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Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling of Ignition Systems for Spark Ignition

Engines

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DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-8618-4_9

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Chapter 9
Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling
of Ignition Systems for Spark Ignition
Engines

Dhananjay Kumar and Avinash Kumar Agarwal

Abstract The advancement of technologies has led researchers to explore new ways
to comply with stringent emission norms globally and fulfil the energy requirements.
The trends in engine development favour computational studies for initial investi-
gations due to lesser time demand and economy. In a spark ignition (SI) engine,
ignition of the fuel–air mixture is achieved by the spark discharge across the spark
plug electrodes. The discharge is of very high intensity for a very short interval,
providing sufficient energy in the form of plasma kernel to initiate chemical reac-
tions necessary to generate a self-sustaining flame. Direct injection SI combustion
system is considered an upcoming next-generation technology capable of meeting
stringent emission norms with improved engine performance. Conventional spark
plug system undergoes various issues such as erosion of spark plug, heat losses at
the electrodes, hindrance in working at high in-cylinder pressures, and fixed spark
location. Therefore, the researchers explore alternate ignition concepts/ systems that
provide greater flexibility than conventional ignition systems. These alternate igni-
tion concepts/ systems include laser ignition, turbulent jet ignition, corona ignition,
and microwave ignition. These all are also referred to as advanced ignition systems.
Advanced ignition has emerged as an alternative way to ignite leaner fuel–air mixture
owing to higher engine performance and lower emissions. These systems offer signif-
icant advantages; however, they are still under research, and many challenges need
to be overcome before they are commercialized. In this chapter, the evolution of
the spark ignition systems has been discussed. Modelling aspects of spark ignition
engines using 1D and 3D simulation tools have been summarised. The working of
these advanced ignition systems has been discussed in detail, and their challenges
are also summarised.

Keywords Advance ignition system · Modelling · Spark ignition engine · Laser

ignition · Turbulent jet ignition

D. Kumar · A. K. Agarwal (B)

Engine Research Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of
Technology Kanpur, Kanpur 208016, India
e-mail: [email protected]
D. Kumar
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 237
A. K. Agarwal et al. (eds.), Engine Modeling and Simulation, Energy, Environment,
and Sustainability, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-8618-4_9
238 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

Abbreviations

1D One Dimensional
2D Two Dimensional
3D Three Dimensional
bTDC Before Top Dead Centre
BSFC Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
CAD Crank Angle Degree
CFD Computational Fluid Dynamics
CI Compression Ignition
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CO Carbon Monoxide
CPOA Cylinder Pressure Only Analysis
CW Continuous Wave
EGR Exhaust Gas Recirculation
ECU Electronic Control Unit
IC Internal Combustion
SI Spark Ignition
GDI Gasoline Direct Injection
H2 Hydrogen
HCNG Hydrogen Enriched Compressed Natural Gas
HC Hydrocarbons
HCCI Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
LI Laser Ignition
MFB Mass Fraction Burned
NOx Oxides of Nitrogen
TPA Three Pressure Analysis
TKE Turbulent Kinetic Energy
TJI Turbulent Jet Ignition
R-L-C Resistance-Inductance-Capacitance

9.1 Introduction

Future generation spark-ignition (SI) engines would have higher power output with
lesser emissions to meet the emission norms adopted by various legislative bodies.
The compression ratio of the SI engine is significantly lower than the compression
ignition (CI) engine, resulting in lower temperature and pressure conditions in the
combustion chamber at the end of the compression stroke. The self-ignition temper-
ature of high-octane/ low-cetane fuel is high, which requires an ignition source to
ignite the fuel–air mixture inside the combustion chamber. Close to the end of the
compression stroke, electrical discharge produced between the two spark plug elec-
trodes is responsible for initiating the SI engine’s combustion process. Spark plug
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 239

creates a high-temperature plasma kernel in the thin reaction sheet (between the
central and ground electrodes). This plasma kernel develops into a self-sustaining
flame front. The spark needs to be produced repeatedly over a range of speeds and
loads at an appropriate crank angle of the engine cycle to ensure smooth engine
running. The ignition process is a small-scale local phenomenon in a small zone
inside the engine combustion chamber.

9.1.1 Importance and Challenges of Ignition System

In the SI engine, ignition of the fuel–air mixture is achieved by spark discharge

across the spark plug electrodes. The discharge is of very high intensity for a very
short interval, providing sufficient energy in the form of heat to initiate chemical
reactions necessary to generate a self-sustaining flame. The heat released from the
chemical reactions must be greater than the heat losses across the cylinder walls,
spark plug electrodes, and unburnt gases. There is a need for higher power output
with the existing engines with the same smoothness level at idle and part loads.
With an ideal thermodynamic cycle for SI engines, three primary ways of improving
engine efficiency are: (i) increasing the engine’s compression ratio or (ii) burning
the leaner mixture by adapting EGR or (iii) employing a superior ignition system.
Both stratified and homogenous approaches are used to adapt to the burning of the
leaner mixture. Moreover, they differ by the needs of engine demand for the burning
processes. For the stratified mode of operation, spray formation provides favourable
conditions at the location of the ignition.
Furthermore, spatial and temporal variations in charge distribution exist near the
spark plug’s tip (Scarcelli et al. 2016). Therefore, an appropriate ignition system
preferably covers considerable space and multiple bursts to average the fluctuations
due to each cycle’s spatial and temporal charge variations. For the homogeneous
mode operation, fuel injection starts early, and mixture gradients are quite small.
Therefore lesser spatial variations of charge are present, resulting in a longer delay
period. To have smoother and faster combustion, higher levels of turbulence and
charge motion are generally desirable.
Moreover, higher turbulence also increases the heat loss near the cylinder wall.
For the ignition process, the ability to adapt to turbulence is essential for efficient
combustion. In tumble dominated SI engines, the tumble breaks down to reduce
the TKE at the TDC. Resolving this breakdown (through finer meshes and correct
turbulence models) is important for accurate spark modelling. In other words, the
ignition system should cope with both leaner and richer mixtures with different
turbulence levels. Lean combustion offers a considerable reduction in emissions
and fuel consumption at part load operation. However, igniting the extended leaner
mixture imposes several challenges to the conventional ignition systems. Another
key challenge of critical consideration is the capability to adapt to the transient
behaviour of the engine at different loads. The particle formation during combustion
and probability of ignition components fouling is of significant importance under the
240 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

Fig. 9.1 Challenges and demands associated with modern SI combustion systems (Schenk et al.
2017)

dynamic engine operating conditions of the engine. Figure 9.1 summarises major
challenges associated with the ignition systems at different engine loads (Schenk
et al. 2017).

