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Heat Exchanger (Shell and tube)

1. Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of series of tubes.

2. One set of these tubes contains the fluid that must be either heated or cooled.
3. The second fluid runs over the tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it
can either provide the heat or absorb the heat required.
4. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and can be made up of several types of
tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.
5. Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure
applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater than
260 °C).
6. This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are robust due to their
shape.
7. The structure of these exchangers is made of a shellside and multiple smaller
tubes passing through the shell.
8. The shell may contain baffles to induce turbulence and to increase heat transfer
by means of crossflow of fluids.

Reactor CSTR

1. Continuous Stir Tank Reactor has inlet and outlet streams.

2. Reactants inside the CSTR will be mixed well due to existence of an agitator.
3. Operation maybe under steady and unsteady state.
4. CSTR is operated in an open system where mass enter and leave the system.
5. CSTR can be used as individual units, or a set of such units can be joined
together to form a chain of stirred tanks.
6. The mass flow rate in must equal the mass flow rate out, otherwise the tank will
overflow or go empty(transient state).
7. Volume or density may vary as the reaction proceed.
8. Inlet and outlet flow are continuous.
Condenser

1. The substance's temperature is lowered until it reaches its condensation point

by the condenser, which extracts heat from the vapor phase. As a result, the
vapor might change into a liquid.
2. The condensed liquid, which may be a byproduct or the intended result (such
as refined distillate), is collected by the condenser in procedures like distillation.
3. A condenser improves process efficiency and guarantees higher yield or purity
by condensing and recycling vapors back into the system, as in reflux systems.
 HEAT EXCHANGER
By : SITI NAZALIA HANIS NA SAIDIN @ NAZRI 241141912

The heat exchanger is a device that allows the transfer of heat

between two or more fluids at different temperatures without
mixing them. This process is very fundamental in such
industries as heating, cooling, chemical processing, and power
generation. The efficiency in heat exchangers applies to the
principle of the transfer of heat between hot and cold fluids,
with the major mechanism involved normally being
conduction, convection, and sometimes radiation.

How a Heat Exchanger Works

1. Basic Design
A heat exchanger is a number of tubes or plates in which hot
and cold fluids flow in a parallel, countercurrent, or cross-
flow arrangement. The fluids are separated actually by the
walls of the exchanger but are in such intimate contact to
promote heat transfer.
Through the opposite side, hot fluid goes on one side of the
exchanger, whereas the cold goes on another side, generally in
a countercurrent or cross-flow manner. The material of the
walls-which are usually made out of metals or other such
conductive materials-allows the
transfer of heat between the hot fluid and the cold fluid, but
the actual fluids themselves do not combine.
2. The Heat Transfer Process
The major process driving a heat exchanger involves the
transfer of thermal energy from the hot fluid to the cold fluid.
This is done across the wall material that separates the fluids
and is based on several fundamental principles:

Conduction: Heat from the hot fluid flows through the wall to
the colder one. The heat that is transferred depends on the
thermal conductivity of the material, the temperature
difference across the wall, and the area through which the heat
is flowing.

Convection takes place through the convection process at the

interface between the fluid and the wall surface of the heat
exchanger. The flow of the fluid promotes transportation of
thermal energy through the fluid molecules themselves. It is
by these molecules, containing heat, that transfer takes place
to or from the wall. Convection depends on the velocity of
flow of fluid, temperature difference, and special properties of
the fluid-like viscosity and thermal conductivity.

Principle of Heat Balance in Heat Exchangers

The principle of heat balance in a heat exchanger is based on

the law of conservation of energy. This law states that energy
cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or
transformed. In the context of heat exchangers, this means the
heat lost by the hot fluid is equal to the heat gained by the
cold fluid, assuming there are no significant losses to the
environment.

The heat transferred is represented as:

𝑄ℎ𝑂𝑡 = 𝑄𝑐𝑂𝑙𝑑
Where:
• Q is the heat transfer rate ( W or kJ/s ).
• Subscripts “hot” and “cold” represent the respective
fluids.

