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Effects of Intensified Military Field Training on Jumping Performance

Article in International Journal of Sports Medicine · February 2008

DOI: 10.1055/s-2007-964970 · Source: PubMed

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 Training & Testing

Effects of Intensified Military Field Training on

Jumping Performance

Authors T. T. Welsh 1, J. A. Alemany 1, S. J. Montain 2, P. N. Frykman 1, A. P. Tuckow 1, A. J. Young 2, B. C. Nindl 1

1
Affiliations Military Performance Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA, USA
2
Military Nutrition Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine, Natick, MA, USA

Key words Abstract height (m) and power (W) were highest using
" soldier
l ! 1 UJ and declined 4.9 and 8.9%, respectively after
" physical performance
l A sensitive, reliable, field-expedient test may be SUSOPS. Jump power (JP) declined progressively
" energy restriction
l
" military
valuable for monitoring interventions during pe- over 30 UJ (20%). Five UJ offered no advantages
l
riods of anticipated physical performance de- over 1 UJ and was inadequate to examine changes
cline. The purpose of this study was to determine in muscle fatigability (pre: 1294 ± 138 W; post:
the capabilities of unloaded jumping tests for de- 1250 ± 165 W). The SM and a LPT were in agree-
tecting decrements in physical performance fol- ment and had a high correlation (r = 0.92). One
lowing eight days of military sustained opera- UJ was a sensitive, easy to implement test for
tions. Twenty-nine U. S. Marines (24 ± 1 y; 180 ± monitoring the collective impact of high physical,
6 cm; 82.5 ± 8.2 kg) performed 1, 5 and 30 repeti- nutritional, cognitive, and environmental stress
tion(s) of unloaded countermovement jumps (UJ) on an individuals’ physical performance before
before and after eight days of sustained opera- and after 8 days of SUSOPS, suggesting decre-
tions (SUSOPS). Jump performance data was col- ments in physical performance associated with
lected simultaneously using a switch mat (SM) overreaching can be detected by simply adminis-
and a linear position transducer (LPT). Jump tered field-expedient jumping tests.

Introduction sessment of physical performance, tests should

! have a low skill component, be safe, be reproduc-
While there are an array of tests available for the ible, and should be transportable [12,16]. Based
assessment of physical performance, there are on these criteria, we reasoned that a jumping test
many drawbacks that preclude their use in the would have merit as a field-expedient physical
field (away from a laboratory environment) or performance test.
when testing a large number of individuals. In- Recently, our laboratory has examined the effects
herent in many physical performance tests are: of short periods (72 h) of military sustained oper-
accepted after revision
high degrees of skill component and/or technique ations characterized by near-continuous physical
October 10, 2006
(e.g., maximal lifting capacity, Olympic lifts), spe- activity, nutritional stress, cognitive stress, and
Bibliography cialized equipment requirements (e.g., isokinetic environmental stress, on various measures of
DOI 10.1055/s-2007-964970 strength), limited portability (e.g., cycle ergom- physical performance [24]. Nindl et al. [24] de-
Published online 2007
eter), insufficient sensitivities (e.g., hand grip veloped a test using 30 repetitions at 30 % of 1-
Int J Sports Med © Georg Thie-
me Verlag KG Stuttgart • strength) or large within or between subject var- repetition maximum (1-RM) for both the lower-
New York • ISSN 0172-4622 iability, which make modest changes in physical (squat jumps) and upper-body (bench throws)
performance (e.g., distance running) difficult to and reported that following 72 h of military op-
Correspondence
Bradley Charles Nindl, PhD detect. An additional disadvantage of some tests erational field training, squat jump power and
Military Performance Division is that they are fatiguing or too difficult to per- work declined ~ 9 and 15%, respectively, while
U.S. Army Research Institute of form and thus would further reduce an individu- upper-body performance was not affected. These
Envionmental Medicine
42 Kansas St al’s performance. These collective limitations results indicated that short periods of military
Natick, MA 01760 warrant investigation into field-expedient tests operational field training produced decrements
USA that are sensitive and practical when evaluating in lower-body physical performance. The squat
Phone: + 50 82 33 53 82
Fax: + 50 82 33 41 95 the effects of various training/dietary interven- jump test utilized in our previous study was con-
[email protected] tions. It has been recommended that for the as- ducted under loaded conditions (30% back squat

