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Control of Nonlinear
Systems via PI, PD and
PID
Stability and Performance

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AUTOMATION AND CONTROL ENGINEERING

A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

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FRANK L. LEWIS, Ph.D., SHUZHI SAM GE, Ph.D.,
Fellow IEEE, Fellow IFAC Fellow IEEE
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Control of Nonlinear
Systems via PI, PD and
PID
Stability and Performance

Yong-Duan Song

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CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

© 2019 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

Version Date: 20180919

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Song, Yong-Duan, author.

Title: Control of nonlinear systems via PI, PD and PID : stability and
performance / Yong-Duan Song.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press/Taylor & Francis
Group, 2018. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018026890 | ISBN 9781138317642 (hardback : acid-free paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Adaptive control systems. | Nonlinear control theory.
Classification: LCC TJ217 .S67 2018 | DDC 629.8/36--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018026890

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To my family for the understanding, support and love.

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Contents

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Preview of Chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

2 Classical PID Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

2.1 The Three Actions of PID Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Proportional Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Integral Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.1.3 Derivative Action . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Tuning Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

3 Adaptive PI Control for SISO Affine Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.3 Design Details . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3.1 PI Control Design for First-order Nonlinear Systems . . . . . . 12
3.3.2 PI Control Design for High-order Nonlinear Systems . . . . . . 14
3.4 Numerical Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.6 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

4 Generalized PI Control for SISO Nonaffine Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 System Description and Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.3 Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

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viii Contents

4.3.1 PI Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.4 Adaptive Fault-tolerant PI Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4.1 PI Control under Actuator Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4.2 PI Control under Actuator and Sensor Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
4.5 Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

5 Adaptive PI Control for MIMO Nonlinear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
5.2 Problem Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2.1 System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
5.2.2 Neural Networks and Function Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5.3 PI Control Design and Stability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5.3.1 Neuoadaptive PI Control for Square Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.3.2 Neuoadaptive PI Control for Non-square Systems . . . . . . . . . 53
5.4 Modified PI Control Based on BLF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5.4.1 Neuro-adaptive PI Control for Square Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5.4.2 Neuro-adaptive PI Control for Non-square Systems . . . . . . . . 58
5.5 Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
5.6 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
5.7 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

6 Adaptive PI Control for Strict Feedback Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
6.2 System Description and Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
6.3 PI-like Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
6.4 Illustrative Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

7 Adaptive PID Control for MIMO Nonlinear Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.2 Problem Formulation and Error Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
7.2.1 Error Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
7.2.2 Nussbaum Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
7.3 PID-like Control Design and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
7.3.1 PID Control for Square Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.3.2 PID Control for Non-square Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
7.3.3 Analysis and Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
7.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97

8 PD Control Application to High-Speed Trains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

8.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.2 Modeling and Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2.1 Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.2.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

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Contents ix

8.3 Control Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

8.3.1 Structural Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.3.2 Robust Adaptive PD-like Control Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
8.3.3 Low-Cost Adaptive Fault-tolerant PD Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
8.3.4 Comparison and Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8.4 Simulation Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
8.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114

9 PID Control Application to Robotic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

9.1 Robotic Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.2 PID Control for Robotic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.2.1 Square System (joint-space tracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
9.2.2 Non-square System (task-space tracking) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
9.3 Case Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118

10 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

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Preface

The proportional integral derivative (PID) controller in the form we know it today
emerged between 1915 and 1940. Since PID control is simple in structure and
inexpensive in implementation, it has been undoubtedly the most widely employed
controller in industry. In fact, PID controllers are sufficient for many control
problems, particularly when process dynamics are benign and the performance
requirements are modest. However, there are still problems that limit the
applications of the PID controller. One of those is how to determine the appropriate
PID gains to ensure system stability and desirable performance. The
Ziegler–Nichols tuning procedure, published in 1942, is simple and intuitive, but it
creates a closed-loop system that is very poorly damped and that has poor stability
margins. Since then, various methods for tuning PID gains have been suggested, but
a systematic means is yet to be established and the information about those methods
is scattered in the control theory.
With the increasing control demands for various practical systems which are
generally nonlinear, uncertain and with abnormal actuation (such as asymmetric
saturation, dead-zone module, loss of effectiveness, etc.), traditional PID control
seems to lack theoretical support and is losing efficiency. Thus, a series of control
strategies is proposed to tackle the control problems for all kinds of nonlinear
systems. Although various control schemes have successfully addressed the control
problems for nonlinear systems, the resultant solutions seem quite sophisticated —
not only complicated in structure, but also expensive in computation. As a
consequence, these complex control methods are not much appreciated in practical
applications. By this token, the PID control seems still the most favorable choice for
the control of practical systems if it could be made effective in dealing with system
nonlinearities and uncertainties.
Industrial experience has clearly indicated that automatic tuning of PID gains is
a highly desirable and useful feature. Therefore, the focus of this book is on
PI/PD/PID controller for nonlinear systems with self-tuning gains, wherein an
exposition of adaptive PI/PD/PID control methods developed recently for numerous
nonlinear systems is provided. All these PI/PD/PID controllers are able to
adaptively update the gains through analytic algorithms and there is no need for

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xii Preface

human tuning or trial and error process. Besides, the stability condition (the primary
concern for any control system) is established for the corresponding systems with
PI/PD/PID controller in the loop. Furthermore, in order to make the control scheme
more reliable in practical applications, in this book, the proposed PID control
strategies are equipped with fault-tolerant capabilities to accommodate the
abnormal actuation characteristics which may occur during system operation.
Constraints (due to physical saturation, safety specifications, etc.) imposed on
system outputs or states, together with the issue of prescribed control performance,
are also considered in control design. In the last chapters of the book, the
PI/PD/PID control scheme is applied to practical systems such as high-speed trains
and robotic systems. The effectiveness of the proposed adaptive PI/PD/PID
controller is demonstrated and validated via computer simulations. Several books
on PID controllers are available on the market, but this book exclusively focuses on
PI/PD/PID control with gain auto-tuning mechanisms for nonlinear systems. While
efforts have been made on PI/PD/PID control for nonlinear systems, there is still
much room for further research and development. We hope that this book will aid in
understanding the essence of PID control, providing readers with alternative
perspectives concerning the development of PI/PD/PID controllers for typical
nonlinear systems.

Yongduan Song
Chongqing, China

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Acknowledgments

There are numerous individuals without whose help this book would not have been
completed. My sincere thanks go to Dr. Yujuan Wang, Dr. Danyong Li, Qing Chen,
Zhirong Zhang, Ziyun Shen, Ye Cao, Shuyan Zhou, Xiucai Huang, Kai Zhao. In
particular, I would like to express my gratitude to the following authors for allowing
me to use the materials of the papers for compiling this book.
• Y. D. Song, Y. J. Wang, and C. Y. Wen, “Adaptive fault-tolerant PI tracking
control with guaranteed transient and steady-state performance,” IEEE Trans.
Autom. Control, vol. 62, no. 1, pp. 481-487, 2017.
• Q. Song, Y. D. Song, “Generalized PI control design for a class of unknown
nonaffine systems with sensor and actuator faults,” Syst. Control Lett., vol. 64,
no. 1, pp. 86-95, 2014.
• Y. D. Song, J. X. Guo, and X. C. Huang, “Smooth neuroadaptive PI tracking
control of nonlinear systems with unknown and nonsmooth actuation
characteristics,” IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. Learn. Syst., vol. 28, no. 9, pp.
2183-2195, 2017.
• Y. D. Song, Z. Y. Shen, L. He, and X. C. Huang, “Neuroadaptive control of strict
feedback systems with full-state constraints and unknown actuation
characteristics: an inexpensive solution”, IEEE Trans. Cybern., DOI:
10.1109/TCYB.2017.2759498.
• Y. D. Song, X. C. Huang, and C. Y. Wen, “Robust adaptive fault-tolerant PID
control of MIMO nonlinear systems with unknown control direction,” IEEE
Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 64, no. 6, pp. 4876-4884, 2017.
• Y. D. Song, X. C. Yuan, “Low-cost adaptive fault-tolerant approach for semiactive
suspension control of high-speed trains,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 63, no.
11, pp. 7084-7093, 2016.
I also would like to thank the Research Institute of Intelligent Systems at
Chongqing University for their support.
The writing of this book was supported in part by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China.