9.1.2 Evolution of Ignition System

An ignition system involves electrical/ electronic components to ignite the fuel–

air mixtures in the engine cylinder. In 1860, Etienne Lenoir demonstrated the first
internal combustion (IC) engine (gas engine) integrated with an electrical spark
plug (History of the Ignition System 2021). Tesla (1898) patented the first spark
plug. Bosch’s (1902) invented the spark plug capable of producing high voltage and
commercialized it as a part of the magneto ignition system for IC engine applications.
After that, the basic magneto system was improved and integrated with a replaceable
battery. Then the battery ignition systems came into the picture ~ 1910. The battery-
operated coil, capacitors, contactor points, and distributer were integrated to achieve
the breakdown voltage necessary to achieve electrical plasma ignition.
Nowadays, modern ignition systems are used in vehicles that employ electronic
ignition instead of mechanical devices like contactor points. These systems are
becoming more advanced with time and providing flexibility in controlling the igni-
tion timing. A modern ignition system can be coupled to a computer interface for real-
time observation, and also it can be programmed for optimizing the engine power/
torque output. With tightening emission legislations and higher power requirements,
the ignition of extended lean burning of fuel–air mixture poses increasing chal-
lenges to these modern ignition systems. Conventional spark plug ignition systems
face several challenges such as erosion of spark plug, heat losses at the electrodes,
hindrance in working at high cylinder pressures, fixed spark location (Soldera et al.
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 241

Fig. 9.2 Evolution of ignition system for IC engine applications

2004; Pischinger and Heywood 1990). Therefore, several researchers have explored
alternate ignition systems that provide greater flexibility over conventional ignition
systems. These alternate ignition systems include laser ignition (LI) (Vasile and
Pavel 2021; Singh et al. 2020; Kumar and Agarwal 2020; Prasad and Agarwal 2021;
Wermer et al. 2021; Prasad and Agarwal 2021), turbulent jet ignition (Attard et al.
2010; Gholamisheeri et al. 2017; Taskiran 2020; Distaso et al. 2020; Biswas and
Ekoto 2019), corona ignition (Cimarello et al. 2017; Cruccolini et al. 2020; Vino-
gradov et al. 2008), and microwave ignition (Hwang et al. 2017, 2021; Chen et al.
2020). These are also referred to as advanced ignition systems. These systems offer
significant advantages; however, these are still under development, and several tech-
nical challenges need to be addressed before being commercialized in practical vehi-
cles. These advanced ignition systems have been discussed in detail in the following
sections. Figure 9.2 categorizes different advanced ignition systems for IC engine
applications and their evolution pathways.

9.2 Ignition Process

Four phases of spark generation were suggested by Maly (1984). These phases
consisted of pre-breakdown, breakdown, arc, and glow discharge (Maly 1984). Pre-
breakdown refers to the initial phase when the electric field between the electrodes
increases continuously for few microseconds. The breakdown phase (~nanosecond
range) occurs in the electrode gap when the electric field reaches the conduc-
tivity threshold of the air–fuel mixture present in the nearby volume. The required
maximum voltage developed in the breakdown phase is referred to as the ‘break-
down voltage.’ Various parameters contribute to the breakdown voltage, including
the fuel–air mixture strength, fuel type, engine load, electrode temperature, electrode
orientation, etc. For instance, gaseous fuels such as H2 , CNG, HCNG, etc., require
higher breakdown voltage than liquid fuels such as gasoline, methanol, etc. Also, for
the leaner mixtures, the required breakdown voltage is much higher than the richer
242 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

mixture since the leaner mixtures possess more air, which reduces the electrical
conductivity in the electrode gaps.
The temperature in this phase reaches in the range of (50–60 × 103 ) K (Fernandes
et al. 2016). This phase of spark generation is particularly important for combustion.
After the breakdown for a particular cycle, a sharp drop in temperature (5000–
6000 K) happens with the arc discharge phase lasting for a few microseconds. The
arc discharge phase is responsible for damaging the electrode surfaces by erosion.
Therefore it is necessary to understand the arc discharge phase. The transition from
arc discharge to glow discharge is considered the fourth phase of spark generation.
The glow discharge phase generally lasts for several milliseconds.

9.3 Modelling of Spark Ignition Systems for IC Engines

The trend in engine development favours computational study for initial investiga-
tions owing to lesser time and economy (Valera et al. 2020). Non-uniform fuel–air
mixture distribution in the vicinity of spark electrodes can lead to unfavourable condi-
tions for efficient combustion and cyclic fluctuations for port injection SI combustion
and direct injection SI combustion (Drake et al. 2005). It is important to understand
the underlying processes and mixture behaviour in the vicinity of the spark plug.
Experimental studies require efforts to develop an experimental setup, which is time-
consuming and expensive. On the other hand, computational studies offer flexibility
in predicting the engine parameter variations with time economically and efficiently.
Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) studies of engines use various assumptions for
modelling the in-cylinder phenomenon. Computational studies have shown signifi-
cant advantages in engine performance improvement and emission reduction in the
past few decades. Computational studies use various techniques to solve complex
combustion phenomena in the engine.

9.3.1 One Dimensional (1-D) Simulations

The prediction of a performance parameter of an engine uses a deterministic

approach. The deterministic modelling approach can be of 0D, 1D, 2D, or 3D.
Different approaches refer to the number of independent space variables and time
variables. A model can be transient or steady. 0D modelling uses ordinary differential
equations to model the variable parameters. It does not consider the spatial varia-
tions of the parameters and only solves for time variations. However, 1D, 2D, and 3D
modelling approaches consider spatial and time variations together. 1D modelling is a
simple approach for understanding an engine’s performance, combustion, and emis-
sion characteristics. Many commercial codes, such as GT-Power, Ricardo Wave, AVL
BOOST, etc., are available to perform a 1-D simulation. 1D modelling has a handicap
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 243

in predicting emissions, especially HC and CO. The 1D model cannot predict spatial
and temporal emissions variations, which can be done in 3-D simulations.

9.3.2 3-D CFD Simulations

The in-cylinder charge motion greatly influences the fuel–air mixing and combustion
process in the engine. Studying turbulence flows characteristics and bulk flow patterns
are essential since they significantly impact heat transfer. The intake process sets up
the initial in-cylinder flow pattern and is subsequently modified during the compres-
sion and expansion processes. In the context of 3D, it felicitates understanding of
the temporal and spatial variations of the in-cylinder phenomenon, which is not
possible with 1D modelling (Kumar et al. 2021). It allows understanding the basic
phenomenon occurring within the cylinder, such as fuel–air mixing, heat transfer,
etc., and its effects on the global engine parameters. Many commercial codes, such as
CONVERGE, KIVA, AVL-Fire, are available for simulating engine-like conditions.

