01

Basic Mathematics

Chapter Contents
1.1 Basic Mathematics
 2 — Mechanics - I

1.1 Basic Mathematics

The following formulae are frequently used in Physics. So, the students who have just gone in
class XI are advised to remember them first.

Logarithms
(i) e ≈ 2.7183 (ii) If e x = y, then x = log e y = ln y
(iii) If 10 x = y, then x = log 10 y (iv) log 10 y = 0.4343 log e y = 0.4343 ln y
a
(v) log ( ab) = log ( a ) + log ( b) (vi) log   = log ( a ) − log ( b)
 b
(vii) log a n = n log ( a )

Trigonometry
(i) sin 2 θ + cos 2 θ = 1
(ii) 1 + tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ
(iii) 1 + cot 2 θ = cosec 2 θ
(iv) sin 2 θ = 2 sin θ cos θ
(v) cos 2 θ = 2 cos 2 θ − 1 = 1 − 2 sin 2 θ = cos 2 θ − sin 2 θ
(vi) sin ( A ± B ) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B
(vii) cos ( A ± B ) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
C + D C − D
(viii) sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
C − D C + D
(ix) sin C − sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
C +D C −D
(x) cos C + cos D = 2 cos cos
2 2
D −C C +D
(xi) cos C − cos D = 2 sin sin
2 2
2 tan θ
(xii) tan 2 θ =
1 − tan 2 θ
tan A ± tan B
(xiii) tan ( A ± B ) =
1 + tan A tan B
(xiv) sin (90° + θ ) = cos θ
(xv) cos (90° + θ ) = − sin θ
(xvi) tan (90° + θ ) = − cot θ
(xvii) sin (90° − θ ) = cos θ (xviii) cos (90° − θ ) = sin θ
(xix) tan (90° − θ ) = cot θ
(xx) sin (180° − θ ) = sin θ
 Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics — 3

(xxi) cos (180° − θ ) = − cos θ

(xxii) tan (180° − θ ) = − tan θ
(xxiii) sin (180° + θ ) = − sin θ
(xxiv) cos (180° + θ ) = − cos θ
(xxv) tan (180° + θ ) = tan θ
(xxvi) sin ( − θ ) = − sin θ
(xxvii) cos ( − θ ) = cos θ
(xxviii) tan ( − θ ) = − tan θ
Differentiation
d d
(i) (constant) = 0 (ii) ( x n ) = nx n −1
dx dx
d d 1 d
(iii) (log e x ) or (ln x ) = (iv) (sin x ) = cos x
dx dx x dx
d d
(v) (cos x ) = − sin x (vi) (tan x ) = sec 2 x
dx dx
d d
(vii) (cot x ) = − cosec 2 x (viii) (sec x ) = sec x tan x
dx dx
d d x
(ix) (cosec x ) = − cosec x cot x (x) (e ) = e x
dx dx
d d d
(xi) { f 1 ( x ) . f 2 ( x )} = f 1 ( x ) f 2 (x ) + f 2 (x ) f (x )
dx dx dx 1
d d
f 2 (x ) f 1 (x ) − f 1 (x ) f 2 (x )
d f 1 (x ) dx dx
(xii) =
dx f 2 ( x ) { f 2 ( x )}2
d d
(xiii) f ( ax + b) = a f ( X ) , where X = ax + b
dx dx
Integration
x n +1 dx
(i) ∫ x n dx = + c ( n ≠ −1) (ii) ∫ = log e x + c or ln x + c
n +1 x
(iii) ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + c (iv) ∫ cos x dx = sin x + c
(v) ∫ e x dx = e x + c (vi) ∫ sec 2 x dx = tan x + c
(vii) ∫ cosec 2 x dx = − cot x + c (viii) ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + c
(ix) ∫ cosec x cot x dx = − cosec x + c
1
(x) ∫ f ( ax + b) dx =
a∫
f ( X ) dX , where X = ax + b

Here, c is constant of integration.

4 — Mechanics - I

Graphs
Following graphs and their corresponding equations are frequently used in Physics.
(i) y = mx, represents a straight line passing through origin. Here, m = tan θ is also called the slope
of line, where θ is the angle which the line makes with positive x-axis, when drawn in
anticlockwise direction from the positive x-axis towards the line.
The two possible cases are shown in Fig. 1.1. In Fig. 1.1 (i), θ < 90° .Therefore, tan θ or slope of
line is positive. In Fig. 1.1 (ii), 90° < θ < 180° . Therefore, tan θ or slope of line is negative.
y y

θ x θ x

(i) (ii)
Fig. 1.1

Note That y = mx or y ∝ x also means that value of y becomes 2 times if x is doubled. Or it will remain 41 th if
1
x becomes 4
times.
(ii) y = mx + c, represents a straight line not passing through origin. Here, m is the slope of line as
discussed above and c the intercept on y-axis.
y y

c = +ve c = +ve θ
θ θ
x x x
c = –ve

(i) (ii) (iii)

Fig. 1.2

In figure (i) : slope and intercept both are positive.

In figure (ii) : slope is negative but intercept is positive and
In figure (iii) : slope is positive but intercept is negative.
Note That in y = mx + c , y does not become two times if x is doubled.
1 2
(iii) y ∝ or y = etc., represents a rectangular hyperbola in first and third quadrants. The shape of
x x
rectangular hyperbola is shown in Fig. 1.3(i).
y y

x x

(i) (ii)
Fig. 1.3
 Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics — 5

From the graph we can see that y → 0 as x → ∞ or x → 0 as y → ∞.

4
Similarly, y = − represents a rectangular hyperbola in second and fourth quadrants as shown in
x
Fig. 1.3(ii).
Note That in case of rectangular hyperbola if x is doubled y will become half.
(iv) y ∝ x 2 or y = 2x 2 , etc., represents a parabola passing through origin as shown in Fig. 1.4( i).
y y

y ∝ x2 x ∝ y2
x x

(i) (ii)
Fig. 1.4

Note That in the parabola y = 2 x 2 or y ∝ x 2 , if x is doubled, y will become four times.

