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Unit 4 Chapter 12 Part 3 supplemental slides

The document discusses the regulation of the cell cycle, emphasizing the importance of checkpoints in G1, G2, and M phases to control cell division and prevent abnormalities like cancer. It explains the roles of internal and external signals, including protein kinases and cyclins, in regulating these checkpoints. Additionally, it outlines the differences between benign and malignant tumors and the mechanisms cells use to avoid becoming cancerous, such as apoptosis.

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Noun Sovanna
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10 views

Unit 4 Chapter 12 Part 3 supplemental slides

The document discusses the regulation of the cell cycle, emphasizing the importance of checkpoints in G1, G2, and M phases to control cell division and prevent abnormalities like cancer. It explains the roles of internal and external signals, including protein kinases and cyclins, in regulating these checkpoints. Additionally, it outlines the differences between benign and malignant tumors and the mechanisms cells use to avoid becoming cancerous, such as apoptosis.

Uploaded by

Noun Sovanna
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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AP Biology Unit 4: Cell Communication and

Cell Cycle
Topic 4.6: Regulation of Cell Cycle
Enduring understanding: Heritable information provides for continuity of
life.
Recap
Identify the five stages of mitosis and describe the detail that will help you to
identify each stage.

What is the major difference between cytokinesis in animal cells vs plant cells?
Why do we need to control cell division?

❏ The timing and rate of cell division in


different parts of an animal or plant are
crucial for normal growth, development,
and maintenance.
Example: The frequency of cell division varies with cell type. Some
human cells divide frequently throughout life (skin cells). Others human
cells have the ability to divide but keep it in reserve (liver cells). Mature
nerve and muscle cells do not appear to divide at all after maturity.

If division is not controlled? → abnormality


aka cancers
Cell cycle control system: Checkpoint

❏ Checkpoint → a control point where stop


and go-ahead signals regulate the cycle.
➔ Signals are transmitted within the cell by
signal transduction pathways.
➔ To proceed, each signal type must be
overridden.
Example: Animal cells generally have built-in stop signals that halt the cell
cycle at checkpoints until they are overridden by go-ahead signals.
Cell cycle control system: Checkpoint

❏ Signals at checkpoints
come from cellular
surveillance mechanisms
which indicate whether key
cellular processes have
been completed correctly.
❏ Signal could be internal or
external.
Three Major Checkpoints

❏ Found in
G1, G2,
and M
phase
G1 Checkpoint

❏ The most important checkpoint


❏ Green light signal at G1 checkpoint
→ cell can complete the cell cycle
and divides.
❏ Red light signal at G1 checkpoint →
cell can’t complete the cell cycle
and must go to G0 (Recall what
happens at G0?)
G2 & M Checkpoint

❏ G2 → checks to make sure DNA is


properly duplicated, influences the
genetic contents, provides
opportunity to fix DNA if it is copied
wrongly
❏ M → check if the spindles correctly
bind to chromosomes before
successful spitting of the sister
chromatids
How are checkpoints monitored?

❏ Coordinated by cyclically
operating molecules
❏ Control cycle has a built-in
clock, but it is also regulated
by external adjustments and
internal controls.
Internal Control

❏ Depend on fluctuations of regulatory molecules which


are protein kinases and cyclins.
Protein kinases

Protein kinases → can activate or


inactivate other proteins by
phosphorylation and give the
go-ahead signals at G1 and G2
checkpoints.
Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (aka Cdks)

❏ Kinases that drive the cell cycle require a cyclin to become


activated so are called Cdks
❏ Once activated, Cdks allow cell to go to S phase
Cdks Example: MPF (“maturation-promoting factor” or “M-phase-promoting factor”)

Once activated by binding to cyclins which


peak in S phase, MPF triggers the cell’s
passage past the G2 checkpoint to the M
phase. When in mitosis, MPF triggers the
breakdown of cyclin, reducing cyclin and
inactivating MPF.

❏ Fluctuating activities of different


cyclin-Cdk complexes are of major
importance in controlling all the
stages of the cell cycle.
External/internal chemicals

❏ Nutrients → cells fail to divide if an


essential nutrient is depleted
❏ Growth factors → proteins released
by certain cells that stimulate other
cells to divide using signal
transduction pathways
Example:

Platelet-derived growth factors (PDGFs), produced by blood


platelets, are required for the division of fibroblasts in culture.
Which kind of feedback is this?
Physical factors

❏ Density-dependent → high
density of cells in an area leads
to inhibition of cell division in
that area (why would this be
useful?)
❏ Anchorage dependent → to
divide, the cells must be
anchored to a substratum
(extracellular matrix of a tissue)
Cancer cells

❏ Divide excessively because they are free of


the body’s control mechanisms.
❏ do not stop dividing when growth factors are
depleted because they manufactures
“counterfeit” growth factors that can bypass
cell cycle control system.
❏ May divide indefinitely given a continuous
supply of nutrients.
Ex: HeLa cells from a tumor removed from a woman (Henrietta
Lacks) in 1951 are still reproducing in culture.
Types of tumors
❏ Any cells that can divide indefinitely are said
to have undergone transformation → they
are considered abnormal cells
❏ Benign tumor → caused by abnormal cells
remain one location (easily treated)
❏ Malignant tumor → caused by abnormal
cells with ability to metastasize or spread to
new tissues and impair the functions of one
or more organs (difficult to treat)
An individual with a malignant tumor is said to have cancer.
Why and when cancers are scary

Cancer cells have abnormalities in:


❏ Number of chromosomes
❏ Metabolism
❏ Functions (ex: secrete signal
molecules that cause blood vessels to
grow toward the tumor)
❏ Loose attachment with nearby
cells (invade other cell →
metastasis)
Counteracting cancers

❏ Most of the time, cells


avoid becoming cancerous
by committing “suicide” aka
programmed cell death→
apoptosis
❏ If a tumor becomes
malignant →
chemotherapy

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