xiii

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Acronyms

Abbreviations

UUB uniformly ultimately bounded

MAS multi-agent systems

Notations
R field of real numbers
Σ summation
|a| the absolute of a scalar a
kxk the norm of a vector x
max maximum
min minimum
sup supremum, the least upper bound
inf infimum, the greatest lower bound
∀ for all
∈ belongs to
→ tends to
< (>) less (greater) than
≤ (≥) less (greater) than or equal to
≪ (≫) much less (greater) than
Rn the n−dimensional Euclidean space
ẏ the first derivative of y with respect to time
ÿ the second derivative of y with respect to time
y(i) the i−th derivative of y with respect to time
w.r.t. with respect to

xv

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xvi Acronyms

sat(·) the saturation function

sgn(·) the signum function
diag{a1 , · · · , an } a diagonal matrix with diagonal elements a1 to an
P>0 a positive definite matrix P
P≥0 a positive semi-definite matrix P
AT (xT ) the transpose of matrix A (a vector x)
λmax (P) (λmin (P)) the maximum (minimum) eigenvalue of a symmetric matrix P
f −1 (·) the inverse of a function f

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Chapter 1
Introduction

1.1 Motivation

A proportional integral derivative (PID) controller is a control loop feedback

mechanism widely used in industrial control systems. Fig. 1.1 is a block diagram of
the classical PID controller. A PID controller continuously calculates an error value
e(t) as the difference between a desired setpoint r(t) and a measured process
variable y(t) and applies a correction based on proportional, integral, and derivative
terms (denoted P, I, and D, respectively) which give their name to the controller.

Fig. 1.1 Classical PID controller in a feedback loop. r(t) is the desired process input or setpoint,
y(t) is the measured process output, u(t) is the control input, and e(t) = r(t)− y(t) is the discrepancy
between the setpoint and the output.

In PID control, the P-control (proportional control) is the action based on current
behavior of the system, I-control (integral control) is the accumulated effort using
the experience information of bygone state, whereas D-control (derivative control)
is the predictive effort based on the tendency information for the ongoing state.
Since the Ziegler and Nichols’ PID tuning rules were published in 1942, the PID
control has survived the challenge of advanced control theories. The PID’s long life
comes from its clear meaning and effectiveness in practice; thus the PI/PD/PID
control has been widely accepted in industry. Especially, it is suitable for control
systems that can establish accurate mathematical models. However, most practical

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2 1 Introduction

industrial processes are nonlinear, uncertain, and are difficult to establish accurate
mathematical models for. Thus, the traditional PID gains tuning methods cannot
obtain optimal control performance. To deal with this problem, various PID gains
self-tuning methods have been suggested. Though the PI/PD/PID control has been
widely accepted in industry, PI/PD/PID control itself is still short of the theoretical
basis, e.g., the optimality of PI/PD/PID control, performance tuning rules of
PI/PD/PID control, and automatic performance tuning methods have not been
clearly presented especially for the trajectory tracking control of nonlinear systems.
Our interest in revisiting PI/PD/PID control is largely motivated by the fact that,
although various advanced control methods have been developed during the past
decades, the preferred one in engineering practice is still the PI/PD/PID control, due
to its simplicity in structure and intuitiveness in concept. It has gained wide
application in practical engineering systems. However, the well-known PI/PD/PID
control exhibits two major drawbacks that restrict its application to more general
systems. The first one is the determination of the PI/PD/PID gains for a given
system is an ad hoc and painstaking process. Thus far, there exists no systematic
means to guide the determination of such gains that ensure system stability and
performance, although various methods for tuning PI/PD/PID gains have been
suggested in the literature. The second one is that although PI/PD/PID control has
been demonstrated to be quite effective in dealing with certain linear time-invariant
systems, its applicability to nonlinear systems remains unclear and lacks theoretical
insurance for closed-loop system stability and performance. Furthermore, it is
desirable or required to equip such PI/PD/PID schemes with adaptive and
fault-tolerant capabilities yet guaranteeing transient performance.

1.2 Objectives

Firstly, this book attempts to provide readers with an overview of the basic principle
of PID control. Traditional PID control is characterized with constant PID gains and
is oriented for set point regulation; thus it seldom works satisfactorily for general
nonlinear systems with uncertain dynamics and unpredictable disturbances. Besides,
stability has always been the major concern with traditional PID control due to the
lack of the systematic procedure for determining the proper stability-ensured PID
gains for a given dynamic system.
Secondly, through detail theoretical analysis and technical development, this
book intends to show how conventional PI/PD/PID controllers could be extended
and generalized to deal with various systems, such as SISO nonlinear systems,
SISO nonaffine systems, and MIMO nonlinear systems. The emphasis is on how to
enable these controllers with the capabilities of tuning their gains automatically to
compensate for system uncertainties and reject external disturbances. Furthermore,
as nonsmooth actuation characteristics or actuation failures (partial loss of
effectiveness (PLOE) or total loss of effectiveness (TLOE) ) might occur during

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1.3 Preview of Chapters 3

system operation, effort is also made on designing PI/PD/PID control with adaptive
and fault-tolerant capabilities.

1.3 Preview of Chapters

In Chapter 2, a brief review of the traditional PID control with fixed gains is
presented.
In Chapter 3, a generalized PI control with adaptively adjusting gains is
presented for single input single output (SISO) nonlinear systems. We consider two
control schemes: one is for the first-order nonlinear system; the other is for the
high-order nonlinear system. Besides, the developed PI controller is suitable for
nonlinear systems with undetectable disturbances and actuation failures.
Meanwhile, the pre-scribed transient and steady-state performances are
dynamically maintained.
In Chapter 4, a generalized adaptive PI control is developed for unknown
nonaffine dynamic systems. As the control inputs enter into and influence the
dynamic behavior of the nonaffine system in a nonlinear and implicit way, control
design for such systems becomes quite challenging. The proposed control is able to
accommodate both sensor and actuator faults.
In Chapter 5, neuro-adaptive PI control algorithms with self-tuning gains are
developed for a class of multi-input multi-output (MIMO) normal-form nonlinear
systems subject to unknown actuation characteristics and external disturbances. It is
shown that the proposed neuro-adaptive PI control is continuous and smooth
everywhere and ensures the uniform ultimate boundedness of all the signals of the
closed-loop system. Furthermore, the crucial compact set precondition for a neural
network (NN) to function properly is guaranteed with the barrier Lyapunov function
(BLF), allowing the NN unit to play its learning/approximating role during the
entire system operation.
In Chapter 6, a neuro-adaptive PI control for a class of uncertain nonlinear strict
feedback systems with full-state constraints and unknown actuation characteristics
is presented. In order to deal with the modeling uncertainties and the actuation
characteristics impact, the neural networks are utilized at each step of the back
stepping design procedure.
In Chapter 7, it is shown that the structurally simple and computationally
inexpensive PID control, popular with SISO linear time-invariant systems, can be
generalized and extended to control nonlinear MIMO systems with nonparametric
uncertainties and actuation failures. By utilizing the Nussbaum-type function and
the matrix decomposition technique, non-square systems with unknown control
direction are also considered.
In Chapter 8, the PD-like controller is designed for a high-speed train system.
The situation is further complicated if actuation faults occur. The resultant control
scheme is capable of automatically generating the intermediate control parameters

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4 1 Introduction

and literally producing the PD-like controller. The whole process does not require
precise information regarding system model or system parameter.
In Chapter 9, the robust adaptive PID controller is applied to a robotic system.
Under the proposed PID-like control the vibrations are effectively suppressed in the
presence of parametric uncertainties and varying operation conditions.

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Chapter 2
Classical PID Control

In this chapter, the structure of the PID controller and the roles of the three
(proportional, integral, and derivative) terms of the PID controller, together with the
tuning of the PID gains, are discussed.