9.3.3 1D Model Preparation Using GT Power

There are several commercial software capable of solving complex engine processes
with fair accuracy. Commercially available software such as AVL BOOST, Ricardo
Wave, GT Power are popular tools for 1D simulations. Figure 9.3 shows a simple
setup for a 1D model of SI engine developed using GT Power. The flow model
comprises Navier Stoke, continuity, and energy equations. In 1D modelling, this
equation is solved in a single direction; variables in the other directions are aver-
aged only in the flow direction. This method of solving the flow process reduces
the simulation time. However, spatial variations are not possible with a 1D model,
but this model is best suited for predicting overall performance with reduced simu-
lation efforts. In Fig. 9.3, the intake system is shown using a blue box, and the red

Fig. 9.3 A general outline of a 1D model for a single-cylinder spark-ignition engine

244 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

Table 9.1 Typical parameters required for 1D modelling of different components

Sub-system Component name Parameters required
Intake and exhaust system Environment conditions Temperature, pressure, air
composition, humidity
Runner pipe and inlet and outlet Diameter at inlet and outlet,
port dimensions Discretization length
Intake and exhaust valve Cam timing, valve lift with
crank angle, the flow discharge
coefficient
Injection system Injector Injector delivery rate, fuel ratio,
fuel name, injection timing
Cylinder Engine cylinder Initial condition, wall
temperature (head, piston,
cylinder), heat transfer model,
combustion timing, duration
Engine Engine crank train Engine type (4-stroke or
2-stroke), engine speed,
cylinder geometry, firing order,
inertia, the start of a cycle

box represents the exhaust system. The intake system comprises inlet environment
conditions, runner pipe, port dimensions, and intake valve. While modelling, each
component needs to be considered and, some critical parameters are required as
input for a decent accuracy while predicting. Table 9.1 shows the required general
parameters for 1D modelling of a SI engine.

9.3.3.1 Combustion Model Selection

There are three main combustion models: non-predictive combustion model,

predictive combustion model, and semi-Predictive combustion model (Kumar 2021).
Non-Predictive Combustion Model
This type of combustion model requires an imposed burn rate as a function of crank
angle degrees. Combustion would be controlled by the imposed burn rate, regardless
of any other in-cylinder conditions. This model assumes that sufficient fuel is avail-
able in the combustion chamber to follow the imposed burn rate. Hence, the burn rate
remains unaffected by other variables such as residual mass fraction, trapped mass,
injection timing, etc. This model is helpful to study the effect of variable parameters,
which do not affect the fuel burn rate. However, this model is not suitable for studying
engine variables, which directly implies the burn rate. A predictive or semi-predictive
combustion model is preferred to study these variables that directly correlate with
the burn rate. For example, suppose someone wants to study the effect of injection
profile and injection timing in a diesel engine. In that case, the predictive capability
must have meaningful results since these parameters strongly affect the burn rate.
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 245

Semi-Predictive Combustion Model

The semi-predictive combustion model is weakly sensitive to the engine variables
that substantially affect the burn rate. This model responds appropriately to these
variables. However, this does not use any physical model to predict their implications.
This model may be an appropriate choice for predictive modelling in some cases.
Predictive Combustion Model
This type of combustion model is preferable for different engine simulations. Predic-
tive combustion models are an appropriate choice for all simulations. There are prac-
tical factors that make non-predictive combustion models preferable in certain situ-
ations. It requires calibration with measured data to provide accurate results. The
model imposes a burn rate to predict the in-cylinder pressure. However, if the burn
rate is not available, it can be obtained using experimental data generated under
known test conditions.
Burn-rate prediction from the known in-cylinder pressure history is obtained using
the reverse run method. In this method, inputs and outputs of the calculations are
reversed from the typical engine combustion calculations. In the forward run, in-
cylinder pressure comes out as an output, and the burn rate serves as an input, and the
reverse run is vice-versa. Hence two-zone combustion approach has been followed
to predict the burn rate. Two-zone generally considered are the burnt zone and the
unburned zone. The reverse run uses the same set of equations as the forward run,
including thermodynamics and combustion. In the reverse run method, the amount
of fuel being transferred from the unburned zone to the burned zone is iterated
for each time step until its in-cylinder pressure matches the measured in-cylinder
pressure. Two approaches can be used to predict the apparent burn rate from the
experimentally measured in-cylinder pressure trace. The first approach is based on
closed volume analysis, also known as ‘cylinder pressure only analysis’ (CPOA),
and the second approach is ‘three pressure analysis’ (TPA). Both methods follow the
same basic functions to calculate the burn rate and produce similar results. However,
these two approaches differ in the way they require necessary additional input data
such as trapped air and fuel mass, heat transfer in addition to the measured in-cylinder
pressure-crank angle history. GT-power uses different heat transfer models as per data
availability, such as the WoshiniGT model is used to predict the heat transfer when
swirl parameters are not available. There are several other heat transfer models, such
as WoschiniHuber, WoshiniSwirl, where more accurate prediction is possible with
the availability of required initial conditions. The details of these models have been
explained in our previous publication (Valera et al. 2020). If spatial and temporal
variations within the cylinder are required with high accuracy, using more complex
3D CFD modelling becomes essential. 3D computational modelling requires high
computational resources.
246 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

9.3.4 3D Model Preparation Using CONVERGE CFD

In this section, 3D model preparation steps for the spark-ignition engine are discussed.
For the model preparation, the computational boundary needs to be prepared.
CONVERGE has two platforms, namely ‘CONVERGE Studio’ and ‘Solver,’ to
set up the model and run simulations, respectively. CONVERGE studio is designed
for case Preparation and setting up different boundaries. CAD models of different
components such as cylinders, valves, ports, pistons need to be prepared and assem-
bled. Initial geometry diagnosis may be required and taken up in CONVERGE studio,
and boundary conditions need to be assigned, as mentioned in the 1D modelling
section. Moving boundary conditions can also be specified by enabling transient
boundary conditions.
Figure 9.4 shows an example model prepared for 3D simulations. Unlike 1D,
3D simulations solve the governing equations (mass, momentum, and energy) in all
three directions. Thus, the spatial and temporal variations within the computational
domain can be analyzed. It requires a complete reaction and transport mechanism
for a particular fuel for solving involved transport phenomena. CONVERGE can
generate run time mesh structure and assign the embedding region where more fine
meshing is required with appropriate grid size. This is one of the essential features
of this software since mesh generation was always challenging and time-consuming
for complex geometry, especially near the wall region.

