PRENATAL

DEVELOPMENT

Presenter:
Armeen fatima
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT PHASES
 Germinal Period

Duration: The germinal period lasts about 14 days, from conception to implantation of the fertilized egg in the uterine lining.

•Sperm Journey: Millions of sperm are released during ejaculation, but only a few reach the egg, with typically only one successfully fertili zing it.

•Fertilization Process: Once a sperm enters the egg, the egg's wall hardens to prevent other sperm from entering. The sperm's tail breaks off, and it s head, containing genetic
information from the father, unites with the egg's nucleus.

•Formation of Zygote: Fertilization usually occurs in the fallopian tube, resulting in the formation of a zygote, which contains combined genetic i nformation from both parents.

•Cell Division: The zygote begins cell division through mitosis. After five days, it develops into a blastocyst with around 100 cells.

•Blastocyst Structure: The blastocyst has an inner group of cells (embryonic disk) that will become the embryo and an outer group (trophoblast) that becomes the support
system for nourishment.

•Implantation: The germinal period ends when the blastocyst fully implants into the uterine wall.

•Implantation Failure Rate: Approximately 50-75% of blastocysts do not implant successfully.

•Survival Rate: Fewer than half of all zygotes survive beyond the first two weeks due to various factors such as improper joining of egg and sperm, insufficient or damaged
genetic material, failure to replicate, or unsuccessful implantation.

•In Vitro Fertilization (IVF): The failure rate is higher for conceptions achieved through in vitro fertilization compared to natural conception.
 Embryonic Period

Formation of the Embryo: Upon implantation, the multi-cellular organism is referred to as an embryo. Blood vessels begin to
grow, forming the placenta.
•Embryonic Period Duration: The embryonic period lasts from the third week to the eighth week after conception, beginning
once the blastocyst has implanted in the uterine wall.
•Role of the Placenta: The placenta connects to the uterus and provides nourishment and oxygen to the developing embryo
through the umbilical cord.
•Cell Differentiation: During this period, cells continue to differentiate into various structures that will form the head, chest, and
abdomen.
•Development Directions: Growth occurs in two major directions:
•Cephalocaudal Development: Growth from head to tail, where structures nearest the head develop before those nearer the
feet.
•Proximodistal Development: Growth from the midline outward, where structures nearest the torso develop before those
farther away (e.g., hands and fingers).
•Heart Development: The heart begins to beat around the fourth week, and early signs of gills and a tail are present but
disappear by the end of this stage.
•Human Appearance: By the end of the embryonic period, the organism takes on a
more human appearance.
•Vulnerability: The embryonic period is when major structures are forming, making it
a critical time when the embryo is most vulnerable to damage from harmful
substances.
•Size and Weight: At eight weeks, the embryo is approximately 1 inch long and weighs
about 8 grams. It can move and respond to touch at this stage.
•Risks of Abnormalities: Some embryos fail during this period, often due to gross
chromosomal abnormalities. Many mothers may not yet be aware of their pregnancy
during this time
 Fetal Stage
•Fetal Stage Duration: The fetal stage begins at the ninth week of pregnancy and lasts until birth.

•Development of Body Parts: By the third month, the fetus has developed all body parts, including external genitalia.

•Growth of Hair and Nails: In the following weeks, the fetus develops hair, nails, and teeth, while the excretory and digestive systems continue
to mature.

•Size at Three Months: At three months, the fetus is approximately 3 inches long and weighs about 28 grams.

•Sensory Development: Between the fourth and sixth months, the fetus's eyes become sensitive to light, and hearing begins to develop.

•Reflexes and Sleep Cycles: By the fifth month, reflexes such as sucking, swallowing, and hiccupping develop. The fetus also experiences cycles
of sleep and wakefulness.

•Age of Viability: The age of viability, when the fetus has a chance of survival outside the womb, is reached at about 24 weeks. Many
practitioners hesitate to resuscitate before this point.

•Neural Development: By 24 weeks, most neurons in the brain have developed, although they are still rudimentary. Glial cells that support
neurons continue to grow.
•Pain Perception: At around 24 weeks, the fetus can feel pain.
•Preparation for Birth: Between the seventh and ninth months, the fetus prepares for birth by exercising its muscles and
expanding its lungs.
•Weight Gain in Last Trimester: During this last trimester, the fetus gains about 5 pounds and grows about 7 inches.
•Fat Layer Development: By the eighth month, a layer of fat develops under the skin for insulation and temperature
regulation after birth.
•Size at 36 Weeks: At around 36 weeks, the fetus weighs about 6 pounds and measures approximately 18.5 inches long.
•Organ System Maturity: By week 37, all organ systems are sufficiently developed for survival outside the uterus with
reduced risks associated with premature birth.
•Final Growth Phase: The fetus continues to gain weight and grow in length until approximately 40 weeks, at which point it
has little room to move as birth approaches.
 Prenatal Brain Development
•Initiation of Development:
•Prenatal brain development begins in the third gestational week with the differentiation of stem cells capable of producing various brain cells
(Stiles & Jernigan, 2010).
•The stem cells are located in the neural plate.