2.1 The Three Actions of PID Control

A typically PID controller involves three types of control actions: a proportional

action, an integral action, and derivative action, which can be mathematically
expressed as
Z t
de(t)
u(t) = K p e(t) + Ki e(τ )d τ + Kd (2.1)
0 dt
where K p , Ki , and Kd denote the proportional, integral, and derivative gain,
respectively. The role of each term is described and discussed briefly in what
follows.

2.1.1 Proportional Action

The proportional control action is proportional to the current control error, which can
be expressed as
u(t) = K p e(t) = K p (r(t) − y(t)) (2.2)
where K p is the proportional gain. The role of such control is quite obvious since it
implements the typical operation of increasing the control effort when the control
error is large (with appropriate sign). The transfer function of a proportional
controller can be derived trivially as

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6 2 Classical PID Control

C(s) = K p (2.3)

If K p is made large, the steady-state error would be small. But the dynamic response
would become worse because the damping is too low. Apparently, a proportional
controller has the advantage of providing a small control input when the control error
is small and therefore can avoid excessive control efforts. The main drawback of
using a pure proportional controller is that it produces a steady-state error. It is worth
noting that this would still occur even if the process bears an integrating dynamics
(i.e., its transfer function has a pole at the origin of the complex plane), in case a
constant load disturbance occurs. This motivates the addition of a bias (or reset)
term ub , namely, [1, 2, 3]
u(t) = K p e(t) + ub (2.4)
The value of ub can be fixed at a constant level (usually at (umax + umin )/2) or can
be adjusted manually until the steady-state error is reduced to zero, where umax and
umin denote the maximum and minimum value of the control input, respectively.

2.1.2 Integral Action

The integral action is proportional to the integral of the control error, i.e.,
Z t
u(t) = Ki e(τ )d τ (2.5)
0

where Ki is the integral gain. With the integral action, the resultant control makes use
of the past values of the control error to generate its control signal. The corresponding
transfer function is:
Ki
C(s) = (2.6)
s
The presence of a pole at the origin of the complex plane allows the steady-state
error to be reduced to zero when a step reference signal is applied or a step load
disturbance occurs. In other words, the integral action is able to set automatically
the correct value of ub in (2.4) so that the steady-state error is zero [1]. This actually
results in a PI controller with the following transfer function
1
C(s) = K p (1 + ) (2.7)
Ti s
where Ti is integration time constant. The block diagram in Fig. 2.1 shows how
integral action is implemented using positive feedback with a first-order system.
The controller output is low-pass-filtered and feed back with positive gain. The
integral action is used to generate the bias term ub in (2.4) in the proportional
controller automatically, often called automatic reset. For this reason the integral
action is also often called automatic reset. Thus, the use of a proportional action in
conjunction to an integral action, i.e., a PI controller, solves the main problems of

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2.1 The Three Actions of PID Control 7

the oscillatory response associated to an on-off controller and of the steady-state

error associated to a pure proportional controller.

Fig. 2.1 PI controller involving P and I actions.

2.1.3 Derivative Action

The derivative control takes the following form,

de(t)
u(t) = Kd (2.8)
dt
where Kd is the derivative gain, which makes use of the predicted future values of
the control error. The corresponding controller transfer function is

C(s) = Kd s (2.9)

Upon using Euler formula to approximate the derivative in (2.8), it is derived that

de(t)
e(t + Td ) ≃ e(t) + Td (2.10)
dt

where Td is the sampling period, implying that e(t) + Td de(t)

dt is able to reflect the
value of the control error at time t + Td . So if a control law proportional to this
expression is considered, i.e.,

de(t)
u(t) = K p (e(t) + Td ) (2.11)
dt
then the control input at time t is actually based on the predicted value of the control
error at time t +Td . In order words, the controller (2.11) consisting of P and D terms is
able to enhance the transient response of the closed-loop system. For this reason the
derivative action is also called anticipatory control, or rate action, or pre-act [1]. It
should be stressed that although the derivative action has great potential in improving
the control performance as it can anticipate an incorrect trend of the control error and

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8 2 Classical PID Control

counteract it, it also creates some critical issues that should be carefully addressed in
control design in practice.

2.2 Tuning Methods

As the structure of the PID controller is fixed, the tuning of its PID gains should be
carefully considered for different applications with various requirements. By
properly tuning the three parameters, a PID controller can deal with specific process
requirements. There is no uniform method for tuning the PID gains. The most
commonly used one is the “trial-and-error” tuning, which starts with determining
the proportional gain K p first, then trying to find the integral time constant Ti and
the derivative time constant Td , with which the integral gain Ki is obtained by
Ki = K p /Ti and the derivative gain Kd is set as Kd = Td K p .
The Ziegler-Nichols (ZN) tuning rule is also a popular method used in practice.
The tuning rule is simple and needs only the ultimate information, which can be
estimated easily by simple identification methods, such as the continuous-cycling
method and relay feedback identification method [4]. The ZN tuning rule works
satisfactorily for certain processes. However, because the ZN tuning rule uses only
the ultimate data of the process, its performance is uncertain for those systems with
unusual frequency response characteristics.
For more complicated systems, manual calculation methods are no longer
practical. Software based PID tuning and loop optimization is a must. There are
some software packages that gather the data, develop process models, and suggest
optimal tuning. Some software packages can even develop tuning procedures by
gathering data from reference changes [1, 2].

2.3 Conclusion

A brief overview of traditional PID controller is presented in this chapter, starting

with the three actions of PID control. In order to make the PIDcontrol function
satisfactorily with some specific process requirements, proper methods for tuning
PID gains should be utilized. Although a number of PID tuning methods (e.g.,
trial-and-error tuning, Ziegler—Nichols method and PID tuning software) are
available in literature, the traditional PID controllers with fixed gains are apparently
ineffective in dealing with the increasingly sophisticated systems. Several
PI/PD/PID control design methods for complex nonlinear systems are presented in
the following chapters.

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Chapter 3
Adaptive PI Control for SISO Affine Systems

It is a long lasting open problem to synthesize a general PI control for nonlinear

systems with its gains analytically determined, yet ensuring stability and transient
performance. The problem is further complicated if modeling uncertainties and
external disturbances as well as actuation failures are involved in the systems. In
this chapter, a generalized PI control with adaptively adjusting gains is presented,
which gracefully obviates the ad hoc and time-consuming “trial and error” process
for determining the gains as involved in traditional PI control; collectively
accommodates modeling uncertainties, undetectable disturbances, and undetectable
actuation failures that might occur in the systems; and dynamically maintains
prespecified transient and steady-state performance.

3.1 Introduction

The problem addressed in this chapter is: would PI (proportional and integral)
control be applicable to uncertain nonlinear systems? Our interest in revisiting PI
control is largely motivated by the fact that, although various advanced control
methods have been developed during the past decades, the preferred one in
engineering practice is still the PID/PI control, due to its simplicity in structure and
intuitiveness in concept. Therefore it has gained wide application in practical
engineering systems [5, 6, 7]. However, the well-known PI control exhibits two
major drawbacks that restrict its application to more general systems. The first one
is that the determination of the PI gains for a given system is an ad hoc and
painstaking process. Thus far there exists no systematic means to guide the
determination of such gains that ensure system stability and performance, although
various methods for tuning PI gains have been suggested in the literature [2, 3, 5, 8].
The second one is that although PI control has been demonstrated quite effective in
dealing with certain linear time-invariant systems, its applicability to nonlinear
systems remains unclear and lacks theoretical insurance for closed-loop system
stability and performance. While some efforts have been made in developing

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10 3 Adaptive PI Control for SISO Affine Systems

algorithms for tuning/adjusting PID/PI gains by utilizing generic algorithms, neural

networks, and/or fuzzy system techniques [9, 10, 11, 12, 13] (to name a few), there
still leaves much to be desired in most existing methods in terms of simplicity,
affordability, and effectiveness. The interesting issue to address is therefore: would
it be possible to construct PI-like control capable of dealing with nonlinear
uncertain systems where the PI gains are systematically and adaptively determined
by the control algorithm itself? Furthermore, is it possible to equip such a PI scheme
with adaptive and fault-tolerant capabilities yet guarantee transient performance?
The purpose of this chapter is to present a solution to address these issues.