Graph x ∝ y 2 or x = 4 y 2 is again a parabola passing through origin as shown in Fig 1.4 (ii). In
this case if y is doubled, x will become four times.
(v) y = x 2 + 4 or x = y 2 − 6 will represent a parabola but not passing through origin. In the first
equation ( y = x 2 + 4), if x is doubled, y will not become four times.
(vi) y = Ae − Kx ; represents exponentially decreasing graph. Value of y decreases exponentially from
A to 0. The graph is shown in Fig. 1.5.
y

x
Fig. 1.5

From the graph and the equation, we can see that y = A at x = 0 and y → 0 as x → ∞.
(vii) y = A (1 − e − Kx ), represents an exponentially increasing graph. Value of y increases
exponentially from 0 to A. The graph is shown in Fig. 1.6.
y

x
Fig. 1.6
From the graph and the equation we can see that y = 0 at x = 0 and y → A as x → ∞.
6 — Mechanics - I

Maxima and Minima

Suppose y is a function of x. Or y = f ( x ).
Then we can draw a graph between x and y. Let the graph is as shown in Fig. 1.7.
y
P
x

Q
Fig. 1.7
 dy 
Then from the graph we can see that at maximum or minimum value of y slope  or  to the graph is
zero.  dx 
dy
Thus, = 0 at maximum or minimum value of y.
dx
dy d2 y
By putting = 0 we will get different values of x. At these values of x, value of y is maximum if 2
dx dx
(double differentiation of y with respect to x) is negative at this value of x. Similarly y is minimum if
d2 y
is positive. Thus,
dx 2
d2 y
= −ve for maximum value of y
dx 2
d2 y
and = +ve for minimum value of y
dx 2
dy d2y
Note That at constant value of y also = 0 but in this case 2 is zero.
dx dx

V Example 1.1 Differentiate the following functions with respect to x

x
(a) x3 + 5x 2 − 2 (b) x sin x (c) ( 2x + 3) 6 (d) (e) e (5 x + 2)
sin x
d 3 d 3 d 2 d
Solution (a) ( x + 5x 2 − 2) = (x ) + 5 (x ) − ( 2)
dx dx dx dx
= 3x 2 + 5( 2x ) − 0
= 3x 2 + 10x
d d d
(b) ( x sin x ) = x (sin x ) + sin x . (x )
dx dx dx
= x cos x + sin x (1)
= x cos x + sin x
d d
(c) ( 2x + 3) 6 = 2 ( X ) 6 , where X = 2x + 3
dx dX
= 2{6X 5 } = 12X 5 = 12( 2x + 3) 5
 Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics — 7

d d
sin x (x ) − x (sin x )
d  x  dx dx
(d)  =
dx  sin x (sin x ) 2
(sin x )(1) − x (cos x ) sin x − x cos x
= 2
=
sin x sin 2 x
d (5x + 2) d X
(e) e =5 e , where X = 5x + 2 = 5e X = 5e 5x + 2
dx dX

V Example 1.2 Integrate the following functions with respect to x

 2
∫ ( 5x + 3x − 2) dx ∫  4 sin x −  dx
2
(a) (b)
 x
dx
∫ 4x + 5 ∫ ( 6x + 2)
3
(c) (d) dx

∫ ( 5x + 3x − 2) dx = 5 ∫ x 2 dx + 3 ∫ x dx − 2 ∫ dx
2
Solution (a)

5x 3 3x 2
+= − 2x + c
3 2
 2 dx
(b) ∫  4 sin x −


x
dx = 4 ∫ sin x dx − 2 ∫
x
= − 4 cos x − 2 ln x + c
dx 1 dX
(c) ∫ 4x + 5 = 4 ∫ X
, where X = 4x + 5

1 1
=
ln X + c1 = ln ( 4x + 5) + c 2
4 4
1
(d) ∫ ( 6x + 2) 3 dx = ∫ X 3 dX , where X = 6x + 2
6
1 X 4 ( 6x + 2) 4
=   + c1 = + c2
6 4  24

V Example 1.3 Draw straight lines corresponding to following equations

(a) y = 2x (b) y = − 6x (c) y = 4x + 2 (d) y = 6x – 4
Solution (a) In y = 2x, slope is 2 and intercept is zero. Hence, the graph is as shown below.
y

tan θ = slope = 2
θ
x

Fig. 1.8
8 — Mechanics - I

(b) In y = − 6x, slope is − 6 and intercept is zero. Hence, the graph is as shown below.
y

θ tan θ = – 6
x

Fig. 1.9

(c) In y = 4x + 2, slope is + 4 and intercept is 2. The graph is as shown below.

y

tan θ = 4
θ
x

Fig. 1.10

(d) In y = 6x − 4, slope is + 6 and intercept is – 4. Hence, the graph is as shown below.

y

tan θ = 6
θ
x

–4

Fig. 1.11

V Example 1.4 Find maximum or minimum values of the functions

(a) y = 25x 2 + 5 − 10x (b) y = 9 − ( x − 3) 2
dy
Solution (a) For maximum and minimum value, we can put = 0.
dx
dy
or = 50x − 10 = 0
dx
1
∴ x=
5
d2 y
Further, = 50
dx 2
d2 y 1 1
or has positive value at x = . Therefore, y has minimum value at x = .
2
dx 5 5
 Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics — 9

1
Substituting x = in given equation, we get
5
2
 1  1
y min = 25   + 5 − 10   = 4
 5  5
(b) y = 9 − ( x − 3) 2 = 9 − x 2 − 9 + 6x
or y = 6x − x 2
dy
∴ = 6 − 2x
dx
dy
For minimum or maximum value of y we will substitute =0
dx
or 6 − 2x = 0 or x = 3
To check whether value of y is maximum or minimum at x = 3 we will have to check whether
d2 y
is positive or negative.
dx 2
d2 y
= −2
dx 2
d2 y
or is negative at x = 3. Hence, value of y is maximum. This maximum value of y is,
dx 2
y max = 9 − ( 3 − 3) 2 = 9
Exercises
Subjective Questions
Trigonometry
1. Find the value of
(a) cos 120° (b) sin 240°
(c) tan (− 60° ) (d) cot 300°
(e) tan 330° (f) cos (− 60° )
(g) sin (− 150° ) (h) cos (− 120° )
2. Find the value of
(a) sec2 θ − tan 2 θ (b) cosec2 θ − cot2 θ − 1
(c) 2 sin 45° cos 15° (d) 2 sin 15° cos 45°