•Formation of Neural Structures:

•By the end of the third week, two ridges along the neural plate form the neural groove, which then develops into the neural tube.
•The central region of the neural tube forms the brain's ventricles and spinal canal.
•By the end of the embryonic period (week eight), the neural tube differentiates into the forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain.

• Fetal Brain Development:

• During the fetal period, brain development involves neuron production, migration, and differentiation.
• Most of the 85 billion neurons are generated from early fetal stages to midgestation, with many already migrated to their designated locations.
• Neurogenesis, or neuron formation, is largely completed by five months of gestation; however, the hippocampus continues to de velop neurons
throughout life.
•Neural Migration and Positioning:
•Neurons in the neocortex migrate to their locations in an orderly manner, with migration mostly
completed in the cerebral cortex by 24 weeks .

•Neural Network Formation:

•Once positioned, neurons begin producing dendrites and axons, forming neural networks essential
for information processing.
•Regions containing cell bodies are referred to as gray matter, while axons covered in myelin form
the white matter, crucial for efficient neural transmission.

•Continued Growth Post-Birth:

•Although cell differentiation is complete at birth, growth of dendrites, axons, and synapses
continues for several years after birth.
GENETIC
INFLUENCES IN
DEVELOPMENT
 Heredity
•Gene: A gene is a specific sequence of nucleotides in DNA that serves as a unit of hereditary information,
responsible for coding proteins and influencing traits.
•Chromosome: A chromosome is a structure within cells that contains many genes, made up of DNA and proteins,
and is found in the nucleus of human cells, with humans having 46 chromosomes organized into 23 pairs,with one
chromosome from each parent. The Human Genome Project estimates there are about 20,500 genes in humans.
•Cell Division:Cell division is a biological process by which a parent cell duplicates its contents and divides to form
two or more daughter cells. This process is essential for growth, repair, and reproduction in multicellular
organisms, and serves as the primary means of reproduction in unicellular organisms .Mitosis: The process by
which most body cells are created, resulting in two identical cells. Meiosis: The process used to form gametes
(sperm and ova), where chromosomes duplicate and divide twice, resulting in four cells with half the genetic
material (23 chromosomes).
Cell division
•Types of Chromosomes:

Autosomes: 22 pairs of chromosomes that are similar in length.

Sex Chromosomes: The remaining pair determines a child's sex, with XY indicating a male and XX indicating a
female.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

•Nature: Refers to genetic predispositions and biological factors that influence development, such as innate characteristics,
physical traits, and hereditary factors.

•Nurture: Encompasses environmental influences, including parenting styles, education, social interactions, and experiences that
shape a child's development.

•Interaction Between Nature and Nurture: Both genetics and environment interact dynamically to influence individual
differences in behavior, personality, and abilities.
 Genotype and Phenotype
•Genotype: The genotype refers to the total sum of all the genes a person inherits, representing their genetic makeup.
•Phenotype: The phenotype refers to the observable features and characteristics expressed by an individual, which result
from the interaction of their genotype with environmental factors.
•Homozygous vs. Heterozygous:
•Homozygous: When an individual receives the same version of a gene from both parents, they are homozygous for that
characteristic and will display that trait.
•Heterozygous: When an individual receives different versions of a gene from each parent, they are heterozygous,
leading to variations in trait expression.
•Dominant and Recessive Genes:
•Dominant Genes: These genes express their traits in the phenotype even when paired with a different version (allele).
•Recessive Genes: These genes express their traits only when paired with a similar version (allele).
•Alleles: Different versions of a gene are referred to as alleles.
•Examples of Traits:
•Dominant Traits: Facial dimples, curly hair, normal vision, dark hair.
•Recessive Traits: Red hair, nearsightedness, straight hair.
•Polygenic Traits: Most characteristics are influenced by multiple genes rather than a single gene.
•Incomplete Dominance: Sometimes, dominant genes do not completely suppress recessive genes
Those who have inherited only one recessive-gene are called carriers and should be unaffected by
this recessive trait
 Genetic disorders
Genetic disorders are conditions caused by abnormalities in genes that can significantly affect an
individual's development and health. These disorders can arise from mutations in a single gene
(monogenic disorders), multiple genes (multifactorial disorders), or chromosomal abnormalities.
Common examples include cystic fibrosis, sickle cell disease, and Down syndrome. Symptoms can vary
widely, ranging from physical anomalies to cognitive impairments. Genetic disorders may be inherited
from parents or occur due to spontaneous mutations. Diagnosis often involves genetic testing, and
while many genetic disorders cannot be cured, management strategies may help alleviate symptoms
and improve quality of life.
 Chromosomal abnormalities