Expression for Heat Transfer

For each fluid, the heat transfer rate is calculated using:
𝑄 = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑐 ⋅ 𝛥𝑇
Where:
• Q : Heat transfer rate (W or kJ/s)
 • m : Mass flow rate of the fluid (kg/s)
• c : Specific heat capacity of the fluid (kJ/kg·°C)
• 𝛥𝑇: Temperature change (𝑇𝑖𝑛 − 𝑇0 𝑢𝑡 in C)
Explanation
1. Heat Lost by Hot Fluid:
• The hot fluid loses energy as it flows through the heat
exchanger.
• Its temperature decreases
2. Heat Gained by Cold Fluid:
• The cold fluid absorbs this heat, causing its temperature
to rise
3. Energy Conservation:
• The amount of heat released by the hot fluid equals the
amount of heat absorbed by the cold fluid.
• If the system is perfectly insulated (no heat losses to the
environment), the heat balance ensures that:
𝑄ℎ𝑂𝑡 = 𝑄𝑐𝑂𝑙𝑑
ASSIGNMENT : CONDENSER
KMJ12503 MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE

Chong Jie Sheng

241141858
BACHELOR OF DEGREE IN CHEMICAL ENGINEERING 2024/2025
INTRODUCTION

A condenser is a crucial component in many thermal systems, such as power plants,

refrigeration systems, and air conditioning units. Its primary function is to remove heat
from a vapor, facilitating its phase change into a liquid. This process, known as
condensation, is vital for maintaining energy efficiency and enabling the continuous
operation of thermal cycles. By effectively transferring heat to a cooling medium,
condensers ensure the sustainability and functionality of the system. The efficiency of a
condenser relies on various factors, including the type of cooling medium used, the rate
of heat transfer, and the operating conditions. This report aims to analyze the working
principles of a condenser, including the condensation process and energy balance, while
also evaluating its performance under specific conditions.

HYPOTHESIS

The efficiency of a condenser is directly proportional to the effectiveness of heat transfer

between the vapor and the cooling medium. Optimizing the cooling medium's flow rate
and temperature will maximize the condenser's performance by ensuring complete
condensation and maintaining energy balance within the system.

SURFACE CONDENSER

A surface condenser is a water-cooled shell and tube heat exchanger installed to

condense exhaust steam from a steam turbine in thermal power stations. These
condensers are heat exchanges which convert steam from its gaseous to its liquid state,
releasing latent heat into the surrounding environment at pressure below atmospheric
pressure.

1
A SKETCH DIAGRAM OF SURFACE CONDENSER

2
PROCEDURE

A condenser machine is used in various industrial and mechanical systems (such as air
conditioners, refrigeration systems, and power plants) to remove heat from vapor and
convert it into liquid. The condensation process involves the following key steps:

Step 1: Entry of Vapor into the Condenser

The vapor, such as steam or refrigerant, enters the condenser at a high

temperature and pressure. This vapor contains significant thermal energy, which
needs to be removed to facilitate its transition into a liquid phase. The condenser
is designed to allow effective heat transfer from the vapor to a cooling medium.

Step 2: Heat Transfer to the Cooling Medium

As the vapor flows through the condenser, it comes into contact with a cooling
medium, such as air or water. This cooling medium absorbs heat from the vapor,
causing its temperature to drop. The cooling medium continuously circulates to
maintain its capacity to absorb heat.

Step 3: Phase Change from Vapor to Liquid

Once the vapor’s temperature drops to its saturation point, it begins to condense
into liquid. During this phase change, the vapor releases its latent heat of
condensation to the cooling medium. This energy transfer occurs without any
further drop in temperature of the vapor.

Step 4: Removal of Heat by the Cooling Medium

The cooling medium, now warmed by the absorbed heat, carries the thermal
energy away. In air-cooled condensers, this heat is dispersed into the atmosphere,
while in water-cooled systems, the heated water flows out to a cooling tower or
heat exchanger for re-circulation or discharge.

Step 5: Collection and Discharge of Condensate

The condensed liquid, which has now transitioned from vapor to a cooler liquid
state, collects at the bottom of the condenser. It is then discharged and sent for
reuse (as in power plants) or stored for further processes. This completes the
condensation process within the condenser.