Fig. 9.4 Different views of port fuel injected (PFI) spark ignition engine
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 247

Fig. 9.5 Computational domain of the model, showing single and twin spark plug configurations
(Duan et al. 2020)

Case Study: Effect of twin Spark Plug on Engine Performance and Emissions
Duan et al. analyzed the effect of the twin-spark plugs on the combustion and perfor-
mance for the lean operation of a natural gas engine (Duan et al. 2020). They first
validated the model with the experimental results using one centrally located spark
plug for carrying out the investigations, as shown in Fig. 9.5a. Other boundaries
such as exhaust and intake port, intake and exhaust valves, piston liner can also be
observed in Fig. 9.5.
The location of the spark plasma has a strong impact on the initiation of combus-
tion as it starts the initial flame kernel. After that, flame development occurs in
the combustion chamber. Any deviation in the spark timing, spark location, and the
number of sparks will severely affect the engine performance, combustion, and emis-
sion characteristics. The main advantage of multiple sparks is that they can extend
the lean limit of the fuel–air mixture and contribute to lesser NOx emissions. In the
present case, a physical model was developed using 3D CONVERGE CFD, which
offers run time mesh generation and can solve complex chemical kinetics. The model
validation using the experimental data was done for a single spark plug.
Further, the twin spark plug location was chosen to be symmetrically opposite, as
shown in Fig. 9.5b. The different percentages of EGR (5, 10, 15%) and their effects
were compared for single and twin spark plug configurations. Figure 9.6 shows a
comparative plot of the in-cylinder pressure and heat release rates for different condi-
tions. Figure 9.6a shows that the peak in-cylinder pressure for the twin spark plug
was significantly higher than the single spark plug with no EGR case. By introducing
EGR (5 and 10%), the peak in-cylinder pressure was somewhat lower than a twin
spark plug with no EGR case. However, the cylinder pressure was still significantly
higher than a single spark plug engine case. Moreover, with 15% EGR and twin
spark plug, the in-cylinder pressure was lowest among all cases. This trend was also
supported by the heat release rate curve, as shown in Fig. 9.6b. The heat release rate
248 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

Fig. 9.6 In-cylinder pressure and heat release rate comparison of simulated and experimental results
for different EGR % obtained for single and twin spark plug configurations (Duan et al. 2020)

of the twin spark plug (with and without EGR) was much higher than the single spark
plug, except for a twin spark plug with a 15% EGR case. It can be concluded that an
EGR of up to 10% was favourable with a twin spark plug configuration. The result
obtained is from numerical analysis needs experimental validation. The authors also
investigated spatial parameters such as flame development within the combustion
chamber and used the ‘SAGE’ combustion model to predict the combustion. The
total flame kernel volume of the initial spark was observed to be larger than a single
spark, which was obvious. Flame propagation speed was faster for the twin spark
plug.

9.4 Advance Ignition System for SI Engines

Conventional ignition systems have several limitations and shortcomings. The

required voltage and energy are relatively higher for initiating dilute stoichiometric
combustion with a conventional spark plug. Furthermore, higher voltage imposes
reliability problems such as spark plug erosion, degradation of electrodes, and recur-
rent replacement of spark plugs (Bisetto et al. 2006). Some advanced ignition systems
in the research phase can downsize the engines and ignite the leaner mixture. Several
new spark plug systems include laser-induced ignition, corona ignition, and turbulent
jet ignition systems. In the following sub-section, some of these alternative ignition
systems have been discussed.
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 249

9.4.1 Laser-Induced Ignition

Laser-induced ignition is an innovative concept to ignite the fuel–air mixtures in

an internal combustion engine. It uses a couple of optical elements to focus the
laser beam at any location within the combustion chamber. It has the potential to
overcome various problems common to conventional ignition systems. LI can be
used for different engines such as IC engines, rocket engines (ramjets, scramjet),
and gas turbines (Kumar and Agarwal 2020; Lorenz et al. 2016; Azarmanesh and
Targhi 2021; Morsy 2012). A LI system for IC engine applications needs to overcome
critical challenges faced by SI engines such as inappropriate combustion, lesser lean
limit, higher NOx emissions, and lower efficiency.

9.4.1.1 Fundamentals of Laser Ignition

An intense laser beam is focused in the combustion chamber, where a subsequent

breakdown of gaseous molecules initiates combustion. Figure 9.7 shows the basic
principle of operation. An intense laser beam of a short pulse is focused into the
combustion chamber with the help of suitable optical components, and a bright
plasma is generated at the focal spot of the laser focusing lens (Azarmanesh and
Targhi 2021).
There are four well-known modes by which laser beam can interact with the fuel–
air mixture to initiate the combustion. These modes are (i) photochemical ignition,
(ii) thermal ignition, (iii) resonant ignition, and (iv) non-resonant ignition (Kumar
and Agarwal 2020; Morsy 2012).
In the photochemical mode of interaction, a laser source of resonant wavelength
with absorbing medium is used. Target molecules get dissociated into atoms, and
the chain branching mechanism generates highly reactive radical species. Also,
there is no electrical breakdown. The local temperature rises due to the collision
of produced radicals with nearby molecules, leading to ignition. However, due to
collision, produced radicals may recombine with themselves or nearby molecules.
Studies (Chou and Zukowski 1991; Lavid and Stevens 1985) suggest that full-scale

