Introduction:

During the past decade, social media sites have become increasingly popular and are now considered to
be intertwined with individuals’ daily lives (Weinstein, 2018). Social media is not only used to share
information, but also to connect with friends online, to consume other people's content and to make
observations about other people’s lives (Jiang & Ngien, 2020; Vogel et al., 2014).

The use of the internet by adolescents and young adults has increased significantly over the past
decade, with social networking site usage now accounting for the majority of internet activity among
adolescents and young adults (Jelenchick, Eickhoff, & Moreno, 2013). Recent data shows that close to
70% of the population in developed economies and more than 50% in developing countries are active
SNS (social networking site) users (Pew Research Center, 2018). More than half the time individuals
spend online is spent using social networking sites, with a recent study finding a median usage time of
61 minutes per day (Jelenchick et al., 2013). Because internet use is a pervasive presence in young
adults’ lives worldwide, online interactions may influence developmental outcomes such as identity
formation and the development of intimate relationships via peer feedback (Pempek, Yermolayeva, &
Calvert, 2009).

Findings from prior research into how social media use psychologically affects people are mixed. Some
studies have suggested that social media use is linked to adverse psychological effects including
depression (Appel, Gerlach, and Crusius 2016; Brooks and Longstreet 2015), envy (Krasnova, et al. 2013;
Lin and Utz 2015), mental overload (Maier et al. 2012), feelings of social isolation (Primack et al. 2017),
and lower happiness (Brooks 2015; Kross et al. 2013).

Social Comparison:

Social media encourages social comparisons as users are exposed to an abundance of peer-shared
images and content with which to compare. Such comparisons typically fall into one of three categories,
upward (where the target is deemed superior to oneself), downward (where the target is deemed
inferior to oneself) or lateral (where the target is deemed equal to oneself) (Gerber, Wheeler, & Suls,
2018). Comparisons made on social media are more likely to be upward as many users tend to present
an idealized version of themselves and their lives. Thus, social media users are likely to believe that
others are happier and living a better life then they are (Chou & Edge, 2012). Upward social media
comparisons have been linked to negative psychological outcomes such as low self-esteem and
depression (Andreasson et al., 2017; Feinstein et al., 2013; Yoon et al., 2019). Importantly, research
suggests that social comparisons may be a mechanism mediating the link between social media use and
negative psychological effects (Fardouly & Vartanian, 2015; Lian, Sun, Niu, & Zhou, 2017; Liu et al.,
2017).

Social comparison is a theory proposed by psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954 that states that
individuals determine their self-worth by comparing themselves to others (Psychology Today, 2023). It is
the tendency to use other people as sources of information to determine how we are doing relative to
others (ability comparison) or how we should behave, think, and feel (opinion comparison). These
comparisons can be anything and everything in a person’s life, such as lifestyle choices, looks and
charisma, academic achievements, wealth, and more. Further, there are three types of social
comparison: upward social comparison, downward social comparison, and lateral social comparison. In
upward comparison, an individual compares themselves to someone better. This often results in feeling
inferior to them or being motivated to be a better version of ourselves (Wang, J., et al., 2017). In a
downward comparison, an individual compares their life with someone who is less skilled or worse than
them. This comparison causes a boost in self-esteem and confidence for many people. In lateral social
comparison, an individual compares themselves to those who are considered equal to them in certain
aspects of their lives. This kind of comparison is usually with peers who are close in age or the same age
(Verduyn, P., et al., 2020).

Social Comparison in the Pakistani Context:

Pakistan, being a collectivistic society, emphasizes interdependence and social cohesion. Such cultures
focus more on social relations and roles than individual identity. The important institution is primarily
the family, and the interests of the family are of utmost priority. Thus, the individual is responsible for
acting appropriately, as their actions can impact the entire family.

However, with the exposure of media, western culture has started to assimilate within the population,
impacting social comparison among young children. The spread of social media introduced many young
Pakistani to Western concepts of individualism, materialism, and self-promotion. The tendency to
compare oneself vary across time and period depending on emerging trends, beliefs of the society,
comparison based on attractiveness and perceived sense of “fitting in”. That's why it's important to keep
studying how social media keeps changing collectivist societies, especially in countries like Pakistan.

Social Media Use:

Social networking sites enable online, human-relationship building, by collecting useful information and
sharing it with specific or unspecific people (Kwon & Wen, 2010). Two of the most popular social
networking sites among adolescents are Facebook and Instagram. Facebook is used by peer groups to
maintain social ties and also as a way for individuals to make new connections. Instagram allows users to
upload photos to their profile and share them with their followers.