3
DISCUSSION

1. The steam enters the condenser with an enthalpy of 2800 kJ/kg and exits as a
liquid with an enthalpy of 400 kJ/kg. With a steam mass flow rate of 1 kg/s, the
heat released by the steam is calculated as:

Qreleased = ṁsteam ⅹ (hinlet - houtlet) = 1 ⅹ (2800-400) = 2400kJ/s

Qgained = ṁcooling ⅹ c ⅹ ΔT = 2 ⅹ 4.18 ⅹ 10 = 83.6kJ/s

Qnet = Qreleased - Qgained = 2400 - 83.6 = 2316.4kJ/s

∴ The heat released by the stream is 2400kJ/s and the net energy balance is
2316.4kJ/s.

2. Calculate the cooling duty requires to condense and cool acetone from 100℃ to
25℃ at atmospheric pressure. The heat of vaporization for acetone at its normal
boiling point is 30.2kJ/mol.

Answer:

Boiling point of acetone = 56℃

Flow rate of acetone, ṅ= 100 mol/s

Final temperature of liquid acetone = 25℃

Heat of vaporization ΔHvap = 30.2kJ/mol

Specific heat capacity of acetone vapor (Cp,vapour) = 0.075 kJ/mol K-1

Specific heat capacity of acetone liquid (Cp,liquid)= 0.105 kJ/mol K-1

4
 The amount of heat released when cooling the vapor from 100℃ to 56℃ :

Q1 = ṅ ⅹ Cp,vapour ⅹ ΔT = 100 ⅹ 0.075 ⅹ (100 - 56) = 330kJ/s

The amount of heat released when condensation of acetone vapor at 56℃ :

Q2 = ṅ ⅹ ΔHvap = 100 ⅹ 30.2 = 3020kJ/s

The amount of heat released when cooling the acetone liquid from 56℃ to 25℃ :

Q3 = ṅ ⅹ Cp,liquid ⅹ ΔT = 100 ⅹ 0.105 ⅹ (56 - 25) = 325.5kJ/s

The total cooling duty is

Q = - ( Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ) = -3675.5kJ/s

∴The cooling duty is negative because energy is being removed from the system
during cooling and condensation. In thermodynamics, negative heat flow(Q)
indicates heat being released by the system to the surroundings.

5
The production of acetic acid via a Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor (CSTR) is a common
method, especially in industrial settings like the liquid-phase oxidation of acetaldehyde or
the fermentation of ethanol. Below is a step-by-step explanation of the process for the
liquid-phase oxidation of acetaldehyde to acetic acid, which is one of the common methods
used in a CSTR.

Firstly, we started with feed preparation. Acetaldehyde and oxygen gas are fed into the
system. The feed rates of acetaldehyde and oxygen are controlled to achieve the desired
reaction rates. The reactor is equipped with a stirrer to maintain uniform concentration and
temperature. The acetaldehyde and oxygen are mixed in the CSTR. The reactor
temperature is controlled to maintain optimal reaction conditions. The chemical reaction is
show below:

CH3CHO + O2 CH3COOH

The process will carry on with separator. The product which is acetic acid have to separate
with the other excess product. The product is cooled and then separated into acetic and the
residual product. The residual separated product which is acetaldehyde and oxygen gas will
have recycled properties. Unreacted acetaldehyde and excess oxygen are recycled back to
improve process efficiency and minimize waste. At the same time, the impure acetic acid
will undergo distillation process to produce a high purity of acetic acid.
Energy balances of reactive processes

The standard heat of reaction for the oxidation of ammonia is given below:

4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)  4NO(g) + 6H2O(v) ∆𝐻°𝑟 = −904.7 𝑘𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙

500 mol NH3 /s and 800 mol O2 at 25 degree Celsius are fed into a reactor in which the
ammonia is completely consumed. The product gas emerges at 300 degree Celsius.
Calculate the heat at least heat must be transferred to or from the reactor, assuming
operation at approximately at 1 atm.

Solution:

From the description, simplify the information by drawing the process flowchart.
Solve material balance

In this reaction, the limit reactant NH3 because it has been completely consumed. Thus, the
calculation of mole flow rates will be based on NH3.