3.2 Problem Formulation

Consider the following class of uncertain nonlinear systems,

ẋk = xk+1 , k = 1, 2, · · · , n − 1
ẋn = g(X,t)ua + f (X,t) (3.1)

where xk ∈ R (k = 1, · · · , n) is the kth state with x1 = x; X = [x1 , · · · , xn ]T ; ua ∈ R

is the actual control input of the system (the output of the actuator); g(·) ∈ R is the
time-varying and uncertain control gain; f (·) ∈ R denotes the lumped uncertainties
and external disturbances.
As unanticipated actuator faults may occur, we additionally include such
scenarios in the model, where the actual control input ua and the designed input u
are no longer the same in that

ua = ρ (tρ ,t)u + ur (tr ,t) (3.2)

where 0 ≤ ρ (·) ≤ 1, known as the “healthy indicator” [12], indicates the actuation
effectiveness, ur (·) is the uncontrollable portion of the control signal, tρ and tr
denote, respectively, the time instant at which the loss of actuation effectiveness
fault and the additive actuation fault occur. In this chapter, we consider the case that
0 < ρ (·) ≤ 1, i.e., although losing its effectiveness, the actuation is still functional
such that ua can be influenced by the control input u all the time. In addition, tρ and
tr are assumed completely unknown; this fact, together with the unknown and time
varying ρ and ur , literally implies that the occurrence instant and the magnitude of
the actuation faults are unpredictable. The dynamic model considering actuation
failures then becomes

ẋk = xk+1 , k = 1, 2, · · · , n − 1
ẋn = g(X,t)ρ (tρ ,t)u + f (X,t) + g(X,t)ur(tr ,t) (3.3)

The objective is to design a PI-like tracking controller for the system with
lumped uncertainties and disturbances as well as actuator faults as described by

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3.2 Problem Formulation 11

(3.3) such that not only stable tracking is achieved, but also pre-described
performance is ensured, yet all the internal signals are continuous and bounded.
More specifically, the PI-like control ensures that: 1) the tracking error
E = X − X ∗ = [ε1 , ε2 , · · · , εn ]T (ε = ε1 ) converges to a small residual set containing
the origin for any given desired trajectory X ∗ = [x∗ , ẋ∗ , · · · , x∗(n−1) ]T ; 2) the tracking
error is confined within a pre-given bound all the time, i.e., there exist performance
functions µ1k (t) and µ2k (t) such that µ1k (t) ≤ εk (t) ≤ µ2k (t) (k = 1, · · · , n) for all
t ≥ 0. In addition, the convergence rate is controlled by e−a0t for some pre-specified
constant a0 > 0; and 3) all the internal signals in the system are ensured to be
continuous and bounded.
To proceed, the following assumptions are in order.
Assumption 3.1 The control gain g(·) is unknown and time-varying but bounded
away from zero, i.e., there exist some unknown constants g and ḡ such that 0 < g ≤
|g(·)| ≤ ḡ < ∞, and g(·) is sign-definite (in this note sgn(g) = +1 is assumed without
loss of generality).
Assumption 3.2 The desired state x∗ and its derivative up to (n − 1)th are assumed
to be smooth and bounded. In addition, x∗(n) , the nth derivative of x∗ , is bounded by
an unknown constant xm , i.e., |x∗(n) | ≤ xm < ∞, ∀t ≥ t0 .
Assumption 3.3 For uncertain nonlinearities f (·), there exist an unknown constant
c f ≥ 0 and a known scalar function ϕ (X,t) ≥ 0 such that | f (·)| ≤ c f ϕ (·). If X is
bounded, so is ϕ (X,t).
Assumption 3.4 ρ (·) and ur (·) are unknown, possibly fast time-varying and
unpredictable, but bounded in that there exist some unknown constants ρm and r̄
such that 0 < ρm ≤ ρ (·) ≤ 1 and |ur (·)| ≤ r̄ < ∞.
Remark 3.1 Assumptions 3.1—3.2 are commonly imposed in most existing works
in addressing the tracking control problem of system (3.1) [10, 14, 15, 16, 17].
Assumption 3.3 is related to the extraction of the core information from the
nonlinearities of the system, which can be readily done for any practical system
with only crude model information. As for Assumption 3.4, it is noted that most
FDD/FDI based fault tolerant control implicitly assumes that the faults vary with
time slowly enough to allow for timely fault identification and diagnosis [18, 19] or
that one has enough information on the faults to carry out parametric
decomposition [16], while Assumption 3.4 imposes no such restriction, and thus
seems more practical.
Remark 3.2 Note that in practice it would be very difficult, if not impossible, to
obtain the exact values of those bounds involved in Assumptions 3.1—3.4. The
developed PI-like control in this chapter, however, is independent of those bound
parameters, thus there is no need for analytical estimation of such bounds despite
the fact that those bounds do exist in stability analysis.

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12 3 Adaptive PI Control for SISO Affine Systems

3.3 Design Details

To help understand the fundamental idea and the technical development of the
proposed method, we start with controller design for the first-order nonlinear
systems, followed by the extension to the high-order case.

3.3.1 PI Control Design for First-order Nonlinear Systems

In this subsection we develop the generalized PI control law for first-order nonlinear
systems with actuation failures as described by (3.2). In this case (3.3) with (3.2)
becomes
ẋ(t) = g(x,t)ρ (·)u(t) + g(x,t)ur (·) + f (x(t),t) (3.4)
where x ∈ R denotes the system state. To facilitate the PI controller design, we first
introduce a filtered variable s as,
Z t
s = ε +β ε dτ (3.5)
0

where ε = x − x∗ is the tracking error, and β > 0 is a free parameter chosen by the
designer.
To establish the main results, the following lemma is needed.
Lemma 3.1 R Consider the filtered variable s defined in (3.5). If limt→∞ s = 0, then
ε (t) and 0t ε d τ converge asymptotically to zero as t → ∞Rwith the same decreasing
rate as that of s. In addition, if s is bounded, so are ε and 0t ε d τ .

Proof. The proof can be readily done by using the L’Hopital’s rule, so is omitted
here.

The proposed generalized PI control is of the form

Z t
u = −(k p1 + ∆ k p1 (t))ε (t) − (kI1 + ∆ kI1 (t)) ε (τ )d τ (3.6)
0

Different from the traditional PI control that involves constant gains, the PI gains
here consist of two parts: 1) constant gains k p1 > 0 and kI1 = β k p1 > 0, with k p1 and
β being chosen freely by the designer and 2) time-varying gains ∆ k p1 (t) and ∆ kI1 (t)
determined automatically and adaptively by the following algorithm,

ĉψ 2
∆ k p1 = , ∆ kI1 = β ∆ k p1 (3.7)
ψ |s| + ι
with
σ1 ψ 2 s2
ĉ˙ = −σ1 γ1 ĉ + (3.8)
ψ |s| + ι

✐ ✐

✐ ✐
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
established the first hospital and herself cared for human wrecks, set
a precedent existent through all succeeding centuries. All honor to
Queen Isabella, the first to appoint military surgeons and to originate
what was known as the “Queen’s Hospital” for the sick and wounded.
As a nurse in her home, in the plagues of her country and the wars of
the fourteenth century, Catherine Benincasa rose to the exalted
position of Saint Catherine, patron saint of Italy. As a nurse among
the poor, sewing, cooking, keeping the house clean indoors, and
working with her brothers in the harvest field—before she saw the
vision of St. Michael—prepared Joan of Arc to become the deliverer
of France from Britain in the fifteenth century, and in consequence
the Maid of Orleans became a patron saint of that period.
Maria Theresa provided hospitals for the wounded soldiery in the
country over which she ruled, until then a soldiery wholly neglected
in their sufferings on the battlefield. Ever green in memory should be
kept the name of Grace Darling, and that graphic picture of her as
she hastens down from the lighthouse on Farne Island, and through
the mists of that terrible night in 1838 goes to the rescue of the
shipwrecked sailors. Born in Florence, Italy, reared in England, a
little girl caring for the injured birds and animals in her improvised
hospital at Lea Hurst, the student nurse in Germany, the
superintendent of nurses in the Crimean War, Florence Nightingale
became adored throughout Christendom, diffusing rays of glory on
the closing years of the nineteenth century.
Of England’s heroine, Longfellow sings:
A Lady with a Lamp shall stand
In the great history of the land;
A noble type of good,
Heroic Womanhood.