Fig. 9.7 Different stages of

laser ignition of fuel–air
mixture (Azarmanesh and
Targhi 2021)
250 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

combustion starts when the production rate of radicals is higher than their recombi-
nation rate in photochemical ignition. Reported studies also concluded that radical
concentration to initiate the combustion process should be in the range of 1017 –1018
atoms/cm3 . This is not favourable for IC engine applications due to disadvantages
such as close match requirement of laser wavelength and absorbing molecules in
the medium. However, fuel concentration varies from rich to lean in the engine,
depending on the engine load and test conditions. In the thermal mode of interac-
tions, ignition occurs without the electrical breakdown. The laser source is used to
excite the gaseous molecule in translational, vibrational, or rotational modes. This
leads to the generation of radicals of gaseous molecules, and indirect heating leads to
the start of chemical reactions, consequently starting the ignition. A continuous-wave
(CW) laser can achieve this ignition mode. However, this mode of LI is generally not
preferred in IC engine applications since it takes longer to ignite the fuel mixture,
requires a solid target to start the chemical reactions, and is difficult to ignite the
leaner mixtures (Tanoff et al. 1995).
In the resonant mode of laser-induced ignition, the ignition process starts with
non-resonant photodissociation of the molecules of the medium, followed by reso-
nant photoionization of atoms created during the dissociation processes (Forch and
Miziolek 1991). Both these events occur in a sequence, leading to the formation of
seed electrons in the vicinity of the incident laser beam. After that, the seed’s elec-
trons gain energy by absorbing photons or from generated energy because of colli-
sions. This phenomenon is also referred to as an ‘inverse bremsstrahlung process.
When these seed’s electrons gain enough energy, they collide with nearby molecules,
generating more free electrons. This way, a chain reaction starts, which increases the
electron density in the vicinity of the focal region of the beam. This further leads to
electron avalanche and the electrical breakdown of gaseous molecules. This mode of
laser-induced ignition is exceptionally efficient over the others. However, it involves
rigorous complexity. This mechanism requires tuning the laser to produce a laser
beam of wavelength equivalent to the molecular length of the combustible mixture.
Otherwise, two different lasers, one for the photodissociation process and the other
for the ionization process, are used. Therefore, the resonant mode is not suitable
for practical engine applications. In the non-resonant mode of laser-induced igni-
tion, the process is somewhat similar to the resonant mode of ignition. However,
it involves non-resonant multiphoton ionization of molecules. This laser-induced
ignition does not require a close match of molecules and laser wavelengths, making
it feasible for IC engine applications. Two different processes, multiphoton ioniza-
tion breakdown and electron cascade ionization dominate the non-resonant laser-
induced ignition, depending on fuel–air mixture composition and the laser parame-
ters (Phuoc 2006; DeMichelis 1969). The former involves simultaneous absorption
of photons required to achieve ionization potential. Electrons generated gain energy
via the bremsstrahlung process. However, the cascade ionization is the reverse of
the bremsstrahlung process. Electrons lose their energy to nearby molecules through
collisions. Here ignition starts when the rate of energy absorption from photons
overcomes the rate of losses. Table 9.2 summarizes the significant characteristics of
different laser-induced ignitions.
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 251

Table 9.2 Summary of characteristics associated with different types of laser-induced ignitions
Ignition types Characteristics
Photo chemical ignition Minimum radical concentration to initiate the combustion process
should be in the range of 1017 –1018 atoms/cm3
Require close match between laser wavelength and absorbing medium
molecules
Not favourable for IC engine applications
Thermal ignition A laser source is used to excite the gaseous molecules
A continuous-wave laser can achieve it
It takes a long time to ignite the fuel–air mixtures
Require solid target to start the chemical reactions
Difficult to ignite lean mixtures
Not Suitable for IC engine applications
Resonant Ignition Extremely efficient ignition
Require tunable laser to achieve ignition
Complex and expensive
Not favourable for IC engine applications
Non-resonant ignition Different types of lasers can be used
A tunable laser is not required
Can ignite different types of fuels (gaseous or liquid)
Any particular wavelength is not necessary to initiate the combustion
Can ignite leaner fuel–air mixtures
Favourable for practical engine applications

9.4.1.2 Laser-Induced Multi-point Ignition

One of the primary advantages offered by the LI system is to direct the laser beam
to several spots in the combustion chamber that eventually allow the ignition of the
fuel–air mixture at several locations simultaneously. This technique of achieving
laser-induced ignition, called multi-point ignition, increases the engine’s combus-
tion efficiency and overall performance. Laser-induced multi-point ignition offers
many advantages over single-point ignition. It improves the in-cylinder combustion
characteristics by shortening the flame propagation distance, resulting in a shorter
combustion duration (Lavid and Stevens 1985). Some researchers (Dale et al. 1997;
Saito et al. 2017; Kuang et al. 2017; Grzeszik 2017) explored various aspects of
the multi-point technique and highlighted its advantages over the conventional spark
plug and single-point LI techniques. Evaluation of multi-point ignition is still in its
infancy and needs further experimental investigations and development. Grzeszik
et al. experimented with three-point ignition for gasoline engines and found an
increase in operational lean limit, lower fuel consumption, and lower NOx emissions
(Grzeszik 2017). Vasile and Pavel demonstrated that the multi-point ignition of the
methane-air mixture using a fibre-coupled laser diode-pumped, passively Q-switched
Nd: YAG/Cr4+ :YAG compact laser with four-output laser beams in a constant volume
combustion chamber (CVCC) (Vasile and Pavel 2021). Four laser beam outputs were
used with beam pulse energy of 3.8 mJ at 0.9 ns pulse duration. Sapphire windows
were installed in the periphery of the CVCC for the incoming laser beam, and several
252 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

inlets and outlets port were made for facilitating the gas exchange process. They used
four fibres of 600 μm diameter with a numerical aperture, NA = 0.22, to pump the
laser beam. They performed several primary investigations to ensure the four-beam
output of the same energy. Beam quality factor (M2 ) of 4.8 was reported for all four-
beam output from the laser. The schematic of the laser and optical breakdown of the
air is shown in Fig. 9.8.
Figure 9.9 shows the excess pressure variations with time for different λ under
single and multi-point ignition in a CVCC. They concluded that the multi-point
LI showed increased excess pressure than the baseline single-point ignition. It was
reported that the multi-point technique widened the flammability limit of ignition
up to λ = 0.91–1.77 for the rich and lean mixtures. For all values of λ, the excess
pressure was somewhat higher for the multi-point ignition technique than for the
single-point ignition.