Using social media could have a variety of effects on an individual’s state of mind, including their
psychological well-being. Prior research has documented a range of effects from positive to neutral to
negative (Rook, Karen S., 1984). Thus, it is likely that how social media is used (i.e., what people do on it)
plays a role in the types of psychological effects that can arise as a consequence of time spent on social
media. Therefore, the nature of social media use is likely an important factor when considering the
extent to which spending time using social media can affect subsequent psychological well-being
(Villanti, Andrea C., et al., 2017). Research findings into the potential outcomes of social media use on
young adult mental health and wellbeing suggest potential links between excessive internet use and
depression, anxiety, and maladaptive coping behaviour (McNicol & Thorsteinsson, 2017). Furthermore,
beliefs and perceptions about the self are reflected in individuals’ behaviour characteristics when using
the internet (Aydin & Sari, 2011).

Psychological Well-Being:

Psychological well-being is a general, overall subjective self-appraisal. It is the combined cognitive and
affective evaluation of one’s life (Diener, Diener, and Diener 1995; Dolan and Metcalfe 2012) including
happiness, life satisfaction, and positive affect (Diener 1984). In studies, two aspects of young people’s
mental health that are of concern are depression and low self-esteem, with emerging adulthood
identified as a vulnerable period for the development of mental health problems (Bos, Huijding, Muris,
Vogel, & Biesheuvel, 2010).

Levels of self-esteem and self-concept are very important aspects of young people’s psychosocial
development. Additionally, self-esteem may act as an indicator of how adults face and manage
challenges in relation to the physical, psychological, and contextual changes in their lives (Birkeland,
Melkevik, Holsen, & Wold, 2012). Research also suggests that decreased levels of self-esteem during the
identity-confusion phase of adolescence may increase vulnerability for depression and anxiety in young
adults (van Tuijl, de Jong, Sportel, de Hullu, & Nauta, 2014). Individuals with low self-esteem often seek
to compensate for their low self-esteem by acquiring more friends or becoming friends with individuals
with whom they have weaker ties (Tazghini & Sidlecki, 2013). Unfortunately, social networking sites can
facilitate these potentially damaging friendships, further reducing self-esteem levels.

Review of Literature:

Social media use has become an integral part of university students' daily lives, with many spending
hours scrolling through platforms like Instagram, Facebook, and Twitter. While social media offers
numerous benefits, such as connectivity and community building, excessive use has been linked to
decreased psychological wellbeing (Király et al., 2019).

One potential mechanism underlying this relationship is social comparison. Social comparison theory
posits that individuals determine their own self-worth by comparing themselves to others (Festinger,
1954). Social media platforms showcase the highlight reels of others' lives, fostering unrealistic
comparisons and a distorted view of reality (Gentile et al., 2017). Research has shown that social
comparison on social media is associated with decreased self-esteem, life satisfaction, and increased
symptoms of depression and anxiety (Gentile et al., 2017; Kross et al., 2013). A study by Stapel and
Koomen (2001) found that social comparison on social media leads to a decrease in self-esteem, as
individuals tend to compare their worst self to others' best selves.

The relationship between social media use and psychological wellbeing is complex, and social
comparison may play a moderating role. A study by Best et al. (2014) found that social comparison on
social media moderated the relationship between social media use and depression, such that individuals
who engaged in more social comparison experienced a stronger negative impact on their mental health.

In the context of university students, social comparison on social media may be particularly problematic
due to the transitional nature of this life stage. Students may feel pressure to present a perfect online
persona, leading to increased social comparison and decreased self-esteem (Manago et al., 2012).

Ruggieri et al. (2021) embark on a journey to explore the psychological ramifications of online social
comparisons during the COVID-19 quarantine. Through a cross-lagged panel study conducted in Italy,
they uncover a nuanced interplay between online social comparison and psychological distress,
revealing both heightened distress during quarantine periods and subsequent improvements over time,
influenced by social comparison experiences. Their findings underscore the potential of online social
comparison to alleviate psychological distress amidst the challenges of pandemic-induced quarantine.

Midgley et al. (2021) delve into the unique influence of social media comparisons on individuals' self-
esteem, mood, and quality of life. Through a series of studies involving 798 participants, they reveal the
detrimental effects of frequent and stringent upward comparisons on social media platforms like
Facebook. Their findings highlight the heightened vulnerability of individuals with low self-esteem to
negative self-evaluations stemming from excessive social media comparisons, emphasizing the need for
a nuanced understanding of the impact and attributes of social media comparison in contemporary
society.

Kross et al. (2020) delve into the intricate role of social networking sites (SNS) in influencing individuals'
happiness through social comparison. Amidst increasing debates regarding the potential risks posed by
heightened SNS usage on well-being, their study reveals that passive engagement on SNS often leads to
increased social comparisons, particularly with those perceived as better off, subsequently resulting in
diminished satisfaction. They assert that social comparison stands as a primary driver behind the impact
of SNS on well-being, particularly pronounced among frequent comparers.

