examples of gaps that can arise between ‘good practice’ and
actual research

Model of quantitative research Reality

Deductive reasoning Reverse operationalism: measurements

Concepts are specified and indicators we device can sometimes help to
are developed to measure them develop a theory
(operationalism)
Reliability and validity testing Rarely reported. Greater emphasis is
placed on reporting substantive
findings

Probability/random sampling Often use non-probability sampling

techniques (due to time and costs)

© Oxford University Press, 2021 50

Individual
activity

?
Efundi: Study Section 1.6
Individual activity

1. What are the main steps in quantitative research?

2. To what extent do the main steps follow a strict sequence?
3. Do the steps suggest a deductive or inductive approach to the relationship
between theory and research?
4. Why is measurement important for the quantitative researcher?
5. What is the difference between a measure and an indicator?
6. Why might multiple-indicator approaches to the measurement of concepts
be preferable to those that rely on a single indicator?
7. What are the main ways of thinking about the reliability of the measurement
process? Is one form of reliability the most important?
8. ‘Whereas validity presupposes reliability, reliability does not presuppose
validity.’ Discuss.
Efundi: Study Section 1.6
Individual activity

9. What are the main criteria for evaluating measurement validity?

10. Outline the main preoccupations of quantitative researchers. What reasons
can you give for these?
11. Why is replication often an important preoccupation among quantitative
researchers, in spite of the tendency for replications in social research to be
fairly rare?
12. ‘The crucial problem with quantitative research is the failure of its
practitioners to address adequately the issue of meaning.’ Discuss.
13. How central is quantitative researchers’ adoption of a natural science model
of conducting research to the critique by qualitative researchers of
quantitative research?
14. Why do social researchers sometimes not test the validity and/or reliability
of measures that they employ?
Conclusion
Conclusion

• Quantitative research can be characterized as a linear series of steps

moving from theory to conclusions.
• The measurement process in quantitative research involves the search for
indicators.
• Establishing the reliability and validity of measures is important for
assessing their quality.
• Quantitative research can be characterized as having certain
preoccupations, the most central of which are measurement, causality,
generalization, and replication.
• Quantitative research has been subjected to many criticisms by qualitative
researchers. These criticisms tend to be associated with the view that a
natural science model is not appropriate for studying the social world
Next lecture

Study Study section 2.2:

Sampling in quantitative research

Complete the tutorial activities and bring to class for discussion.

Submit the activity after class.
Any questions

?
 K Y O U
T H A N

© North-West University (2012)