Fig. 9.8 a Schematic of multi-point laser ignition with four focused beams, and b multi-point air
breakdown by each beam (Vasile and Pavel 2021)

Fig. 9.9 Variations of the

excess pressure with time at
1 bar initial CVCC pressure
for different methane-air
mixture proportions (Vasile
and Pavel 2021)
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 253

9.4.1.3 Laser-Induced Engine Characteristics

IC engines with conventional spark ignition can be retrofitted with a laser-induced

ignition system. An engine’s performance and combustion characteristics with LI
are superior to conventional ignition. Azarmanesh and Targi compared the laser and
conventional spark plugs by modelling the thermodynamic combustion of methane-
air mixtures (Azarmanesh and Targhi 2021 Feb). They reported an 8% improvement
in thermal efficiency for the lean methane-air mixture (λ = 1.42) and 10% higher
maximum pressure for LI. Also, after extending the lean limit about (λ = 1.66),
the unburnt mixture proportion was relatively higher within the cylinder, resulting
in inferior efficiency when ignited using the conventional spark plug; however, after
implementing a LI system, the combustion quality improved, and efficiency increased
by ~ 21%. Several other studies reported an increased peak pressure, rate of pressure
rise, and HRR with LI (Pal and Agarwal 2015; Srivastava and Agarwal 2014).
Birtas et al. (2019) developed a LI system mounted directly to the cylinder head,
shown in Fig. 9.10. A similar approach was also reported (Pavel et al. 2017; Birtas
et al. 2017) for analyzing the potential of the LI system. They used optical fibres
(0.6 mm diameter, the numerical aperture NA = 0.22) to transfer the pump light to
the active medium. This system delivered energy of ~ 4 mJ with 0.8 ns pulse duration.
The engine used for the study was a 4-cylinder Renault engine. The laser system was
triggered by ECU installed with the engine. By optimizing the spark timing for the
air–fuel mixtures, they concluded that only minor engine performance improvements
could be achieved using the LI system for the stoichiometric mixture. However, for
lean mixture operation, LI improved the engine performance significantly. With a
leaner mixture, combustion duration was lower, and combustion stability was better.
Lied et al. investigated the effect of plasma location using different converging
lenses in the GDI engine cylinder and concluded that the optimum location of the
laser-plasma was the center of the combustion chamber. At this location, the lowest
BSFC was observed (Liedl et al. 2005).

Fig. 9.10 a Laser ignition system with four laser spark plugs showing plasma formation in the air,
b experimental setup installed with the laser ignition system (Birtas et al. 2019)
254 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

Prasad et al. (2021) experimented with the laser ignited hydrogen-enriched

compressed natural gas (HCNG) fueled boosted single-cylinder engine. They
concluded that brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) in LI mode was lower than
conventional spark ignition (SI) mode. A recent study adopted a computational
approach to predict the LI for methane-air mixture in IC engines (Azarmanesh and
Targhi 2021). They modelled the combustion in four different stages, as shown in
Fig. 9.11a. This multi-zone methodology (Mahabadipour et al. 2019) validated the
in-cylinder pressure, as shown in Fig. 9.11b. For simulating LI conditions, it was
assumed that the mixture would absorb the energy ~ 150 mJ.
Figure 9.12a shows that peak in-cylinder pressure for LI was higher than the
conventional spark plug for stoichiometric conditions. Also, combustion duration
was reduced (~3 ms) for LI. After diluting the fuel–air mixture, LI became more
promising and showed a significant increase in the in-cylinder pressure at λ = 1.66,

Fig. 9.11 a Flow chart of stages involved in combustion, b validation of experimental in-cylinder
pressure (Azarmanesh and Targhi 2021)

Fig. 9.12 Comparison of the in-cylinder pressure vs crank angle degree curves for the laser and
spark plug ignitions at different stoichiometric conditions a λ = 1, and b λ = 1.66 (Azarmanesh
and Targhi 2021)
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 255

as shown in Fig. 9.12b. They also reported that the rate of burning of the methane-air
mixture was higher for the LI.

9.4.1.4 Advantages, Limitations and Future Prospects of Laser Ignition

From the literature discussed in the previous section, it can be concluded that the
LI system has a significant advantage over the conventional ignition systems. It
improves the combustion process by allowing the ignition of extended lean fuel–air
mixtures. LI system provides the flexibility to choose an ignition location within the
combustion chamber. Location change of ignition point can be changed by employing
converging lenses of different focal lengths or by translating the converging lens in
the plug along the direction of the laser beam (Grzeszik 2017). There is no intrusion,
unlike conventional spark plug, and hence there is no quenching effect to the flame
kernel in the combustion chamber. Several challenges, including the delivery of laser
beam to the combustion chamber, powering the laser from the small-sized vehicle
battery and making compact laser need to be addressed for realizing the LI system
adaptation for practical engine applications. The open beam path approach is suitable
only for laboratory-scale experiments and is unsuitable for practical engine appli-
cations. The open beam path approach uses several optical components and suffers
from alignment issues and high-power transmissivity losses in the optics (lenses and
mirrors). For multi-cylinder engine applications, closed path fibre delivers the laser
beam, providing flexibility and resolving the alignment issues. The fibre delivery
approach can also be used with a multiplexing system to ignite the multi-cylinder
engine using a single laser source. However, the fibre used for transmitting the laser
beams involves higher losses. A multiplexing system is a desirable alternative by
which one laser may be used to ignite multiple cylinders. For successful imple-
mentation, engines should be optimized for laser beam multiplexing. This approach
may overcome high-cost issues associated with a single laser per cylinder for multi-
cylinder engine applications. Some other technical aspects must be considered and
resolved to realize the LI system for production-grade engines. Optical windows
for passing the laser beams should be more robust to sustain harsh conditions at
different engine loads with minimum transmission losses. The size of the laser spark
plug should be optimized to fit in the existing engine, and mass production of laser
ignition systems should be undertaken to make them economical. A close-loop igni-
tion control coupled with ECU may help trigger the laser at the right time for different
cylinders. Multi-location plasma would help reduce the combustion duration with
faster flame propagation to improve gaseous and liquid fuel combustion. Underlying
physics at optimizing the plasma locations is still in the research phase. A compu-
tational study may help to understand the molecular characteristics at the ignition
location. LI for the GDI engine application seems promising for different engine
operation modes, particularly in the stratified mode.
256 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

9.4.2 Corona Ignition

This ignition system utilizes a series of circuits with a coil and capacitor. Series of
circuits produce a high voltage at the tip of the igniter to generate corona. When
a very high electrical field is enforced to a sharply curved and blunt surface, the
voltage reaches a state that can break down the gas molecule in the vicinity. This
local breakdown is in the form of a glow discharge, usually referred to as corona
or electric wind, and hence the term corona ignition has been conceptualized. The
magnitude of local voltage required here is lesser than the voltage generated in the
conventional spark plug ignition for the same gap length. Corona ignition does not
contain any ground electrode. Corona ignition covers a large combustion chamber
volume and can ignite leaner mixtures that may not be ignitable by the conventional
spark ignition.