Firstly, since we know that 0 mol/s of NH3 is out as a product, thus we can use this
information to find ζ.

nNH3 = nNH3in + vi ζ

0 = 500 - 4 ζ

ζ= 125 mol/s

n1 = n1out + v1 ζ

0 = 0 + 4(125)

n1 = 500 mol/min

n2 = n2out + v2 ζ

0 = 0 + 6(125)

n2 = 750 mol/min

n3 = n3out + v3 ζ

0 = 800 – 5(125)

n3 = 175 mol/min
Possible reasons for the decrease in heat exchanger performance

1. Fouling: Deposition of any unwanted material on the heat transfer surfaces.

2. Scaling: Precipitation of dissolved minerals, most commonly calcium carbonate,
onto the surfaces due to temperature and/or pH changes.
3. Corrosion: Deterioration of material due to the chemical reaction of the material
with the fluid, which causes loss of material and reduced performance.
4. Improper Flow Rates: Deviations from the design flow rate that can cause
turbulence reduction or flow separation.
5. Thermal Stresses: Structural damage caused by repeated thermal cycling or rapid
temperature changes.
6. Air or Gas Entrapment: The presence of non-condensable gases, which reduces heat
transfer efficiency.
7. Material Degradation: Aging, wear, or chemical attack on materials over time
reduces thermal conductivity.
8. Operational Errors: Incorrect control of parameters like pressure, temperature, or
flow leads to inefficient operation.
9. Leakage: Loss of fluid through cracks or bad sealing that reduces the effective area
for heat exchange.
10. Design Flaws: Incompatibility of operating conditions with the design specification
of the heat exchanger.
Detail Discussion:

Fouling is unwanted deposition of material on the surfaces where the heat transfer is
occurring, this causes an added thermal resistance. The added thermal resistance reduces
the heat transfer coefficient as the overall heat transfer rate is inversely proportional to the
resistance:

where:

 : Convective heat transfer coefficients of the fluids

 : Fouling resistance,
 : Conduction resistance of the wall material.

With the increase due to fouling decreases, hence reduced heat transfer efficiency. It can
also increase pressure drop since deposits restrict fluid flow, hence requiring higher
pumping power.

Impact on Efficiency:

Reduces heat transfer rate, lowering overall system performance. Increases operational
costs due to frequent cleaning and higher energy consumption. Leads to potential
shutdowns for maintenance, affecting reliability.
Improper Flow Rates

Engineering Principles:

Heat exchangers are designed to operate within a specified flow rate range. If the flow
rates are considerably different:

High flow rates: It may cause erosion, vibration, or excessive pressure drops.

Low flow rates: It results in less turbulence, which decreases the convective heat transfer
coefficient.

The relationship between flow rate and turbulence is governed by the Reynolds number:

where:

 : Fluid density,
 : Velocity,
 : Hydraulic diameter,
 : Fluid viscosity.

gives laminar flow, hence decreasing the Nusselt number and, as a result, the heat transfer
coefficient ℎ:

Impact on Efficiency:

Low flow rates: This leads to poor heat transfer and higher thermal resistance.

High flow rates: This causes excessive wear and tear, increasing the frequency
of maintenance.

Lower performance due to uneven temperature distribution and possible overheating or

freezing at localized points.
Conclusion

The main factors affecting the performance of heat exchangers include fouling and
improper flow rates, which can be significantly debilitating. Regular
maintenance, monitoring properly, and following design specifications are the ways to
ensure that this system operates efficiently and serves for a longer period.
Impact Analysis on Condenser

Changes in the cooling fluid flow rate directly affect the condenser's overall performance
through their influence on the heat exchange process and system efficiency. A condenser’s
primary function is to condense the vapor by removing heat and transfer it into a cooling
fluid. The rate of how its cooling fluid flows through the system is directly influences how
efficiently the heat transfer occurs. Hence, the changes in the flow rate affect both heat
exchange process and the system’s energy efficiency

During the heat exchange process, when the cooling fluid rate is increased, the heat transfer
efficiency is also increased. It is because a higher flow rate typically results in better mixing
or turbulence, which boosts the heat transfer coefficient. The increased turbulence reduces
the temperature differential between the cooling fluid and the vapor, enhancing the rate at
which heat is removed from the vapor. Consequently, the vapor condenses more effectively,
and the outlet temperature of the vapor decreases. In this scenario, the system operates
efficiently, maintaining a stable temperature range. Therefore, this improves the
condenser’s performance.