Calculus
3. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x
(a) x4 + 3x2 − 2x (b) x2 cos x
(c) (6x + 7)4 (d) ex x5
(1 + x)
(e)
ex
4. Integrate the following functions with respect to t
∫ (3t − 2t ) dt ∫ (4 cos t + t
2 2
(a) (b) ) dt
−4 dt
(c) ∫ (2t − 4) dt (d) ∫ (6t − 1)
5. Integrate the following functions
2 π /3
(a) ∫0 2t dt (b) ∫π / 6 sin x dx
10 dx π
(c) ∫4 x
(d) ∫0 cos x dx
2
(e) ∫1(2t − 4) dt
6. Find maximum/minimum value of y in the functions given below
(a) y = 5 − (x − 1)2 (b) y = 4x2 − 4x + 7
(c) y = x3 − 3x (d) y = x3 − 6x2 + 9x + 15
π π
(e) y = (sin 2x − x), where − ≤x≤
2 2

Graphs
7. Draw the graphs corresponding to the equations
(a) y = 4x (b) y = − 6x
(c) y = x + 4 (d) y = − 2x + 4
(e) y = 2x − 4 (f) y = − 4x − 6
 Chapter 1 Basic Mathematics — 11

8. For the graphs given below, write down their x-y equations
y y y y

4 135°
45° 30°
x x x x
30° 2

(a) (b) (c) (d)

9. For the equations given below, tell the nature of graphs.

(a) y = 2x2 (b) y = − 4x2 + 6
(c) y = 6e−4x (d) y = 4(1 − e−2x )
4 2
(e) y = (f) y = −
x x
10. Value of y decreases exponentially from y = 10 to y = 6. Plot a x-y graph.
11. Value of y increases exponentially from y = − 4 to y = + 4. Plot a x-y graph.
12. The graph shown in figure is exponential. Write down the equation corresponding to the graph.
y
12

4
x

13. The graph shown in figure is exponential. Write down the equation corresponding to the
graph.
y

x
–4

Answers
Subjective Questions
1 3 1 1 1 1 1
1. (a) − (b) − (c) − 3 (d) − (e) − (f) (g) − (h) −
2 2 3 3 2 2 2
 3 + 1  3 − 1
2. (a) 1 (b) 0 (c)   (d)  
 2   2 
  
3. (a) 4x3 + 6x − 2 (b) 2x cos x − x 2 sin x (c) 24 (6x + 7)3 (d) 5e x x 4 + e x x 5 (e) − xe − x
t3 1 1
4. (a) t 3 − t 2 + C (b) 4 sin t + +C (c) − +C (d) ln (6t − 1) + C
3 6 (2t − 4)3 6
12 — Mechanics - I

( 3 − 1)
5. (a) 4 (b) (c) ln (5 /2) (d) Zero (e) − 1
2
6. (a) ymax = 5 at x = 1 (b) ymin = 6 at x = 1 /2 (c) ymin = − 2 at x = 1 and ymax = 2 at x = − 1
 3 π
(d) ymin = 15 at x = 3 and ymax = 19 at x = 1 (e) ymin = −  −  at x = − π / 6 and
 2 6 
 3 π
ymax =  −  at x = π /6
 2 6
7. y y
y y

x x x x

(a) (b) (c) (d)

y y

x x

(e) (f)

x x
8. (a) y = x (b) y = − (c) y = + 4 (d) y = − x + 2
3 3
9. (a) parabola passing through origin
(b) parabola not passing through origin
(c) exponentially decreasing graph
(d) exponentially increasing graph
(e) Rectangular hyperbola in first and third quadrant
(f) Rectangular hyperbola in second and fourth quadrant

y y
10

10. 11. 4
6
x
x
–4

12. y = 4 + 8e − Kx Here, K is a positive constant

13. y = − 4 + 10 (1 − e − Kx ) Here, K is positive constant
02
Measurement and Errors

Chapter Contents
2.1 Errors in Measurement and Least Count
2.2 Significant Figures
2.3 Rounding off a Digit
2.4 Algebraic Operations with
Significant Figures
2.5 Error Analysis
2.1 Errors in Measurement and Least Count
To get some overview of error, least count and significant figures, let us have some examples.

V Example 2.1 Let us use a centimeter scale (on which only centimeter scales
are there) to measure a length AB.
A B

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 2.1
From the figure, we can see that length AB is more than 7 cm and less than 8 cm.
In this case, Least Count (LC) of this centimeter scale is 1 cm, as it can measure
accurately upto centimeters only. If we note down the length ( l ) of line AB as l = 7 cm
then maximum uncertainty or maximum possible error in l can be 1 cm ( = LC ) ,
because this scale can measure accurately only upto 1 cm.

V Example 2.2 Let us now use a millimeter scale (on which millimeter marks
are there). This is also our normal meter scale which we use in our routine life.
From the figure, we can see that length AB is more than A B
3.3 cm and less than 3.4 cm. If we note down the length,
1 2 3 4
l = AB = 3.4 cm
Then, this measurement has two significant figures 3 and 4 in Fig. 2.2
which 3 is absolutely correct and 4 is reasonably correct (doubtful). Least count of
this scale is 0.1 cm because this scale can measure accurately only upto 0.1 cm.
Further, maximum uncertainty or maximum possible error in l can also be 0.1 cm.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.1

1. If we measure a length l = 6.24 cm with the help of a vernier callipers, then
(a) What is least count of vernier callipers ?
(b) How many significant figures are there in the measured length ?
(c) Which digits are absolutely correct and which is/are doubtful ?
2. If we measure a length l = 3.267 cm with the help of a screw gauge, then
(a) What is maximum uncertainty or maximum possible error in l ?
(b) How many significant figures are there in the measured length ?
(c) Which digits are absolutely correct and which is/are doubtful ?

