A Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument is a type of

measuring instrument used in electrical and electronic circuits for

measuring voltage, current, and resistance. It is commonly used
in analog multimeters.

Construction: The basic components of a PMMC instrument

include:

1. Permanent Magnet: A strong permanent magnet is used

to provide a magnetic field.
2. Moving Coil: A lightweight coil of wire is mounted on a
spindle that is free to rotate. This coil is usually placed in the
magnetic field provided by the permanent magnet.
3. Hair Spring: The moving coil is connected to a hair spring,
which acts as a restoring torque to bring the coil back to its
original position.
4. Pointer: The coil is attached to a pointer that moves over a
calibrated scale.
 5. Damping Mechanism: There is a damping mechanism (like
air damping) to prevent the pointer from oscillating
excessively.

Q3. A dynamometer-type instrument, commonly known as a

dynamometer wattmeter, is used for measuring both AC and DC power in
electrical circuits. It works on the principle of the interaction between an
electric current and a magnetic field, producing a mechanical force that
can be measured.

Construction: The main components of a dynamometer-type instrument

include:

1. Fixed Coil (Current Coil): This coil is usually connected in series

with the circuit carrying the current to be measured. It produces a
magnetic field proportional to the current flowing through it.
2. Moving Coil (Pressure Coil): This coil is mounted on bearings and
is free to rotate. It is placed in the magnetic field produced by the
fixed coil.
 3. Pointer and Scale: The moving coil is attached to a pointer that
moves over a calibrated scale. The scale is marked in power units
(watts or kilowatts).
4. Control Spring: The moving coil is connected to a control spring,
which provides a restoring torque and keeps the coil in its zero
position when there is no current flowing through it.
5. Damping Mechanism: Similar to the PMMC instrument, there is a
damping mechanism to prevent the pointer from oscillating
excessively.

Working: When current flows through the fixed coil, it produces a

magnetic field. According to the electromagnetic principle, the moving coil
experiences a force in this magnetic field. This force causes the moving
coil to rotate against the control spring.

The torque acting on the moving coil is proportional to the product of the
current through the fixed coil, the current through the moving coil, and
the sine of the angle between the magnetic fields produced by the fixed
and moving coils.

The expression for the torque (T) is given by:

The angle of rotation of the moving coil is proportional to the power being
measured. This rotation is indicated by the pointer on the calibrated scale,
providing a direct reading of power in watts or kilowatts.
Q5. Capacitive Transducer: Construction and Working

A capacitive transducer is a type of sensor used for measuring changes in

capacitance. These transducers are commonly employed in various
applications such as pressure, displacement, and humidity
measurements. Here's a general description of the construction and
working of a capacitive transducer:

Construction:

1. Parallel Plate Capacitor Configuration:

 The basic structure of a capacitive transducer involves a
parallel plate capacitor configuration.
 The transducer consists of two conductive plates separated by
a dielectric material.
 One plate is fixed, and the other is movable or subjected to
the variable being measured (e.g., pressure or displacement).
2. Dielectric Material:
 The material between the plates (dielectric) is chosen based
on the application requirements.
  The dielectric constant of the material affects the capacitance,
and changes in the dielectric properties lead to variations in
capacitance.
3. Mechanical Arrangement:
 In pressure or displacement applications, the movable plate
may be connected to a diaphragm, flexible membrane, or a
spring-loaded mechanism.
 Changes in pressure or displacement cause a corresponding
movement in the movable plate, altering the capacitance.
4. Electrical Connections:
 The plates are connected to an external electrical circuit.
 The capacitance can be measured using an AC or DC bridge
circuit.

Working:

1. Initial State:
 In the absence of external influences (pressure,
displacement), the plates are in a fixed position, and a
baseline capacitance is established.
2. Change in Variable:
 When the variable being measured changes (e.g., an increase
in pressure), the movable plate experiences movement,
altering the distance between the plates.
 As the distance between the plates changes, the capacitance
of the system changes.
3. Capacitance Measurement:
 The change in capacitance is detected by an external circuit.
 In a capacitance bridge circuit, the transducer is often part of
one arm of the bridge, and the bridge becomes unbalanced
due to the capacitance change.
4. Output Signal:
 The output signal is typically a voltage or current proportional
to the change in capacitance.
 This output can be further processed and used to represent
the variation in the measured parameter.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT): Construction and
Working

Construction:

1. Primary Coil (Primary Winding):

 The primary coil is typically located at the center of the
transformer and is excited by an AC voltage source.
2. Secondary Coils (Secondary Windings):
 There are two secondary coils wound in a series-opposing
fashion on either side of the primary coil.
 These coils are identical and symmetrically placed, creating a
differential output.
3. Cylindrical Core (Magnetic Core):
 The transformer includes a movable cylindrical core made of a
magnetic material.
 The core is placed within the central opening of the primary
and secondary coils.
4. Soft Iron Core:
 The core is usually made of a soft iron material to enhance its
magnetic properties.

Working:

1. Null Position (Zero Displacement):

  In the null position (zero displacement), the cylindrical core is
precisely centered within the primary coil.
 The induced voltage in each secondary coil is equal, resulting
in a null or zero output.
2. Displacement to One Side:
 If the core is displaced to one side, it alters the magnetic
coupling with the secondary coils.
 The induced voltage in one secondary coil increases, while the
other decreases.
3. Differential Output:
 The difference in voltage between the two secondary coils is
taken as the output of the LVDT.
 The output is proportional to the displacement of the core
from its null position.
4. Linear Relationship:
 LVDT exhibits a linear relationship between displacement and
output voltage within its specified operating range.
5. Phase Sensitivity:
 The phase relationship between the primary and secondary
coils allows the LVDT to sense the direction of displacement.

The graph shows that as the displacement increases or decreases from the
null position, the output voltage also increases or decreases linearly. This
linear relationship is a key characteristic of LVDTs, making them suitable
for precise and accurate displacement measurements.