Bergagna & Tartalglia's (2018) study delves into the relationship between self-esteem and Facebook
usage among young individuals, particularly emphasizing the influence of selfesteem levels on social
interactions on Facebook. Surveying 250 Italian students, their findings reveal nuanced associations,
with women's self-esteem directly impacting their Facebook interactions, while indirect effects were
observed among individuals with low selfesteem. Their research sheds light on gender differences in the
importance of social comparison through Facebook, highlighting the complex interplay between self-
esteem and social media usage.

Nabi & Keblusek's (2014) exploration of the role of envy and hope in mediating social comparison offers
additional insights into the psychological mechanisms underlying individuals' responses to social media
content. By surveying female students, the study reveals the differential impact of envy and hope on
behavioural motivation, highlighting the nuanced ways in which emotions influence social comparison
processes.

Giacolini et al. (2012) conducted an analysis of social comparison and submissive behaviors in
adolescents further enriches our understanding of the connections between social comparison
processes and mental health outcomes. By examining the role of submissiveness in mediating social
comparison effects, the research highlights the importance of considering individual differences in
understanding the psychological impact of social comparisons.

White et al. (2006) researched on the mechanisms of social comparison illuminates the multifaceted
nature of comparison processes and their implications for individual well-being. By exploring the
potential benefits and harms of social comparison, the study underscores the need for a nuanced
understanding of these processes to mitigate negative outcomes and foster positive social interactions.
Through their findings, White et.al highlight the variability in the effects of social comparison,
emphasizing the importance of considering individual differences and contextual factors in
understanding its impact on well-being. This study serves as a valuable addition to the broader literature
on social comparison and its role in shaping individual attitudes and behaviors.

Theoretical frameworks, such as social learning theory and self-determination theory, have also been
applied to understand the relationship between social media use, social comparison, and wellbeing
(Bandura, 2001; Deci & Ryan, 2000). These frameworks suggest that social media use can lead to
decreased wellbeing by undermining self-esteem, autonomy, and competence.

Methodology:
Design:

To investigate the relationship between social media use and psychological wellbeing, we will use a
cross-sectional design to determine whether this association is moderated by social comparison. In this
study, the independent variable (IV) will be time spent on social media, the dependent variable (DV) will
be psychological wellbeing, and the moderator (M) will be social comparison.

Sample:

Stratified random sampling and convenience sampling will be employed in the study. There will be 312
samples in total. The targeted audience will consist of university students between 18 and 28 years old.
The individuals will be asked to fill out the questionnaires. The participants will be required to provide
information on which social media sites they regularly use, as well as the average time they spend on
social media each day.

Measures:

The study may included questions related to participant's demographic characteristics such as their age,
gender and education. In order to measure the social media consumption of the participants, the
question “Indicate your total screen time only on social media during the last week (Monday to Sunday)”
will be integrated, as the total time spent on social media will be the variable of interest and study
include the following measures:

Social comparison:

The Social Comparison Scale was developed by Allan and Gilbert (1995) to measure perceived social
rank and social standing compared to others. The semantic differential scale consists of 11 bipolar
constructs. Participants rate themselves on a ten-point scale by making an overall relative comparison of
themselves. The scale includes judgments related to rank, attractiveness, and perceived sense of how
they “fit in” with others in society. Higher scores indicate a more positive self-evaluation compared to
others while low scores indicate feelings of inferiority and generally low self-esteem. The scale has been
found to have good reliability, with Cronbach's alphas of 0.88 and 0.96 in clinical populations and 0.91
and 0.90 in student populations (Allan and Gilbert 1995‚ 1997). Criterion-related validity was
demonstrated by significant associations with relevant outcomes like psychological adjustment and
interpersonal relationships.

Self-esteem:

In order to assess the participant’s level of self-esteem, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale will be used
(Department of Sociology, 2022). The scale, developed by Dr. Rosenberg, is a widely-used measure in
social science research. It is a 10-item questionnaire and each of the items rated on a four-point likert
scale, which ranges from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The highest possible score is 40 and the
lowest 10, where a lower score indicates low self-esteem. The scale shows in general high reliability and
Cronbach’s alpha varies for different samples between .77 and .88 (Department of Sociology, 2022).

Psychological well-being:

It is a self-reported measure about an individual’s mental well-being, consisting of 18 items.

Procedure:

Before starting the study all ethical permissions will be asked by the authorities. The purpose and
content of the study will be explained to the participants. The participants will be presented with an
informed consent page, demographic questions, and the self-report scales described. The data will be
collected through questionnaires.

Results:

To analyze the findings, the Statistical Package for Social Sciences SPSS 22 will be used to analyze data.
Statistical techniques will used to find results.

Discussion:
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