2.2 Significant Figures

From example 2.2, we can conclude that:
"In a measured quantity, significant figures are the digits which are absolutely correct plus the first
uncertain digit".
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 15

Rules for Counting Significant Figures

Rule 1 All non-zero digits are significant. For example, 126.28 has five significant figures.
Rule 2 The zeros appearing between two non-zero digits are significant. For example, 6.025 has
four significant figures.
Rule 3 Trailing zeros after decimal places are significant. Measurement l = 6.400 cm has four
significant figures. Let us take an example in its support.
Table 2.1
Significant
Measurement Accuracy l lies between (in cm) Remarks
figures
l = 6.4 cm 0.1 cm 6.3 − 6.5 Two
l = 6.40 cm 0.01 cm 6.39 − 6.41 Three closer
l = 6.400 cm 0.001 cm 6.399 − 6.401 Four more closer

Thus, the significant figures depend on the accuracy of measurement. More the number of significant
figures, more accurate is the measurement.
Rule 4 The powers of ten are not counted as significant figures. For example, 1.4 × 10 −7 has only
two significant figures 1 and 4.
Rule 5 If a measurement is less than one, then all zeros occurring to the left of last non-zero digit
are not significant. For example, 0.0042 has two significant figures 4 and 2.
Rule 6 Change in units of measurement of a quantity does not change the number of significant
figures. Suppose a measurement was done using mm scale and we get l = 72 mm (two significant
figures).
We can write this measurement in other units also (without changing the number of significant
figures) :
` 7.2 cm → Two significant figures.
0.072 m → Two significant figures.
0.000072 km → Two significant figures.
7.2 ×10 nm
7
→ Two significant figures
Rule 7 The terminal or trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant. This
also sometimes arises due to change of unit.
For example, 264 m = 26400 cm = 264000 mm
All have only three significant figures 2, 6 and 4. All trailing zeros are not significant.
Zeroes at the end of a number are significant only if they are behind a decimal point as in Rule-3.
Otherwise, it is impossible to tell if they are significant. For example, in the number 8200, it is not
clear if the zeros are significant or not. The number of significant digits in 8200 is at least two, but
could be three or four. To avoid uncertainty, use scientific notation to place significant zeros behind a
decimal point
8.200 ×10 3 has four significant digits.
 16 — Mechanics - I

8.20 ×10 3 has three significant digits.

8.2 ×10 3 has two significant digits.
Therefore, if it is not expressed in scientific notations, then write least number of significant digits.
Hence, in the number 8200, take significant digits as two.
Rule 8 Exact measurements have infinite number of significant figures. For example,
10 bananas in a basket
46 students in a class
speed of light in vacuum = 299, 792, 458 m /s (exact )
22
π = (exact)
7
All these measurements have infinite number of significant figures.

V Example 2.3 Table 2.2

Measured value Number of significant figures Rule number
12376 cm 5 1
6024.7 cm 5 2
0.071 cm 2 5
4100 cm 2 7
2.40 cm 3 3
1.60 × 1014 km 3 4

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.2

1. Count total number of significant figures in the following measurements:
(a) 4.080 cm (b) 0.079 m (c) 950
(d) 10.00 cm (e) 4.07080 (f) 7.090 × 105

2.3 Rounding Off a Digit

Following are the rules for rounding off a measurement :
Rule 1 If the number lying to the right of cut off digit is less than 5, then the cut off digit is retained
as such. However, if it is more than 5, then the cut off digit is increased by 1.
For example, x = 6.24 is rounded off to 6.2 to two significant digits and x = 5.328 is rounded off to 5.33
to three significant digits.
Rule 2 If the digit to be dropped is 5 followed by digits other than zero, then the preceding digit is
increased by 1.
For example, x =14.252 is rounded off to x =14.3 to three significant digits.
Rule 3 If the digit to be dropped is simply 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit it left
unchanged if it is even.
For example, x = 6.250 or x = 6.25 becomes x = 6.2 after rounding off to two significant digits.
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 17

Rule 4 If the digit to be dropped is 5 or 5 followed by zeros, then the preceding digit is raised by one
if it is odd.
For example, x = 6.350 or x = 6.35 becomes x = 6.4 after rounding off to two significant digits.

V Example 2.4 Table 2.3

Measured value After rounding off to three significant digits Rule
7.364 7.36 1
7.367 7.37 1
8.3251 8.33 2
9.445 9.44 3
9.4450 9.44 3
15.75 15.8 4
15.7500 15.8 4

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.3

1. Round off the following numbers to three significant figures :
(a) 24572 (b) 24.937 (c) 36.350 (d) 42.450 × 109
2. Round 742396 to four, three and two significant digits.

2.4 Algebraic Operations with Significant Figures

The final result shall have significant figures corresponding to their number in the least accurate
variable involved. To understand this, let us consider a chain of which all links are strong except the
one. The chain will obviously break at the weakest link. Thus, the strength of the chain cannot be
more than the strength of the weakest link in the chain.
Addition and Subtraction
Suppose, in the measured values to be added or subtracted the least number of digits after the decimal
is n. Then, in the sum or difference also, the number of digits after the decimal should be n.

V Example 2.5 1.2 + 3.45 + 6.789 = 11.439 ≈ 11.4

Here, the least number of significant digits after the decimal is one. Hence, the result
will be 11.4 (when rounded off to smallest number of decimal places).

V Example 2.6 12.63 − 10.2 = 2.43 ≈ 2.4

Multiplication or Division
Suppose in the measured values to be multiplied or divided the least number of significant digits be n.
Then in the product or quotient, the number of significant digits should also be n.

V Example 2.7 1.2 × 36.72 = 44.064 ≈ 44

The least number of significant digits in the measured values are two. Hence, the result
when rounded off to two significant digits become 44. Therefore, the answer is 44.
18 — Mechanics - I

1101 ms −1
V Example 2.8 = 107.94117647 ≈ 108
10.2 ms −1

V Example 2.9 Find, volume of a cube of side a = 1.4 × 10 −2 m.