CLARA BARTON! The Babe of Oxford, a Christmas gift to

humanity. In a little corner room of a little farmhouse, her tiny eyes
greeted, first, the eyes of highly esteemed but not far-famed parents.
From this Huguenot Colony, with no prestige of birth and no power
of wealth, the meek, brown-eyed maiden went forth unheralded to
carry her message of love and service. No Star of Destiny had cast its
rays aslant the cradle, and no omen betokened her future as
Out of the quiet ways
Into the world’s broad track
she ventured.
Timid as a fawn, “the sweet voiced retiring little woman” emerged
from Youth’s environs. She had dreams romantic, but her romance
was wrecked. She had visions of a mission, but for her no mission
materialized. Things came to her “as if by a world controlling power.”
In whatever her field of service, she stumbled over opportunities to
be brave and good;—there seems to have been for her a decree of the
Fates against “how circumscribed is woman’s destiny.”
Having a wide vision, she laid the foundation for the
superstructure. She was a student of the best English writers; of the
classics that gave prestige to Aspasia, the mentor of Socrates and
Pericles. She studied sanitary methods at Jackson Sanitorium, and
treatment of diseases with Doctor Carpenter at London and with her
co-worker, Doctor Hubbell. In statesmanship she learned at the feet
of Webster, Calhoun, Sumner and Lincoln. In military tactics and
military strategy, she studied Napoleon at Ajaccio, his birth-place,
and at Paris made by him “Paris Beautiful,” whence the leader of
men promulgated the Napoleon Code of Laws;—“Paris Beautiful”
and the Code, two services which of themselves entitle Napoleon to
lasting fame.
Of great versatility, she had varied accomplishments. She
conversed in French, and was a close student of Holy Writ. In crayon
and painting, she produced work highly commended by artists. In
letter writing, as evinced by letters which “excelled all others in
literary merit that come to the White House,” and by tens of
thousands of other letters, she must ever rank in a class with
Cornelia, the Roman matron; and Abigail Adams, the illustrious
American. In poetry, as tokened in “Marmora,” “A Christmas Carol,”
“The Women Who Went to the Field,” and in many other published
and unpublished poems, she at times received real inspiration from
some gentle muse. In pedagogy, as through Pestalozzi in Switzerland
so through Clara Barton in New Jersey, “pauper schools” were
transmuted into public schools.
In oratory, through her six war lectures and many other public
addresses, she established her reputation as a public speaker.
Speaking from the same platform, receiving a like fee and being as
great a “drawing card” as John B. Gough, Charles Sumner, Wendell
Phillips and Henry Ward Beecher, she must rank for all time as one
of the greatest orators of a half century ago. Mr. W. J. Kehoe, having
reported thousands of speeches and for twenty-five years official
reporter of Congress, says: “Clara Barton evinced qualities of diction
and oratory hardly excelled by any other American.”
Separate and distinct from that of man is the inner machinery of
woman’s mind; distinctive also are the outward manifestations.
Whether as the ruler of a nation or the ruler of a cottage, a woman’s
mind rules in its own inimitable way. In the realm of heart, woman is
the queen and in that realm there can rule no king. Of our many
great American heroes and statesmen, only one has been honored in
having had accorded to him the heart of woman—all Americans
worship at his shrine. Of a woman’s mind, the inner workings and
outward manifestations, no man has made portrayal, none save
perchance the Bard of Avon through his fifty heroines. Having “the
brain of a statesman, the command of a general and the heart and
hand of a woman” no man, as indicated by Lincoln, could have
become world-adored through services such as were rendered by
Clara Barton.
Equipped a leader among women, she became no Zenobia with
thirst for fame; no Cleopatra, with Cæsars and Anthonys at her beck
and call; no Catherine the Great, with political and military support;
no Joan of Arc, with a frenzied and despairing soldiery at her heels;
no Elizabeth nor Victoria, with an Empire to acclaim her reign; Clara
Barton became the self-termed “lonesomest-lone-woman-in-the-
world”;—a woman “majestic in simplicity,” who went about merely
doing good and, in enduring influence for good, surpassed them all.
She came not from a line of ancestors reliant mainly on social
prestige. Her inheritance from environments was a spirit intensely
practical—the puritan spirit.
 HENRY WILSON

To President Lincoln: Clara

Barton is worthy of entire
confidence.—Henry Wilson. U.
S. Senate, 1855–1873; Chairman
Committee on Military Affairs,
Civil War; Vice-President, 1873–
1875.

Senator Henry Wilson was my

always good friend.—Clara
Barton.

See page 48.

REPRESENTATIVE MASSACHUSETTS STATESMEN

 GEORGE F. HOAR
CHARLES SUMNER

Clara Barton is the greatest

Clara Barton has the brain of a “man” in America. Where will
statesman, the command of a you find a man to equal her?—
general, and the heart and hand George F. Hoar, U. S. Senate,
of a woman.—Charles Sumner, 1877–1901.
U. S. Senate, 1851–1857; 1863–
1869.

She achieved through nature’s endowments—a head to think, a

heart to feel and hands to work. From her hard-working Barton
forbears she inherited the sentiment in the Roman adage—“There is
no easy way to the stars from the earth”;—all things are conquered by
labor. For her to labor was to worship; to her the dignity of labor was
greater than queenly dignity; labor, “wide as earth,” became her
passport from the farm, the field of war, fire, flood, drouth, famine
and pestilence, into every country of earth; her “labor of love,”—the
open sesame to the White House, to the palaces of kings and
emperors.
The illustrious author of “The True Grandeur of Nations,” a
personal friend of Clara Barton, says: “No true and permanent fame
can be founded, except in labors which promote the happiness of
mankind.” Clara Barton learned lessons in manual training before
manual training became a science; she learned to use her hands in
the kitchen, in the garden, in the factory, in the sick room. She not
only knew how to sew and spin and weave and cook and care for the
sick, but she organized women for such work throughout two
continents. Labor organized by her among the poor, the sick and
wounded in Germany, France, Russia, Sea Islands, Turkey, Armenia,
Cuba and other countries, attesting her appreciation Luise, the
Grand Duchess of Baden, writes: “Clara Barton possesses the ever
powerful mind and ready love for suffering mankind;—faithful
gratitude follows her for ever.”
In person she was not a Queen of Sheba arrayed for kings to
admire; not a Cleopatra bejeweled in richest splendour to beguile
military heroes; not an Elizabeth with a new dress for every day in
the year to impress millions of subjects—she was a “working-
woman.” Her raiment was homespun or commonplace, by her ‘made
over,’ raiment which would put to shame for economy the average
rural housewife, and yet she could but be envied for her artistic taste
by the heiress to millions. Simple in dress she lived close to Nature, a
Nature-child of perennial growth;—“a passion for service,” she
developed through the years an identity all her own. Her identity
thus developed, she became a landmark in her own country for
humanity, as in Switzerland became Dunant who first caught the
spirit of the Red Cross work on the bloody fields of Solferino.
Most unusual were Clara Barton’s physical and mental powers. If
her powers were portrayed by the imaginative mind of a Homer,
Clara Barton would be a composite being possessed of attributes as
to the head, of a Jupiter; as to the heart, of a Venus; as to the
shoulders, of an Atlas; as to the hands, of a Vulcan. But she was
human, intensely human, a “frail woman,”—in her own words, a
“Poor little me.” Her weakness was her strength; her courage, a
woman’s heart.
She dwelt not on a Mount Olympus, not in a palace;—when on the
“firing-line,” “rolled in her blankets” she camped under the wagon,
or on the ground within a canvas tent. In the days of rest through her
closing years, she “camped” in a warehouse of thirty-eight rooms,
with seventy-six closets; in her “house of rough hemlock boards,” a
house stored with food and clothing and she ready “to set in motion
the wheels of relief at a moment’s warning over the whole land.” She
lived on the banks of the quiet Potomac, in the midst of Nature’s
foliage, in the presence of the oak, the elm, the cedar, the poplar,—
within “God’s first temples,”
 © Harris & Ewing

CHARLES E. TOWNSEND

Michigan people have special

reason to venerate the memory
of Clara Barton.—Charles E.
Townsend, of Michigan. Senate,
1911——.