Conversely, a decrease in the cooling fluid flow rate reduces heat removal efficiency. With
a slower flow, the cooling fluid may absorb heat at a slower rate, and the temperature
difference between the cooling fluid and the vapor diminishes. This can lead to incomplete
condensation and a rise in the outlet temperature. A high outlet temperature can negatively
affect the condenser's performance and potentially damage other components in the system
by increasing the pressure within the condenser.

In conclusion, higher cooling fluid flow rate improves system efficiency by ensuring
proper condensation and minimizing energy losses while low flow rate can cause thermal
inefficiencies, increased pressure in the condenser, and potential damage to downstream
equipment.
Recommended Adjustments

To manage the outlet temperature and ensure the condenser operates within acceptable
limits, several adjustments have to be made. One primary approach is to increase the
cooling fluid flow rate. By doing so, more heat is carried away from the vapor, resulting in
a lower outlet temperature. Increasing the flow rate enhances the heat transfer coefficient
and reduces the temperature differential, which accelerates the condensation process and
improves system efficiency.

Additionally, the engineering principles behind these adjustments are grounded in the
relationship between the flow rate, the heat transfer coefficient, and the temperature
differential. The rate of heat transfer is governed by the equation:

Q = h × A × ∆T

Where,

● Q is the rate of heat transfer,

● h is the heat transfer coefficient(which increases with flow rate),
● A is the heat transferred area,
● ∆T is the temperature changes between the fluids.

By increasing the cooling fluid flow rate, the heat transfer coefficient increases, which in
turn enhances the heat removal process. Additionally, adjusting the flow rate ensures that
the temperature difference is maintained at an optimal level, hence improving overall
condenser performance.

If an increase in flow rate alone is insufficient to control the outlet temperature,

adjustments such as lowering the inlet temperature of the cooling fluid can also be effective.
This can be achieved by pre-cooling the fluid or selecting a cooler fluid source for the
process. These adjustments work together to manage the heat transfer process, ensuring
the condenser operates efficiently and within safe thermal limits.
In conclusion, optimizing the cooling fluid flow rate is essential for maintaining condenser
performance. Increasing the flow rate enhances heat removal, improves the heat exchange
process, and helps to keep the system’s temperature within the desired range. Through
understanding the relationship between flow rate, heat transfer coefficient, and temperature
differential allows engineers to make informed adjustments that maintain system efficiency
and prevent operational issues.
Thermal runaway can occur in a Continuous Stirred-Tank Reactor (CSTR) if heat is not
adequately removed from the system. List the possible measures that can be taken to
prevent this.

1. Effective Cooling Mechanism:

 To efficiently remove heat from the reactor, use an external heat exchanger or
a sturdy cooling jacket.
 Make use of high-capacity cooling systems made to manage unforeseen spikes
in heat production.

2. Temperature Tracking and Management:

 To keep an eye on the reactor's temperature in real time, use accurate and
redundant temperature sensors.
 Use sophisticated control systems to dynamically modify the cooling rate in
response to temperature changes, such as PID (Proportional-Integral-Derivative)
controllers.

3. Proper Mixing
 To avoid hot patches or temperature gradients, make sure the reactor's contents
are properly mixed.
 Maintain a consistent temperature distribution by using stirring mechanisms
and impellers that are well-designed.

4. Control of Reaction Kinetics:

 Avoid the critical temperature or concentration thresholds that cause thermal
runaway when operating the reactor.
 Keep reactant feed rates within acceptable bounds to avoid

5. Heat Removal Capacity Design:

 Design the reactor with a heat removal capacity that exceeds the maximum
expected heat generation rate.
 Include safety margins in the cooling system design.
6. Dilution of Reactants:
 Use diluted reactants to reduce the reaction rate and associated heat generation.
 Control the feed composition to minimize the risk of rapid heat release.

7. Emergency Shutdown Systems:

 Install safety interlocks that can automatically shut down the feed or stop the
reaction if a critical temperature is reached.
 Include pressure relief systems and emergency venting to prevent overpressure
in the reactor.

8. Use of Inert Substances:

 Add inert diluents to the reaction mixture to absorb heat and reduce the
likelihood of runaway.