Solution Volume V = a 3
= (1.4 × 10−2 ) × (1.4 × 10−2 ) × (1.4 × 10−2 ) = 2.744 × 10−6 m 3
Since, each value of a has two significant figures. Hence, we will round off the result to two
significant figures.
∴ V = 2.7 × 10−6 m 3 Ans.

V Example 2.10 Radius of a wire is 2.50 mm. The length of the wire is 50.0 cm.
If mass of wire was measured as 25 g, then find the density of wire in correct
significant figures.
[Given, π = 3.14, exact]
Solution Given, r = 2.50 mm (three significant figures)
= 0.250 cm (three significant figures)
Note Change in the units of measurement of a quantity does not change the number of significant figures.
Further given that,
l = 50.0 cm (three significant figures)
m = 25 gm (two significant figures)
π = 3.14 exact (infinite significant figures)
m m
ρ= = 2
V πr l
25
=
( 3.14 )( 0.250)( 0.250)( 50.0)
= 2.5477 g /cm 3
But in the measured values, least number of significant figures are two. Hence, we will round off
the result to two significant figures.
∴ ρ = 2.5 g /cm 3 Ans.

INTRODUCTORY EXERCISE 2.4

1. Round to the appropriate number of significant digits
(a) 13.214 + 234.6 + 7.0350 + 6.38
(b) 1247 + 134.5 + 450 + 78
2. Simplify and round to the appropriate number of significant digits
(a) 16.235 × 0.217 × 5
(b) 0.00435 × 4.6
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 19

2.5 Error Analysis

We have studied in the above articles that no measurement is perfect. Every instrument can measure
upto a certain accuracy called Least Count (LC).
Least Count
The smallest measurement that can be measured accurately by an instrument is called its least count.
Instrument Its least count
mm scale 1 mm
Vernier callipers 0.1 mm
Screw gauge 0.01 mm
Stop watch 0.1 sec
Temperature thermometer 1°C

Permissible Error due to Least Count

Error in measurement due to the limitation (or least count) of the instrument is called permissible
error. Least count of a millimeter scale is 1 mm. Therefore, maximum permissible error in the
measurement of a length by a millimeter scale may be 1 mm.
If we measure a length l = 26 mm. Then, maximum value of true value may be (26 + 1) mm = 27 mm
and minimum value of true value may be (26 − 1) mm = 25 mm.
Thus, we can write it like,
l = (26 ± 1) mm
If from any other instrument we measure a length = 24.6 mm, then the maximum permissible error
(or least count) from this instrument is 0.1 mm. So, we can write the measurement like,
l = (24.6 ± 0.1) mm
Classification of Errors
Errors can be classified in two ways. First classification is based on the cause of error. Systematic
error and random errors fall in this group. Second classification is based on the magnitude of errors.
Absolute error, mean absolute error and relative (or fractional) error lie on this group. Now, let us
discuss them separately.
Systematic Error
Systematic errors are the errors whose causes are known to us. Such errors can therefore be
minimised. Following are few causes of these errors :
(a) Instrumental errors may be due to erroneous instruments. These errors can be reduced by using
more accurate instruments and applying zero correction, when required.
(b) Sometimes errors arise on account of ignoring certain facts. For example in measuring time period
of simple pendulum error may creep because no consideration is taken of air resistance. These
errors can be reduced by applying proper corrections to the formula used.
(c) Change in temperature, pressure, humidity, etc., may also sometimes cause errors in the result.
Relevant corrections can be made to minimise their effects.
20 — Mechanics - I

Random Error
The causes of random errors are not known. Hence, it is not possible to remove them completely.
These errors may arise due to a variety of reasons. For example the reading of a sensitive beam
balance may change by the vibrations caused in the building due to persons moving in the laboratory
or vehicles running nearby. The random errors can be minimized by repeating the observation a large
number of times and taking the arithmetic mean of all the observations. The mean value would be
very close to the most accurate reading. Thus,
a + a 2 +… + a n
a mean = 1
n
Absolute Error
The difference between the true value and the measured value of a quantity is called an absolute error.
Usually the mean value a m is taken as the true value. So, if
a1 + a 2 + … + a n
am =
n
Then by definition, absolute errors in the measured values of the quantity are,
∆a1 = a m − a1
∆a 2 = a m − a 2
… … …
∆a n = a m − a n
Absolute error may be positive or negative.
Mean Absolute Error
Arithmetic mean of the magnitudes of absolute errors in all the measurements is called the mean
absolute error. Thus,
| ∆ a1 | + | ∆ a 2 | +… + | ∆a n |
∆a mean =
n
The final result of measurement can be written as, a = a m ± ∆a mean
This implies that value of a is likely to lie between a m + ∆a mean and a m − ∆a mean .

Relative or Fractional Error

The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured is called relative or
fractional error. Thus,
∆a mean
Relative error =
am
Relative error expressed in percentage is called as the percentage error, i.e.
∆a mean
Percentage error = × 100
am
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 21

V Example 2.11 The diameter of a wire as measured by screw gauge was found
to be 2.620, 2.625, 2.630, 2.628 and 2.626 cm. Calculate
(a) mean value of diameter (b) absolute error in each measurement
(c) mean absolute error (d) fractional error
(e) percentage error (f) Express the result in terms of percentage error
Solution (a) Mean value of diameter
2.620 + 2.625 + 2.630 + 2.628 + 2.626
am =
5
= 2.6258 cm
= 2.626 cm (rounding off to three decimal places)
(b) Taking a m as the true value, the absolute errors in different observations are,
∆a1 = 2.626 – 2.620 = + 0.006 cm
∆a 2 = 2.626 – 2.625 = + 0.001cm
∆a 3 = 2.626 – 2.630 = – 0.004 cm
∆a 4 = 2.626 – 2.628 = – 0.002 cm
∆a 5 = 2.626 – 2.626 = 0.000 cm
(c) Mean absolute error,
| ∆a1 | + | ∆a 2 | + | ∆a 3 | + | ∆a 4 | + | ∆a 5 |
∆a mean =
5
0.006 + 0.001 + 0.004 + 0.002 + 0.000
=
5
= 0.0026 = 0.003 (rounding off to three decimal places)
∆a mean ± 0.003
(d) Fractional error = ± = = ± 0.001
am 2.626
(e) Percentage error = ± 0.001 × 100 = ± 0.1%
(f) Diameter of wire can be written as,
d = 2.626 ± 0.1%