UNITED STATES SENATORS WHO SAW THE WORK OF CLARA

BARTON
© Harris & Ewing © Harris & Ewing

JACOB H. GALLINGER H. D. MONEY

In my investigations (in Cuba) I Everybody knows Clara Barton’s

visited the orphanage under the work, and when I mention the
care of that sainted woman, name of that lady, it is not only
Clara Barton. I wish I could with respect but reverence, for I
command language eloquent have seen her work in foreign
enough to pay just tribute to her, lands, in hospitals, and amid
—a very angel of mercy, and of scenes of suffering and distress.
human love and sympathy. God —H. D. Money, of Mississippi.
bless Clara Barton.—Jacob H. Senate 1897–1911.
Gallinger, of New Hampshire.
Senate 1891–1915.

where birds sang to her beautiful songs, and where flourished

sweetest scented flowers.
Within that house on the Potomac, Clara Barton received from
President McKinley the command: “Go to the starving Cubans with
your relief ship, and distribute as only you know how.” In haste to
carry out that command, when nearing the point of service, she
begged that she might have the right of way. “Not so,” said the
Admiral of the Navy; “I am here to keep the supplies out of Cuba; I
go first.” Clara Barton replied: “I know my place is not to precede
you. When you make an opening, I will go in. You will go and do the
horrible deed; I will follow you, and out of the human wreckage
restore what I can.” Having herself achieved a place in unusual fields
of public service, in this war timely the advice of Clara Barton:
“Woman, there is a place for thee, my hitherto timid, shrinking child;
go forth and fill it, that in thee mankind may be doubly blessed.”
Following the precedent of him who was “first in war, first in
peace,” in war and in peace at her own expense and without salary,
Clara Barton served her country. Hers was the patriotism of a
Washington, “What is money without a country.” In the early days of
the Civil War, as to the probable capture of the City of Washington by
the Confederates, she exclaimed: “If it must be, let it come, and when
there is no longer a soldier’s arm to raise the Stars and Stripes above
the Capitol, may God give strength to mine.” In defiance of sentiment
as to the propriety for a “lone-woman” to go with the soldiers on the
battlefield, she conformed to her father’s patriot-sentiment, “Go, if it
is your duty to go.”
Through the thousands of years of Pagan and Christian history
there had existed the sentiment “Humanity in war must stand aside.”
Among men, war-trained and war-sacrificed, rare the word of pity
that reached the Most High for the wounded soldier. On the
battlefield there had been seen no angel of mercy until was seen the
angel nurse, with the candles of her charity lighting up the gloom of
suffering and death.
At the second Bull Run, in August, 1862, with a tallow candle in
her hand through the darkness, in tears the ministering angel moved
gently among the suffering thousands, putting socks and slippers on
the wounded, feeding the hungry, giving water to the thirsty. Her
own life then in peril, while on that field of carnage there came from
her lips the heroic words: “I should never leave a wounded man, if I
were taken prisoner forty times.” Was hers patriotism to country?
Greater than patriotism. Was hers woman’s love—woman’s love for
her friend? It was love divine, a woman’s love for all mankind.
On, on to Chantilly, mid darkness and gloom,
Fire, thunder and lightning, guns boom upon boom.
 At Chantilly the rain came down in torrents, the darkness
impenetrable save when lit up by the lightning or the fitful flash of
the guns. There up the hill to her tent she goes, falling again and
again from exhaustion,—only to find a few moments’ rest on her bed
of earth soaked with water. From her tent at midnight, the dead
grass and leaves clinging to her, her hair and clothes dripping wet,
she comes back to heartrending scenes. Forgetful of self, she carries
army crackers mixed with wine, brandy and water for her
compatriots, such work continuing for more than one hundred
consecutive hours, save two hours of dreamful sleep.
 © Harris & Ewing

NELSON A. MILES

Clara Barton is the greatest

humanitarian the world has ever
known.—Nelson A. Miles,
Major-General Civil War,
Commander American Army,
1895–1903; made Lieutenant
General, 1900.

It was on Sunday morning, September 14th, 1862, in plumed hats,

costly jewels, silken dresses and French-made shoes, that the ladies
with their equally well-attired escorts were on their way to church.
Adown Pennsylvania Avenue at the same time at our national capital,
on an army wagon, the wagon loaded with well filled boxes, bags and
parcels for the suffering—and seated with the driver—again there
goes to the scene of war-carnage a woman, the woman self-styled as
to theoretical religion a “well-disposed pagan.” For more than half a
century past she has been, and for centuries to come the woman who
went to the front on that Sunday morning—as to practical religion—
will be known as the purest Christian womanhood.
 “Chaste and immaculate in very thought,” chosen from above “by
inspiration of celestial grace, to work exceeding miracles on earth!”
“Inspiration of celestial grace!” That inspiration carried Clara Barton
on an army wagon, through the night, past the sleeping artillery to
the front of the battlefield of Antietam. There with her own hands
she bandaged the wounds of the boys that were falling, falling and
bleeding to death, herself escaping with a bullet through her clothes;
carried her to another point on that battlefield, and there while
supporting on her arm and knee a soldier his head by a cannon ball
was severed from the body. That inspiration carried her with the
soldiers under fire over the pontoon bridge at Fredericksburg, amidst
the hissing of bullets and exploding of shells; across the
Rappahannock where a cannon ball tore away a part of the skirt of
her dress and where a few moments later the officer, who had
assisted her off the bridge, was brought to her shot to death.
It was that inspiration which gave her the strength with an axe to
chop the ice from around the wounded “boys in gray”; to carry them
to a negro cabin; to feed them gruel and to bind up their wounds;
that nerved her with a pocket knife on the field of battle to cut the
bullet from the face of a wounded soldier. It was that inspiration
which gave her the courage to assist in a hospital where amputated
human limbs were stacked in piles like cordwood. It was this scene to
which General Butler referred, and of her in her presence at a public
reception in Boston, to say, “I have seen those beautiful arms red
with human blood to her shoulders.” Inspiration! “Inspired to save
lives,” says of her the London Times.
“A great mind is an appreciative mind”; Clara Barton was
appreciative. Of a simple New Year’s greeting she says: “’Twere
worth the passing of the year to be so remembered.” At various
periods in her life, from those she served and whose minds could
appreciate, upon her honors fell thick and fast as fall the autumn
leaves in your maple groves. As the daughter of the twenty-first
Massachusetts Regiment stood on the banks at Aquia Creek by no
divine command did the waters part that she might cross on dry
land; but by command of a chivalric officer, in an instant and proud
of the honor, on the left knees of that line of boys in blue with the
soldiers’ helping hand Clara Barton crosses over. With tears
streaming down her cheeks, she relates this incident and says “This
is the most beautiful tribute of love and devotion ever offered me in
my life.” On the three cheers given her as she entered Lincoln
Hospital by the seventy soldier boys, boys she had served on the
battlefield of Fredericksburg, she says “I would not exchange their
memory for the wildest applause that ever greeted conqueror or
king.”
© Harris & Ewing

JOHN J. PERSHING

It gives me sincere pleasure to

add an expression of
appreciation for the inestimable
services which Miss Clara Barton
rendered to her country and to
mankind in founding and
fostering the American Red
Cross, of which she was the
President for twenty-three years,
as well as for her unselfish
interest and splendid
achievements during a life
devoted to public welfare work.
The accomplishments of the Red
Cross during the past few years
constitute an historical
monument to the memory of this
noble woman.—John J.
Pershing, (1919) Commander-
in-Chief of the American
 Expeditionary Forces in Europe;
made General of the Armies of
the United States, September 4,
1919.