9.4.2.1 Fundamentals of Corona Ignition

Corona ignition system uses series of resonant resistance-inductance-capacitance

(R-L-C) circuits. The basic layout of the circuit is shown in Fig. 9.13a (Cruccolini
et al. 2020). This electronic system is integrated with an igniter assembly, which is
responsible for delivering high-frequency power to the igniter as per the feedback
received from the ECU. The combination of resistance and inductor is connected in
series, and this system amplifies the low to high voltage. Capacitors are installed at
the firing end of the igniter plug installed in the cylinder head, as shown in Fig. 9.13b.
When a high voltage is applied to the igniter, the free electrons are accelerated
because of the developed electromotive force and collide with the available gas
molecules in the vicinity of the igniter plug. The ionization of gas molecules starts
when the kinetic energy of electrons reaches the threshold limit of the ionization
energy of the fuel–air mixture (gas molecules). This results in electron avalanche,

Fig. 9.13 a Electric circuit for corona ignition, and b schematic of corona igniter assembly
(Cruccolini et al. 2020)
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 257

Fig. 9.14 a Corona igniter, b corona igniter installed in the combustion chamber (Discepoli et al.
2018)

and branch chain reaction leads to the breakdown of gas molecules. Discepoli et al.
analyzed the energy required for the primary circuit of single and multi-point spark
ignition and then compared it with the corona ignition (Fig. 9.14) (Discepoli et al.
2018). They reported that with increasing chamber pressure, the required energy for
a primary circuit remains approximately constant, while for multiple spark cases,
it decreases slightly. The required energy for corona ignition is independent of the
chamber pressure.

9.4.2.2 Corona Ignition Engine Characteristics

Cimarello et al. investigated the effect of corona ignition using an optical engine for
gasoline-air mixture and compared it with the conventional spark-ignition engine
(Cimarello et al. 2017). Their study focused on flame development, stability, and
lean limit operations. ECU was used to trigger the circuit at the right timing. They
concluded that corona ignition showed four times faster flame propagation compared
to conventional spark ignition. They claimed ~ 88% NOx reduction by adopting the
corona ignition system. NOx reduction was observed primarily because corona could
ignite leaner mixture at multi-spots simultaneously. At low load and speeds, corona
ignition allowed the extension of lean operation by 0.25 λ. Cruccolini et al. also
experimented with the corona ignition in optical engines using gaseous fuels (H2
and Methane) (Cruccolini et al. 2020). They reported that when corona ignition was
employed for methane fuelled engine, there was a guaranteed extension of 0.15 λ
for the lean working limit at different engine loads. By hydrogen enrichment of the
mixture, a further extension of 0.25 λ was achieved in the lean limits.
A sharp transition between stable and unstable conditions was observed for
conventional spark ignition for different HCNG mixtures. However, this transition
258 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

Fig. 9.15 Comparison of flame probability during 1% MFB for λ = 1.4 and λ = 1.6 for methane
and hydrogen (Cruccolini et al. 2020)

was rather smoother in corona ignition. Hydrogen enrichment reduced cyclic vari-
ability with corona ignition; however, adding hydrogen increased the NOx emissions
at stoichiometric conditions. Figure 9.15 shows the probability of flames at 9 mm of
average equivalent radius (equivalent to 1% of MFB) for CNG and HCNG mixtures.
Dark red contour represents 100% probability of the burned area while black repre-
sents the background. The figure shows that the corona ignition exhibited more dark
areas than the spark ignition for both fuels and lambda conditions.
Ignition phenomena were captured using a high-speed camera. The shape of flame
propagation was somewhat circular for spark. However, for corona ignition, a four-
leaf flame structure was observed. Also, the flame presence probability increased
upon adding hydrogen than the methane-fueled engine in corona ignition. The four-
leaf flame structure was absent for lean mixtures of λ = 1.4–1.6 in methane fuelled
engine. Marko et al. reported an increased EGR compatibility from 27% in spark
ignition to 32% in corona ignition (Marko et al. 2017). Lower cyclic variations,
stable combustion, and improved efficiency were observed with the corona igni-
tion. Improved combustion characteristics of corona ignition are attributed to the
faster flame propagation and leaner mixture operation. Mariani et al. experimented
with the corona ignition in a spark-ignition engine and compared its efficiency and
emissions (Mariani et al. 2013). They reported reduced combustion duration and
increased engine efficiency in the range of 2–5%. There was a slight reduction in
HC and CO emissions reported under some operating conditions. However, the NOx
emission was considerably higher in corona ignition because of higher in-cylinder
temperatures due to faster combustion.
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 259

9.4.2.3 Advantages, Limitations, and Future Prospects of Corona

Ignition

Corona ignition covers a larger combustion chamber volume, resulting in faster

flame propagation and smoother combustion. Corona can ignite leaner mixtures,
which may not be ignitable by the conventional spark plugs otherwise. Also, the
corona ignition system requires no separate ground electrode, which minimizes the
heat loss associated with electrodes. However, there are associated challenges in the
formation of the corona arc. When a metal surface is placed near the streamers (corona
discharge), an arc is formed. However, it is essential to control the duration of the arc
for the ignition of fuel–air mixtures, and further arcing may lead to excessive wear
of sharp tips. The required input energy is higher in the corona ignition compared to
the conventional spark ignition. Ignition events near the tip may be analyzed using
optical diagnostic tools since corona ignition can ignite relatively leaner gaseous
mixtures in the direct injection SI engines.

9.4.3 Turbulent Jet Ignition

Turbulent Jet Ignition (TJI) was first adopted in the two-stroke Ricardo Dolphin
engines in the early twentieth century (Toulson et al. 2010). It uses a separate chamber
where ignition starts with the help of a spark plug. Therefore it was also referred
to as a pre-chamber spark ignition system. This ignition system facilitated to ignite
leaner fuel–air mixtures, which are not easy to ignite using conventional spark plugs.
However, this approach of igniting was not used widely in commercial engines
because of associated complexity and the increased cost of the additional chamber
in the cylinder head. In the recent past, the interest in lean combustion has increased.
Hence TJI is being revisited by researchers from the automotive community.

9.4.3.1 Turbulent Jet Ignition Fundamental

TJI system consists of two chambers; the first one is known as prechamber, where
the rich fuel–air mixture is made available for ignition with the help of a spark plug,
and the second one is known as the main chamber where a lean fuel–air mixture
is inducted. Here combustion is initiated in the prechamber, and due to increased
chamber pressure, the flames and partially unburnt charge are forced to the main
chamber via nozzle holes. The burning charge comes from the prechamber in the
form of hot gas jets via a nozzle responsible for igniting the lean fuel–air mixture
available in the main chamber. TJI is further referred to as stratified or homogeneous,
depending on the mixture strength of the prechamber. In the stratified TJI system, a
secondary injector injects the fuel into the prechamber, creating a rich mixture. The
leaner mixture is inducted into the main chamber via the intake port. However, in
the homogenous TJI, no separate injector is required for the prechamber, and fuel
260 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

is injected only to the main chamber (either directly or via the port). Here the fuel–
air mixture of the main chamber enters the prechamber via nozzle holes, and then
ignition starts using a spark plug. Generally, in both modes of operation, the volume
of the prechamber is kept very small (~3% or less than the clearance volume), and it
does not affect the overall fuel consumption (Toulson et al. 2010).