9. Reaction Pathway Selection:

 Avoid highly exothermic reaction pathways if possible or switch to alternative
routes with lower heat release.

10. Dynamic Modeling and Simulation:

 Perform dynamic simulations of the reactor under various operating conditions
to identify potential runaway scenarios and prepare appropriate control
strategies.

11. Regular Maintenance and Inspections:

 Conduct regular maintenance of the cooling system, sensors, and other
equipment to ensure they function properly.
 Check for fouling or scaling in heat exchangers that could impair heat transfer.

12. Secondary Containment Systems:

 Install containment systems to handle excess heat or mitigate consequences in
case of partial runaway.
Heat removal capacity design:

How it avoids thermal runaway: Keeping a steady reaction temperature depends on the
heat removal system's design. Exothermic processes in a CSTR generate heat, which must
be expelled at a rate equal to or greater than the rate of heat creation in order to keep the
temperature from rising. This step aids in preventing thermal runaway in the following
ways:

 Overdesign for Safety Margins: Under both typical and unusual operating
circumstances, the cooling system's (heat exchangers, cooling jackets, etc.) ability
to remove heat is frequently more than its maximum heat output. This guarantees
that the system can manage surplus heat without causing the reactor to overheat,
even in the event of disruptions like a brief surge in reactant feed rates.
 Better Heat transmission: Effective heat transmission between the reactor is
ensured by proper design. contents and the coolant. This includes optimizing heat
exchanger surface area, flow rates of the cooling medium, and material selection
for high thermal conductivity. These factors improve the ability to remove heat
effectively.
 Avoiding Hot Spots: With an adequately designed cooling system, localized
overheating (hot spots) is prevented, which might otherwise lead to uncontrolled
reaction rates.
 Dynamic Heat Removal: Advanced systems can dynamically adjust cooling
capacity based on real-time feedback from temperature sensors, allowing the
system to respond to changes in reaction rates and maintain stability.\

For example, if the heat generation rate increases due to a sudden surge in reactant feed,
the heat exchanger can quickly compensate by increasing the coolant flow rate or reducing
its inlet temperature. By removing heat consistently and reliably, this measure keeps the
reactor temperature within safe limits, preventing runaway reactions.
Reaction Pathway Selection

How it prevents thermal runaway: The choice of reaction pathway can significantly impact
the risk of thermal runaway. By carefully selecting and designing the reaction mechanism,
it is possible to control the heat generation rate and reaction kinetics. Here's how this helps:

 Lower Exothermicity: Selecting reaction pathways that are less exothermic

reduces the heat released per unit of reaction. This inherently minimizes the thermal
load on the reactor and the cooling system, reducing the likelihood of runaway
scenarios.

 Control Over Activation Energy: Reactions with lower activation energies tend
to proceed more rapidly at lower temperatures, making temperature control more
challenging. Selecting pathways with moderate activation energies ensures a
balance between manageable reaction rates and heat generation.

 Intermediate Formation and Reaction Steps: Complex reactions can often be

broken down into intermediate steps with controlled heat release at each step. For
example, instead of a single-step reaction that releases a large amount of heat at
once, a multi-step pathway may distribute the heat generation more evenly.

 Incorporation of Inert Substances or Catalysts: Reaction pathway selection

often includes the use of catalysts or inert components that can moderate the
reaction rate. Catalysts, for instance, can control the temperature dependency of the
reaction by lowering the activation energy while maintaining overall stability.

 Alternative Pathways with Favorable Thermodynamics: In some cases,

alternative pathways can be chosen based on thermodynamics and kinetics to
minimize the risk of thermal runaway. This includes using reactants or solvents that
react more predictably and generate less heat.

For example, in a reaction involving highly reactive compounds, a pathway that introduces
reactants gradually or uses milder reaction conditions (e.g., lower pressures, lower
concentrations) can prevent sudden, large heat releases. By carefully designing the reaction
mechanism, engineers can avoid scenarios where the system becomes prone to runaway
reactions.

By combining Heat Removal Capacity Design and Reaction Pathway Selection, thermal
runaway can be effectively managed in CSTRs. The first measure ensures that any
generated heat is efficiently removed, while the second ensures that the heat generation is
inherently limited or controlled.