From the days of Benjamin Franklin honors in Europe have been

showered upon the dignity of the American office, on two ex-
Presidents in private life, but high and above office-holders and ex-
Presidents in the list of royal honors received stands Clara Barton.
Her royal receptions, her royal decorations in all history have not
been equaled. Czar and Czarina, Emperor and Empress, King and
Queen, Prince and Princess, Duke and Duchess, all royalty so poor as
to do honor to the richest in world-service. Paris, Madrid, Berlin,
Geneva, Carlsruhe, Vienna, Baden-Baden, St. Petersburg,
Constantinople, Santiago,—no city too great, no city too unchristian,
to open her gates to welcome Clara Barton.
At the great international sittings of the Red Cross in Geneva, in
Carlsruhe, in Vienna, in St. Petersburg,—Clara Barton, the only
woman officially representing any government among the
representatives of forty nations. As the unpretentious woman of five
feet three comes into the hall, the great men of the earth rise to their
feet,—eyes eager, handkerchiefs in air, then huzzas that echo the
heart throbs of a world humanity greet the ear and touch the heart of
the “lonesomest-lone-woman” as she walks down the aisle of the
auditorium to take her seat among the great world-humanitarians.
Small in stature but great in deeds, a galaxy of deeds!
Peasants,—Russians, German, Austrian, Turk, Greek, Swiss,
Cuban, Spaniard, Armenian, American soldier,—all so rich in
gratitude as to “God bless her,” the angel of the world’s battlefields.
Was it mere pastime that moved the famous generals of Europe to
kneel in front of her and kiss her hand, accompanied by greetings of
the highest praise? Did the Czar of all the Russians honor himself
most or her when he declined to permit her to kiss his hand, as is the
custom in the presence of royalty? Of Puritan origin, in peasant
attire, she was recognized as royalty itself, American royalty, the
highest type of royalty.
As “fame comes only when deserved,” would you know Clara
Barton? Follow her into countless permanent and improvised
hospitals, over nineteen battlefields of the Civil War,—from Cedar
Mountain in ’62 through the Richmond Campaign in ’65; and I beg
of you not to forget that twenty-mile ride on one night in June, ’64,
as on to Petersburg astride her black horse in the darkness, in a rain
storm amidst thunder and lightning that “lonesomest-lone-woman”
goes on her mission to the relief of the thousands of victims of an
explosion. Follow her into the malarial climate through the
“Campaign before Charleston,” water deadly in character, on the
barren sands under a tropic sun, sand granules transforming brown
eyes to eyes swollen and bloodshot, feet calloused and blistered,
where again she is seen under the fire of death-dealing guns, serving
the whites and blacks alike. Follow her through nineteen national
disasters,—from the Michigan forest fires in ’81 to the typhoid fever
epidemic in Butler, Pa., in 1904. Follow her as she accepts the
commission at the hands of President Lincoln and through the long,
mournful months, searches the records, and walks the cemetery in
the southland to identify the graves of the missing soldiers. Follow
her over four of the great battlefields of the Franco-Prussian War;
and then on the public highway as she walks into the city of stricken
Paris.
Follow her again through numerous hospitals and on American
relief fields. Follow her as on the relief ship State of Texas, to the
strains of “My Country ’Tis of Thee” she leads the American navy into
the torpedo-mined Bay of Santiago, and from Santiago into the war-
stricken fields and the yellow fever camps of Cuba. Follow her as
President of the American Red Cross through a score of national
calamities and as President of the First Aid Association in untiring
service. Follow her into an American audience where she receives the
official greetings of Japan for her services in securing adhesion of the
Japanese government to the Red Cross International Treaty. Follow
her, as the official representative of our American nation, on four
trips across the Atlantic, thence into the halls of world conference
where not hate but love rules. Follow through half a century the
woman whose deeds of love are as lighted candles for vestal virgins
to keep burning on the altar in the Temple of Fame.
Of America’s heroine, Will Carleton sings:
A million thanks to one
Who hath a million plaudits won
For deeds of love to many millions done.
In having the fullest confidence of our Presidents, Clara Barton
expressed herself in 1909 as follows: “I never before have so fully
realized what a pleasure that privilege has been to me through half a
century.” That confidence, by the record, existed between her and
Lincoln, and Johnson, and Grant, and Hayes, and Garfield, and
Arthur, and Cleveland, and Harrison, and McKinley, a record with
presidents unequaled by any other American in public life. McKinley
expressed the sentiments of nine presidents when he said: “What
Clara Barton says and does is always honest and right.”
Nor might nor greatness in mortality
Can censure ’scape; back wounding calumny
The whitest virtue strikes.