Combination of Errors
Errors in Sum or Difference
Let x = a ± b
Further, let ∆a is the absolute error in the measurement of a, ∆b the absolute error in the measurement
of b and ∆x is the absolute error in the measurement of x.
Then, x + ∆ x = ( a ± ∆ a ) ± ( b ± ∆ b)
= ( a ± b) ± ( ± ∆ a ± ∆ b)
= x ± ( ± ∆ a ± ∆ b)
or ∆x = ± ∆a ± ∆b
The four possible values of ∆x are ( ∆a − ∆b), ( ∆a + ∆b), ( −∆a − ∆b) and ( −∆a + ∆b).
22 — Mechanics - I

Therefore, the maximum absolute error in x is,

∆ x = ± ( ∆ a + ∆ b)
i.e. the maximum absolute error in sum and difference of two quantities is equal to sum of the absolute
errors in the individual quantities.

V Example 2.12 The volumes of two bodies are measured to be

V1 = (10.2 ± 0.02) cm3 and V2 = (6.4 ± 0.01) cm3 . Calculate sum and difference in
volumes with error limits.
Solution V1 = (10.2 ± 0.02) cm 3
and V2 = (6.4 ± 0.01) cm 3
∆V = ± ( ∆V1 + ∆V2 )
= ± (0.02 + 0.01) cm 3 = ± 0.03 cm 3
V1 + V2 = (10.2 + 6.4 ) cm 3 = 16.6 cm 3
and V1 − V2 = (10.2 − 6.4 ) cm 3 = 3.8 cm 3
Hence, sum of volumes = (16.6 ± 0.03) cm 3
and difference of volumes = (3.8 ± 0.03) cm 3

Errors in a Product
Let x = ab
Then, ( x ± ∆ x ) = ( a ± ∆ a ) ( b ± ∆ b)
 ∆x   ∆a   ∆b 
or x 1 ±  = ab 1 ±  1 ± 
 x   a   b
∆x ∆b ∆a ∆a ∆b
or 1± =1 ± ± ± ⋅ (as x = ab)
x b a a b
∆x ∆a ∆b ∆a ∆b
or ± =± ± ± ⋅
x a b a b
∆a ∆b
Here, ⋅ is a small quantity, so can be neglected.
a b
∆x ∆a ∆b
Hence, ± =± ±
x a b
∆x  ∆a ∆b   ∆a ∆b   ∆a ∆b   ∆a ∆b 
Possible values of are  + , −  , − +  and  − − .
x  a b  a b  a b  a b
Hence, maximum possible value of
∆x  ∆a ∆b 
=± + 
x  a b
Therefore, maximum fractional error in product of two (or more) quantities is equal to sum of
fractional errors in the individual quantities.
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 23

Errors in Division
a
Let x=
b
a ± ∆a
Then, x ± ∆x =
b ± ∆b
 ∆a 
a 1 ± 
 ∆x   a 
or x 1 ± =
 x   ∆b 
b 1 ± 
 b
–1
 ∆x   ∆a   ∆b   a
or 1 ±  = 1 ±  1 ±   as x = 
 x   a   b  b
∆b
As < <1, so expanding binomially, we get
b
1 ± ∆x = 1 ± ∆a  1 m ∆b 
     
 x  a  b
∆x ∆a ∆b ∆a ∆b
or 1± =1 ± + ± ⋅
x a b a b
∆a ∆b
Here, ⋅ is small quantity, so can be neglected. Therefore,
a b
∆x ∆a ∆b
± =± +
x a b
∆x  ∆a ∆b   ∆a ∆b   ∆a ∆b   ∆a ∆b 
Possible values of are  − ,  +  , – −  and  – +  . Therefore, the
x  a b  a b  a b  a b
maximum value of
∆x  ∆a ∆b 
=± + 
x  a b
or the maximum value of fractional error in division of two quantities is equal to the sum of fractional
errors in the individual quantities.
Error in Quantity Raised to Some Power
an
Let, x = . Then, ln ( x ) = n ln ( a ) − m ln (b)
bm
Differentiating both sides, we get
dx da db
= n⋅ −m
x a b
In terms of fractional error we may write,
∆x ∆a ∆b
± =±n +m
x a b
24 — Mechanics - I

Therefore, maximum value of

∆x  ∆a ∆b 
= ± n +m 
x  a b

Note Errors in product and division can also be obtained by taking logarithm on both sides in x = ab or x = 
a
 b
and then differentiating.

V Example 2.13 The mass and density of a solid sphere are measured to be
(12.4 ± 0.1) kg and (4.6 ± 0.2) kg/m3 . Calculate the volume of the sphere with
error limits.
Solution Here, m ± ∆m = (12.4 ± 0.1) kg
and ρ ± ∆ρ = ( 4.6 ± 0.2) kg /m 3
m 12.4
Volume V= =
ρ 4.6
= 2.69 m 3 = 2.7 m 3 (rounding off to one decimal place)
∆V  ∆m ∆ρ
Now, =± + 
V  m ρ
 ∆m ∆ρ
or ∆V = ±  +  ×V
 m ρ

= ± 
0.1 0.2
+  × 2.7 = ± 0.14
 12.4 4.6
∴ V ± ∆V = (2.7 ± 0.14) m 3

V Example 2.14 Calculate percentage error in determination of time period of a

pendulum
l
T = 2π
g
where, l and g are measured with ± 1% and ± 2% .
l
Solution T = 2π
g
or T = ( 2π ) ( l ) +1/ 2 ( g ) −1/ 2
Taking logarithm of both sides, we have

