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4 views

text-4D4F-BCB1-45-0

Uploaded by

xczx5wyxqf
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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1.

States of Matter

Solids, Liquids, and Gases

• Solids: Fixed shape and volume, particles are closely packed and
vibrate in fixed positions. Examples: Ice, iron.
• Liquids: Fixed volume but take the shape of the container, particles
are close but can slide past each other. Examples: Water, oil.
• Gases: No fixed shape or volume, particles move freely and are far
apart. Examples: Oxygen, carbon dioxide.

Interconversion of States

• Melting: Solid to liquid (e.g., ice to water).


• Freezing: Liquid to solid (e.g., water to ice).
• Boiling: Liquid to gas at boiling point (e.g., water to steam).
• Evaporation: Liquid to gas below boiling point.
• Condensation: Gas to liquid (e.g., steam to water).
• Sublimation: Solid directly to gas (e.g., dry ice to carbon dioxide
gas).

Diffusion

• The movement of particles from a region of high concentration to low


concentration.
• Occurs faster in gases than in liquids and is negligible in solids.

Relative Molecular Mass (Mr)

• Sum of the relative atomic masses of all atoms in a molecule.


• Example: Mr of H₂O = (2 × 1) + (1 × 16) = 18.

2. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures

Definitions

• Element: A pure substance made of one type of atom. Example: Oxygen


(O₂).
• Compound: A substance made of two or more elements chemically combined.
Example: Water (H₂O).
• Mixture: Two or more substances physically combined, retaining
individual properties. Example: Air.

Experimental Techniques

• Filtration:
• Used to separate insoluble solids from liquids.
• Apparatus: Filter paper and funnel.
• Example: Sand from water.
• Crystallisation:
• Used to obtain pure solid crystals from a solution.
• Steps: Heat the solution to evaporate water → Cool → Crystals form.
• Example: Obtaining salt from seawater.
• Simple Distillation:
• Used to separate a solvent from a solution.
• Apparatus: Distillation flask, condenser, thermometer.
• Example: Purifying water from saltwater.
• Fractional Distillation:
• Used to separate miscible liquids with different boiling points.
• Apparatus: Fractionating column, distillation setup.
• Example: Separating ethanol from water.

3. Lab Apparatus and Their Uses

1. Beaker: For holding and mixing liquids.


2. Conical Flask: Used to mix chemicals, especially during titrations.
3. Measuring Cylinder: For measuring specific volumes of liquids.
4. Test Tube: Small-scale experiments and reactions.
5. Bunsen Burner: Heating substances.
6. Thermometer: Measuring temperature.
7. Pipette: Measuring and transferring precise volumes of liquids.
8. Burette: Delivering precise volumes during titrations.
9. Funnel: For filtration and transferring liquids.
10. Watch Glass: Holding small amounts of substances or for evaporation

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