All streams reach the ocean and calumny in the limpid streams of
truth is lost in the grand ocean of human thought. Whenever “back
wounding calumny” the nation’s heroine strikes, paraphrasing the
words of President Garfield to Secretary of State Blaine and relating
to Clara Barton, “Will the American people please hear the truth
from the truly great and good of America on the subject herein
referred to?” General Nelson A. Miles says: “Clara Barton is the
greatest humanitarian the world has ever known.” “Clara Barton
rendered her country and her kind great and noble service,” says
Speaker Champ Clark. “The greatest of American women, the whole
world knew and loved her,” says Congressman Joseph Taggart. Says
Carrie Chapman Catt: “Clara Barton has won the hearts of the
women of the world.” Speaking of her, no less a scholar and
statesman than Senator George F. Hoar said: “Clara Barton is the
most illustrious citizen of Massachusetts, the greatest man in
America.”
General W. R. Shafter says: “She was absolutely fearless. Miss
Barton is a wonder; the greatest, grandest woman I have ever
known.” Mrs. General John A. Logan, says of her: “One of the
noblest, if not the noblest, woman of her time—the greatest woman
of the nineteenth century.” Says Senator Charles E. Townsend: “The
modest, unselfish and yet undaunted Clara Barton did as much for
the highest good of the world as any single individual since the birth
of civilization.” Says General Joe Wheeler: “The good work done by
Clara Barton will live forever and her memory will be cherished
wherever the Red Cross is known.” Mrs. General George E. Pickett
says of her: “A veteran of the ’60’s, with all the years since filled with
noble deeds, she is a marvel to the world; with all of our executive
women, social figures and ambitious Zenobias, we shall never
produce her like.”
Living at the same time, and serving in the same great struggle for
humanity, the two names alike adored and which for all time will be
associated in American history are ABRAHAM LINCOLN and
CLARA BARTON. Lincoln was born in obscurity, reared on the farm;
so was Clara Barton. Lincoln was inured to poverty, self-educated in
mature years; similarly, Clara Barton. Lincoln stands alone,—no
type, no famed ancestors, no successors; true of Clara Barton.
Lincoln, in the opinion of Robert G. Ingersoll, had the brain of a
philosopher and the heart of a mother; likewise Clara Barton.
Lincoln was gracious to social aristocracy, but did not court it; far
from it, Clara Barton.
As was true of Lincoln, Vice-President Henry Wilson said of Clara
Barton: “She has the brain of a statesman, the heart of a woman.”
Lincoln was a many-sided man; Clara Barton a many-sided woman.
Lincoln had intellect without arrogance, genius without pride and
religion without cant; so had Clara Barton. Lincoln stood the test of
power, the supremest test of mortal; so did Clara Barton. Lincoln
worked seventeen years, paying in instalments a debt incurred in a
mercantile adventure; Clara Barton, while serving humanity,
disbursed hundreds of thousands of dollars without the
appropriation of a penny to her personal use.
Oblivious of titles, epaulettes, clothes, rank and race, Lincoln saw
only the weak mortal; not less so Clara Barton. Lincoln was an
orator,—clear, sincere, natural, convincing. In her hundreds of
lecture engagements, made through the same literary bureau,
speaking from the same platform, Clara Barton was classed with
Charles Sumner, Wendell Phillips, John B. Gough, and Henry Ward
Beecher, the greatest orators of half a century ago.
Lincoln broke the shackles of the blacks in bondage; Clara Barton
broke the shackles of education in America, as Pestalozzi in Europe,
and transformed “pauper schools” into public schools. She broke the
shackles of her sex, and her name was placed on the payroll as the
first woman in the government’s service at the nation’s capital. She
broke the shackles of war-ethics, and was the first woman “angel” on
the battlefield.
She broke the shackles as to national lines, and was the first
woman to traverse the ocean to minister to the war stricken of
another continent. She broke the shackles as to national disasters,
and was the first human being to organize a system to relieve human
distress in times of peace, this now the system of every Red Cross
organization in the world. She broke the shackles of women in
educational life, in military life, in social life, in humanitarian life.
Through the centuries Clara Barton, as Abraham Lincoln, will stand
as the sentinel on the parapet between the warring forces of
humanity and inhumanity.
Lincoln advocated the admitting of “all whites to the right of
suffrage who pay taxes or bear arms, by no means excluding
females.” Clara Barton advocated “the admission of women of
whatever race to all the rights and privileges—social, religious and
political—which as an intelligent being belongs to her.” Lincoln
directed the greatest political organization of his time; Clara Barton,
the greatest humanitarian organization. Lincoln bore malice toward
none,—charity for all; equally so Clara Barton. Lincoln is the
strongest tie that binds together all classes of Americans; Clara
Barton is the strongest, tenderest tie that binds together
humanitarians. Lincoln was the grandest man in the Civil War, is
now receiving the highest homage; Clara Barton, the grandest
woman, and now the most beloved.
Lincoln was denounced a failure, inefficient as an executive and
disloyal to the Union. Clara Barton was accused of “inharmony,
unbusinesslike methods and too many years.” Lincoln passed
without warning and could make no defense; in her own words Clara
Barton says: “When it becomes necessary for me to defend myself
before the American people, let me fall.”
Fleeing the scene of his crime, and referring to Lincoln, there
emitted from the lying tongue of the assassin: “Sic semper tyrannis”;
in answer from the regions of the dead to the woman with the
serpent’s tongue, Clara Barton replies: “Truth is eternal; evil
conspiring and their kindred are doomed to die at last—my own shall
come to me.” If Lincoln dead may yet do more for America and
Americans than Lincoln living, so Clara Barton dead may yet do
more for America and world humanity than Clara Barton living.
Abraham Lincoln and Clara Barton, humanity’s martyrs, the two
immortals.
A score of “the Immortals” lost to memory in any nation and that
nation might well exclaim: “I have lost my reputation, I have lost the
immortal part of myself.” Efface from memory the twenty, or fewer,
immortals of Carthage, of Greece, of Rome, of Italy, of France, of
Germany, of England, of America, then in the centuries hence over
the tomb of every such nation only could be written “Nation
Unknown.” In all the world destroy a score of “the Immortals”
respectively in religion, in literature, in science, in art, in the heroic,
—a hundred names and their influence,—and wealth greater to the
human race shall have been destroyed than if were destroyed every
public structure possessed by one billion six hundred millions of
people now living.
Whether real or imaginary, the heroes of Homer and Virgil are
worth more to the literature of that ancient period than all the
physical wealth of Greece and Rome. What legacy to a nation could
be greater than to have inherited the name and influence of a Homer,
a Socrates, a Michael Angelo, a Queen Victoria, a Washington, a
Franklin, a Lincoln, a Florence Nightingale, a Clara Barton? In the
long centuries ago, of fame it was decreed: “Fame (’tis all the dead
can have) shall live.” Through the centuries, Church and State have
fought for their respective heroes and heroines not unlike Peter the
Hermit and his followers, in the cause of Him on whom depended
their future happiness. Now, as in all the past, the chiefest of a
nation’s enduring wealth are the immortal names that were not born
to die.
 ABRAHAM LINCOLN

(Picture taken in June, 1860)

The President, March 4, 1861–

April 15, 1865

Miss Barton, I will help you. A.

Lincoln (in 1865).

President Lincoln was good and

kind to me in whatever I tried to
do for the soldiers. Clara
Barton.

As an inspiration to the millions yet to be, the name of America’s

Angel of Mercy will live—live heroic in the deathless songs of peace
and of war. There is Second Bull Run, and Chantilly, and Antietam,
and Fredericksburg, and Petersburg, and Strasburg, and Sedan, and
Paris, and Johnstown, and Santiago, and Galveston,—there on
tablets of memory her heroism is inscribed, there to remain forever.
Neither will the millions forget, nor cease to cherish, The American
Red Cross and The American Amendment and The National First
Aid,—forever theirs and their children’s, through the constructive
genius of the American philanthropist. If “gratitude is the fairest of
flowers that springs from the soul,” perennial must spring millions of
fairest flowers over her whose services to the millions are unending,
and world-wide.
At Glen Echo on the Potomac when the world-humanist received
her final orders, sustained by an unfaltering trust, she exclaimed:
“Let me go, let me go!” Thence, as if by imperial summons called, the
spirit of Clara Barton arose triumphant and on Easter Morn winged
its flight to that undiscovered bourne amid the Islands of the Blest.
In yonder Silent City,
Pointing heavenward,
Stands a granite shaft;
Above that shaft of gray,
The granite Cross of Red,

and there a shrine for the human race till the end of time.
CLARA BARTON
Clara Barton

Born at Oxford, Massachusetts

Christmas Day, 1821

Died at Glen Echo, Maryland

Easter Morn, 1912

President of the American Red Cross Society

from

1881 to 1904

President of the National First Aid

Association of America
 from

1905 to 1912; now, The President

In Memoriam.
ABRAHAM
LINCOLN
Born at Hodgensville, Kentucky

February 12, 1809

Died at Washington, D. C.

April 15, 1865

President of the United States

from

1861 to 1865
 THE RED CROSS MONUMENT

Built by Stephen E. Barton, Executor of the Estate of Clara Barton

in the Cemetery at North Oxford, Massachusetts.

How peaceful and powerful is the grave. Lord Byron.

Her memory deserves a monument. Nashville (Tenn.) Banner.

Her monument is the sign of the Red Cross. Sioux Falls (S. D.)
Press.

Clara Barton needs no monument, her fame is written on the

world’s battlefields. Albany Press Knickerbocker.

Congress should provide for the erection of a handsome

monument to the woman who has served the nation in war and in
peace. Baltimore Sun.
The Red Cross will serve as her monument and that is her work
which, we trust, will keep alive her merciful spirit through the
oncoming centuries.
Boston Journal.
 Clara Barton needs no monument; her name will live in the hearts
of the people. Jackson (Mich.) Patriot.

The whole civilized world owes Clara Barton more than it can ever
pay in the form of tributes or material monuments.
Worcester (Mass.) Telegram.

Long after the funeral service, as we passed on the way home,

pathways were full of people coming from a distance; and next day
hundreds trod the worn by-path in the cemetery to the still-
standing Red Cross—a path that the feet of the world will tread to
the end of time.
Clara Barton In Memoriam.

“Clara Barton joined the choir invisible

Of those immortal dead who live again
In minds made better by their presence; live
In pulses stirred to generosity,
In deeds of daring rectitude, in scorn
For miserable aims that end with self,
In thoughts sublime that pierce the night like stars,
And with their mild persistence urge man’s search
To vaster issues.
So has she joined the choir invisible
Whose music is the gladness of the world.”
 TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES
1. P. 40, changed “she would could and recount” to “she
would count and recount”.
2. P. 274, changed “responded to a Red Cross call for
$ 00,000,000.” to “responded to a Red Cross call for
$100,000,000.”.
3. Silently corrected typographical errors and variations in
spelling.
4. Archaic, non-standard, and uncertain spellings retained
as printed.
5. Footnotes were re-indexed using numbers and moved to
the bottom of the paragraph.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CLARA BARTON: A
CENTENARY TRIBUTE TO THE WORLD'S GREATEST HUMANITARIAN
***

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