(ln l ) −   ln ( g )
1 1
ln (T ) = ln ( 2π ) + ...(i)
2  2
Here, 2π is a constant, therefore ln ( 2π ) is also a constant.
Differentiating Eq. (i), we have
1  1
dT = 0 +   ( dl ) −   ( dg )
1 1 1
T 2  l 2  g
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 25

 dT   1 dl 1 dg 
or   = maximum value of  ± m 
 T  max  2 l 2 g
1  dl 1  dg 
=  +  
2 l 2 g 
This can also be written as
 ∆T × 100 1 ∆l 1  ∆g 
  =  × 100 +  × 100
 T  max 2  l  2 g 
or percentage error in time period

= ±  (percentage error in l ) + ( percentage error in g )

1 1
2 2 

= ±  × 1 + × 2 = ± 1.5%
1 1
Ans.
 2 2 

Final Touch Points

Order of Magnitude In physics, a number of times we come across quantities which vary over a
wide range. For example, size of universe, mass of sun, radius of a nucleus etc. In this case, we use
the powers of ten method. In this method, each number is expressed as n × 10m , where1 ≤ n ≤ 10 and
m is a positive or negative integer.If n is less than or equal to 5, then order of number is 10m and
if n is greater than 5 then order of number is10m + 1.
For example, diameter of the sun is1.39 × 109 m. Therefore, the diameter of the sun is of the order of
109 m as n or 1.39 ≤ 5.
Solved Examples
V Example 1 Round off 0.07284 to four, three and two significant digits.
Solution 0.07284 (four significant digits)
0.0728 (three significant digits)
0.073 (two significant digits)

V Example 2 Round off 231.45 to four, three and two significant digits.
Solution 231.5 (four significant digits)
231 (three significant digits)
230 (two significant digits)

V Example 3 Three measurements are a = 483, b = 73.67 and c = 15.67. Find the
ab
value to correct significant figures.
c
ab 483 × 73.67
Solution =
c 15.67
= 2270.7472
= 2.27 × 103 Ans.

Note The result is rounded off to least number of significant figures in the given measurement i.e. 3 (in 483 ).

V Example 4 Three measurements are, a = 25.6, b = 21.1 and c = 2.43. Find the
value a − b − c to correct significant figures.
Solution a − b − c = 25.6 − 21.1 − 2.43
= 2.07 = 2.1 Ans.

Note In the measurements, least number of significant digits after the decimal is one (in 25.6 and 21.1 ). Hence,
the result will also be rounded off to one decimal place.

V Example 5 A thin wire has a length of 21.7 cm and radius 0.46 mm. Calculate
the volume of the wire to correct significant figures.
Solution Given, l = 21.7 cm, r = 0.46 mm = 0.046 cm
Volume of wire V = πr 2l
22
= (0.046)2 (21.7)
7
= 0.1443 cm3 = 0.14 cm3
Note The result is rounded off to least number of significant figures in the given measurements i.e.
2 (in 0.46 mm).
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 27

V Example 6 The radius of a sphere is measured to be (1.2 ± 0.2 ) cm. Calculate its
volume with error limits.
4 3 4  22
Solution Volume, V = πr =   (1.2)3
3 3 7
= 7.24 cm3 = 7.2 cm3
∆V  ∆r 
Further, =3 
V  r
 ∆r  3 × 0.2 × 7.2
∴ ∆V = 3   V =
 r 1.2
= 3.6 cm3
∴ V = (7.2 ± 3.6) cm3

V Example 7 Calculate equivalent resistance of two resistors R1 and R2 in

parallel where, R1 = ( 6 ± 0.2) ohm and R2 = ( 3 ± 0.1) ohm
Solution In parallel,
1 1 1
= + ...(i)
R R1 R2
R1R2 (6)(3)
or, R= = = 2 ohm
R1 + R2 6 + 3
Differentiating Eq. (i), we have
dR dR dR
− = − 21 − 22
R2 R1 R2
Therefore, maximum permissible error in equivalent resistance may be
 ∆R ∆R 
∆R =  21 + 22 (R2)
 R1 R2 
Substituting the values we get,
 0.2 0.1  2
∆R =  2 +  (2)
 (6) (3)2 
= 0.07 ohm
∴ R = (2 ± 0.07) ohm Ans.
Exercises
Objective Questions
Single Correct Option
1. The number of significant figures in 3400 is
(a) 3 (b) 1
(c) 4 (d) 2
2. The significant figures in the number 6.0023 are
(a) 2 (b) 5
(c) 4 (d) 3
3. The length and breadth of a metal sheet are 3.124 m and 3.002 m respectively. The area of this
sheet upto correct significant figure is
(a) 9.378 m2 (b) 9.37 m2
(c) 9.4 m2 (d) None of these
4. The length, breadth and thickness of a block are given by l = 12 cm, b = 6 cm and t = 2.45 cm.
The volume of the block according to the idea of significant figures should be
(a) 1 × 102 cm3 (b) 2 × 102 cm3
(c) 1.763 × 102 cm3 (d) None of these
5. If error in measurement of radius of a sphere is 1%, what will be the error in measurement of
volume?
1
(a) 1% (b) %
3
(c) 3% (d) None of these
6. The density of a cube is measured by measuring its mass and length of its sides. If the
maximum error in the measurement of mass and length are 4% and 3% respectively, the
maximum error in the measurement of density will be
(a) 7% (b) 9%
(c) 12% (d) 13%
7. Percentage error in the measurement of mass and speed are 2% and 3% respectively. The error
in the measurement of kinetic energy obtained by measuring mass and speed will be
(a) 12% (b) 10%
(c) 8% (d) 5%
8. A force F is applied on a square plate of side L. If the percentage error in the determination of L
is 2% and that in F is 4%. What is the permissible error in pressure?
(a) 8% (b) 6% (c) 4% (d) 2%
9. The heat generated in a circuit is dependent upon the resistance, current and time for which
the current is flown. If the error in measuring the above are 1%, 2% and 1% respectively, then
maximum error in measuring the heat is
(a) 8% (b) 6% (c) 18% (d) 12%
 Chapter 2 Measurement and Errors — 29