Chromosomal abnormalities involve changes in the structure or number of chromosomes, leading to

developmental issues or genetic disorders. These abnormalities can result in conditions such as Down
syndrome (trisomy 21), Turner syndrome (absence of an X chromosome), and Klinefelter syndrome
(extra X chromosome). Chromosomal disorders may be caused by errors during cell division, resulting in
missing or extra chromosomes. The effects of these abnormalities can range from mild to severe,
impacting various bodily functions and leading to significant health challenges. Diagnosis typically
involves karyotyping or genetic testing to identify chromosomal changes.
 Behavioral Genetics

Behavioral genetics is the field of study that examines how genetics influence behavior and development. This
area of research explores the interplay between genetic predispositions and environmental factors in shaping
individual differences in behavior, personality, and cognitive abilities. Twin and family studies are often used to
assess the heritability of traits and behaviors, revealing that many characteristics are influenced by both genetic
and environmental contributions. Behavioral genetics also investigates conditions such as autism spectrum
disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) to understand their genetic underpinnings.
Insights from this field can inform interventions and support strategies for individuals with behavioral
challenges.
Prenatal environmental influences

Prenatal environmental influences refer to various external factors

that can affect fetal development during pregnancy. These
influences can significantly impact the health and development of
the offspring.
 Teratogens

The study of factors that contribute to birth defects is called teratology. Teratogens are
environmental factors that can contribute to birth defects, and include some maternal
diseases, pollutants, drugs and alcohol
The timing of the exposure: Structures in the body are vulnerable to the most severe
damage when they are forming. If a substance is introduced during a particular structure's
critical period (time of development), the damage to that structure may be greater. For
example, the ears and arms reach their critical periods at about 6 weeks after conception.
Amount of Exposure:
Some substances are harmless unless they reach a critical level, which varies based on the mother's size and metabolism

Number of Teratogens:Fetuses exposed to multiple teratogens often face more significant issues than those exposed to only
one
Genetics:Genetic makeup influences the impact of teratogens; for instance, fraternal twins in the same environment may
experience different effects
Maternal genetics can also affect susceptibility to teratogenic effects
Sex Differences:Males are generally more vulnerable to teratogenic damage than females, potentially due to the Y
chromosome having fewer genes than the X chromosome

• Examples: Common teratogens include alcohol, tobacco, certain drugs, and environmental pollutants like lead and mercury.

• Impact: Exposure to teratogens can lead to birth defects, developmental delays, and long-term health issues.
 Substance use

The use of substances such as tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drugs

during pregnancy can have detrimental effects on fetal health,
leading to low birth weight, developmental delays, and long-term
behavioral issues.
 Maternal factors

• Influence on Fetal Development: Maternal factors, including health, nutrition, age, and
lifestyle choices, significantly impact fetal development.
• Nutritional Importance: A healthy maternal diet supports optimal fetal growth and
reduces the risk of complications.
• Environmental Impact: Maternal exposure to stress, pollution, and other environmental
factors can affect fetal development through epigenetic changes.
 Enviromental exposure

Exposure to pollutants (e.g., air pollution, pesticides) and harmful substances

in the workplace can negatively impact fetal health. Studies have shown
associations between environmental exposures and adverse pregnancy
outcomes like preterm birth and congenital anomalies.
 Socioeconomic status

Socioeconomic status can influence access to healthcare,

nutrition, and living conditions, all of which impact prenatal
development. Lower socioeconomic status is often linked with
higher stress levels and increased exposure to harmful
environmental factors.
 Prenatal assessment

• Purpose: Prenatal assessment involves procedures to monitor fetal development and

identify potential issues during pregnancy.
• Methods: Techniques include ultrasound, blood tests, and genetic screening to assess
fetal health and detect abnormalities early.
• Importance: Early detection allows for timely interventions and better outcomes for both
mother and fetus.
 Complications of pregnancy

• Types: Complications can include gestational diabetes, hypertension, and

infections, which affect both maternal and fetal health.
• Impact: These conditions can lead to preterm birth, low birth weight, and
other adverse outcomes if not managed properly.
• Management: Regular prenatal care and monitoring are crucial for
managing complications and ensuring a healthy pregnancy.
 Postpartum maternal concerns

• Physical Recovery: Mothers face physical challenges, such as healing

from childbirth and managing postpartum pain.
• Emotional Well-being: Emotional changes, including postpartum
depression, are common and require support.
• Breastfeeding Challenges: Many mothers encounter difficulties with
breastfeeding, which can impact both mother and baby.
 Preparation for child birth

• Education and Planning: Preparation involves educating expectant parents about labor,
delivery options, and postpartum care.
• Importance: Knowledgeable preparation can reduce anxiety and improve the birthing
experience.
• Options: Understanding different birthing options, such as natural childbirth or cesarean
sections, helps parents make informed decisions.