9.4.3.2 Turbulent Jet Ignition Engine Characteristics

For the engine application of TJI, a compact prechamber is made in the vicinity of
the spark plug in the cylinder head. Distaso et al. performed a numerical study to
analyze a methane fuelled engine (Distaso et al. 2020). 3D CFD study is essential to
understand the mixture characteristics and in-cylinder combustion behaviour. CFD
study provides insights into physical and chemical phenomena in the prechamber,
which is challenging to observe experimentally. Initially, they validated the CFD
model against the experimental data. The model was developed using commercial
software CONVERGE, and the prepared computational domain is shown in Fig. 9.16.
Figure 9.17a–f represents the simulated results of TKE and the streamline pattern.
For differentiating the stream traces, combustion event was categorised as filling and
scavenging (150–134 CAD bTDC), mixing (134–22 CAD bTDC), flame propa-
gation (22–7 CAD bTDC), ejection (14.4–4 CAD bTDC), re-burning (4–16 CAD
bTDC), and expulsion and Extraction (16–172 CAD bTDC) (Distaso et al. 2020).
Figure 9.17a shows the fuel injection in the prechamber, where the scavenging
happens to expel some trapped residual gas. In the mixing phase, the rich mixture
in the prechamber gets diluted by a leaner charge. Flow entering the prechamber
increases the turbulence slightly; however, the TKE value remains low (Fig. 9.17b).
In a conventional SI engine, high turbulence levels negatively affect the flame kernel
growth. However, the TJI system overcomes this issue because the kernel is devel-
oped in the upper part of the prechamber, where turbulence intensity is lower than
the main chamber (cylinder). At -22 CAD, the spark is triggered, and the flame

Fig. 9.16 a Proposed TJI configuration, b computational domain near TDC (Distaso et al. 2020)
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 261

Fig. 9.17 Streamline traces and contour of TKE in a longitudinal plane for different events
(methane, λ = 1.3) (Distaso et al. 2020)

propagation phase is initiated. In the ejection phase, multiple flame fronts are gener-
ated. Flow direction is inverted in the main chamber after the combustion events
are initiated. This can be observed in Fig. 9.17e. The contour plot study showed
that prechamber geometry and fuel injection strategy played the main role in mixing
and combustion characterization. At the start of the spark, obtaining an optimized
262 D. Kumar and A. K. Agarwal

equivalence ratio distribution is important for improved performance and lower emis-
sions. A higher in-cylinder pressure was reported with the TJI system compare to
the conventional ignition system. Since a prechamber dominated the initiation of
combustion, it promoted superior mixing and minimized the flame quenching in the
main combustion chamber.
TJI system showed superior combustion stability, and its ignition energy require-
ment was lower for the lambda ranging from λ = 1–1.8. This may allow compact
ignition coil and spark plug use, resulting in lower engine operating costs and compact
packaging (Attard et al. 2010). The compression ratio of the engine can be increased
without the possibility of knocking in the leaner mixture. It was predicted that an
engine with a TJI system might achieve the indicated efficiency of up to 45%, which
is more than the peak thermal efficiency achieved by the HCCI engines (Attard and
Parsons 2010). Many researchers concluded that reduced NOx emissions would be
possible for the TJI engine because of the lower temperature developed in the main
chamber (Toulson et al. 2010; Alvarez et al. 2018 Jan). Furthermore, higher HC
and CO emissions were reported with the TJI system. However, there is a scope to
design an optimized prechamber that can promote even greater mixing and enhancing
combustion parameters leading to lesser emissions and improved thermal efficiency.

9.4.3.3 Advantages, Limitations, and Future Prospects of Turbulent Jet

Ignition

With increasing demands for an efficient engine with high power output and reduced
emissions, the TJI engine has a significant role in a new generation engine with
advanced technology. Engine with TJI system can offer several advantages over
conventional ignition systems. The extension of lean limit operation is possible with
the TJI system. Since it employs two combustion chambers (pre and main chamber),
it offers greater control on the ignition events. TJI engine produces multiple and
distributed sites in the main chamber, which provide a fast-burning rate in the main
chamber with nominal cyclic variations. Also, the TJI system may work with a higher
compression ratio since the tendency to knock is reduced by faster flame propaga-
tion. TJI provides flexibility to work in all ranges of engine loads without complex
hardware systems. However, TJI involves challenges in handling fuel injection in
the first chamber (prechamber). Therefore, research and development activities on
injectors have to be taken up to inject the fuel effectively in the prechamber without
any associated surface losses. An extensive computational study is also required to
understand the underlying physics of mixing and flame growth from the prechamber
to the main chamber. Higher improved combustion stability led to superior engine
performance. However, HC emissions were also higher for the TJI system due to the
additional surface area of the prechamber.
9 Fundamentals, Evolution, and Modeling … 263

9.5 Concluding Remarks

Higher energy demand and stricter emission norms can be met by comprehensively
analyzing the combustion events and parameters influencing them. The ignition
system is responsible for igniting the fuel–air mixture in a SI engine. Ignition of
the mixture has a significant effect on the flame evolution, growth, and propaga-
tion, consequently affecting the combustion. This chapter covers the importance of
newer ignition systems and their evolution for IC engine applications. 1D and 3D
modelling for SI engines have been included. The effect of the twin spark plug system
promises a faster burn rate, leading to reduced combustion duration and improved
combustion characteristics. Igniting leaner fuel–air mixture may not be possible with
a conventional ignition system. Ignition of the lean mixture can be achieved by using
advanced ignition systems such as laser-induced ignition, turbulent jet ignition (TJI),
corona ignition. Laser-induced ignition is an electrodeless ignition system that gives
the freedom to choose the ignition location anywhere in the combustion chamber,
leading to improved combustion control. With laser-induced ignition and turbulent
jet ignition, multi-point ignition is possible inside the engine combustion chamber.
Therefore, considerable improvement in the flame propagation rate leading to lower
combustion duration and improved combustion is possible. However, the practical
application of advanced ignition systems faces several challenges that need to be
resolved. In this chapter, the associated challenges and prospects are discussed.

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