10. Let g be the acceleration due to gravity at the earth’s surface and K the rotational kinetic
energy of the earth. Suppose the earth’s radius decreases by 2%. Keeping all other quantities
constant, then
(a) g increases by 2% and K increases by 2%
(b) g increases by 4% and K increases by 4%
(c) g decreases by 4% and K decreases by 2%
(d) g decreases by 2% and K decreases by 4%
11. A physical quantity A is dependent on other four physical quantities p, q, r and s as given by
pq
A= . The percentage error of measurement in p, q, r and s are 1%, 3%, 0.5% and 0.33%
2 3
r s
respectively, then the maximum percentage error in A is
(a) 2% (b) 0%
(c) 4% (d) 3%
12. The length of a simple pendulum is about 100 cm known to have an accuracy of 1 mm. Its period
of oscillation is 2 s determined by measuring the time for 100 oscillations using a clock of 0.1 s
resolution. What is the accuracy in the determined value of g?
(a) 0.2% (b) 0.5%
(c) 0.1% (d) 2%
13. The mass of a ball is 1.76 kg. The mass of 25 such balls is
(a) 0.44 × 103 kg (b) 44.0 kg
(c) 44 kg (d) 44.00 kg
14. The least count of a stop watch is 0.2 s. The time of 20 oscillations of a pendulum is measured to
be 25 s. The percentage error in the time period is
(a) 1.2 % (b) 0.8 %
(c) 1.8 % (d) None of these

Subjective Questions
1. Write down the number of significant figures in the following
(a) 6428 (b) 62.00 m
(c) 0.00628 cm (d) 1200 N
2. Write the number of significant digits in the following
(a) 1001 (b) 100.1
(c) 100.10 (d) 0.001001
3. State the number of significant figures in the following
(a) 0.007 m2 (b) 2.64 × 1024 kg (c) 0.2370 g/cm−3
4. Round the following numbers to 2 significant digits
(a) 3472 (b) 84.16
(c) 2.55 (d) 28.5
5. Perform the following operations
(a) 703 + 7 + 0.66 (b) 2.21 × 0.3 (c) 12.4 × 84
6. Add 6.75 × 10 cm to 4.52 × 10 cm with regard to significant figures.
3 2

25.2 × 1374
7. Evaluate . All the digits in this expression are significant.
33.3
30 — Mechanics - I

8. Solve with due regards to significant figures

( 4.0 × 10−4 − 2.5 × 10−6 )
9. The mass of a box measured by a grocer's balance is 2.300 kg. Two gold pieces of masses 20.15 g
and 20.17 g are added to the box. What is (a) the total mass of the box, (b) the difference in the
masses of the pieces to correct significant figures ?
10. A thin wire has length of 21.7 cm and radius 0.46 mm. Calculate the volume of the wire to
correct significant figures.
11. A cube has a side of length 2.342 m. Find volume and surface area in correct significant figures.
12. Find density when a mass of 9.23 kg occupies a volume of 1.1 m3 . Take care of significant
figures.
13. Length, breadth and thickness of a rectangular slab are 4.234 m, 1.005 m and 2.01 m
respectively. Find volume of the slab to correct significant figures.
14. The radius of a sphere is measured to be ( 2.1 ± 0.5 ) cm. Calculate its surface area with error
limits.
15. The temperature of two bodies measured by a thermometer are ( 20 ± 0.5)° C and ( 50 ± 0.5)° C.
Calculate the temperature difference with error limits.
V
16. The resistance R = , where V = (100 ± 5.0) V and I = (10 ± 0.2) A. Find the percentage error
I
in R.
π r 2R
17. Find the percentage error in specific resistance given by ρ = where r is the radius having
l
value ( 0.2 ± 0.02 ) cm , R is the resistance of ( 60 ± 2) ohm and l is the length of (150 ± 0.1 ) cm.
18. A physical quantity ρ is related to four variables α , β , γ and η as
α3 β 2
ρ=
η γ
The percentage errors of measurements in α , β , γ and η are 1%, 3%, 4% and 2% respectively. Find
the percentage error in ρ.
19. The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T = 2π L/ g. Measured value of L is 20.0 cm
known to 1 mm accuracy and time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is found to be 90 s using
a wrist watch of 1s resolution. What is the accuracy in the determination of g ?
 Answers
Introductory Exercise 2.1
1. (a) 0.01 cm (b) 3
(c) 6 and 2 are absolutely correct and 4 is doubtful.
2. (a) 0.001 cm (b) 4
(c) 3, 2 and 6 are absolutely correct and 7 is doubtful.

Introductory Exercise 2.2

1. (a) 4 (b) 2 (c) 2 (d) 4
(e) 6 (f) 4

Introductory Exercise 2.3

1. (a) 24600 (b) 24.9 (c) 36.4 (d) 42.4 × 10 9
2. 742400, 742000, 740000

Introductory Exercise 2.4

1. (a) 261.2 (b) 1910 2. (a) 20 (b) 0.020

Exercises
Objective Questions
1. (d) 2. (b) 3. (a) 4. (b) 5. (c) 6. (d) 7. (c) 8. (a) 9. (b) 10. (b)
11. (c) 12. (a) 13. (b) 14. (b)

Subjective Questions
1. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 3 (d) 2 2. (a) 4 (b) 4 (c) 5 (d) 4
3. (a) 1 (b) 3 (c) 4 4. (a) 3500 (b) 84 (c) 2.6 (d) 28
5. (a) 711 (b) 0.7 (c) 1.0 × 103 6. 7.20 × 103 cm
7. 1040 8. 4.0 × 10 −4
9. (a) 2.3 kg (b) 0.02 gm 10. 0.14 cm3
11. Area = 5.485 m2 , Volume = 12.85 m3 12. Density = 8.4 kg/m3
13. Volume = 8.55 m3 14. (55.4 ± 26.4) cm2
15. (30 ± 1)° C 16. 7%
17. 23.4 % 18. 13%
19. 2.7 %