Welsh TT et al. Effects of Intensified … Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing

1-RM) and involved performing 30 continuous countermove- Methods

ment squat jump repetitions. The collective stress may result in !
an “overreached” state, which may be defined as a short-term Subjects
decrement in physical performance in which performance is Twenty-nine U.S. Marines (age 24 ± 1 y; height 180 ± 6 cm; body
compromised for days or weeks, returning to baseline thereafter, mass 82.5 ± 8.2 kg) attending the Infantry Officer Course volun-
[1]. Previous investigations from Nindl et al. [23] has demon- teered to participate in an investigation examining the impact of
strated that simulated power clean and vertical jump perfor- diet on physical performance. Physical performance tests used in
mance are compromised following eight weeks of U.S. Army the current investigation were part of a larger investigation [24].
Ranger training, but recovers within five weeks post-training. Human subjects participated in these studies after giving their
However, for the purposes of this study, we will limit the term free and informed voluntary consent. The Marines were briefed
overreaching to decrements in lower-body performance follow- on the experiment and risks of participation. The investigators
ing eight days of military field training. have adhered to the policies for protection of human subjects as
In an effort to enhance our laboratory’s mobility and reduce lo- prescribed in Army Regulation 70 – 25, and the research was
gistical strain, this current investigation examined performance conducted in adherence with the provisions of 45 CFR Part 46.
of a similar exercise test under unloaded conditions and various
repetitions (1, 5, or 30 repetitions) and its ability to detect Experimental design
changes caused by military operational field training. An un- Unloaded countermovement jumps were used to assess physical
loaded countermovement jump test was selected, as it would performance before and after the Marines participated in eight
enhance the field expedience of the test by reducing equipment days of military operational field training. Physical activities in-
needs and improving transportability. Single and repetitive (5 cluded carrying equipment (~ 20 kg), wearing loaded backpacks,
and 30 jumps) jump tests were selected in an effort to identify handling weapons and ammunition and patrols/marching. Dur-
the minimum number of jumps that would be required in order ing a 5-day Norwegian ranger training course, similar military
to detect differences during periods of intense physical military training activities have estimated V̇O2 to be approximately 35%
training. Hoffman et al. [16] have quantified that minimal prac- of V̇O2max [25]. Volunteers were tested one day before beginning
tice is needed when performing repetitive jumping with no load. this course and immediately following the end of the course. The
A single jump would be the most efficient to employ compared time from completion of the course to the beginning of post-
to a multiple jump test because of the greater throughput of test testing was less than three hours. This eight-day course was
subjects. Jump height for a single unloaded jump has also been used to develop leadership skills and assess each Marine’s ability
reported to decline following short- and long-term military op- to operate and lead during periods of stressful situations. The
erational field training [5,16, 21]. However, a single jump test military operational field training comprised such stressors as
solely provides a test of gross physical performance and may near-continuous activity, sleep disruption (total sleep: ~ 4 h/
not be indicative of anaerobic power or fatigability. Multiple day), cognitive stress and underfeeding (total caloric deficit:
jump tests may offer the potential to measure both maximal ~ 2300 kcal/day). These stressors have been quantified in pre-
power and fatigability within a single test. To date, the ideal vious literature pertaining to soldier physiology [5,11, 20, 24, 26].
number of repetitions for an unloaded test for the purpose of
being able to detect subtle performance changes remains an un- Jump performance testing
explored area of research. Subjects were familiarized with the countermovement jumps
Technology is commercially available to measure jumping abil- and equipment prior to testing. A countermovement jump was
ity in a cost effective, field-expedient manner. These systems al- selected due to its ability to be easily implemented and under-
low the evaluation of detailed kinematic data without the use of stood by the subjects rather than using a squat jump, which
a force platform. With an interest in field expediency, we eval- may require the volunteers to learn the squat movement. The
uated the capabilities of two systems to measure single and re- UJ tests included a single unloaded jump (1 UJ), 5 repetition un-
petitive jump performance. A linear position transducer used in loaded jump (5 UJ) and a 30 repetition unloaded jump (30 UJ).
conjunction with data acquisition software and a switch mat in- For pre- and post-testing, the order of completion for the jumping
terfaced with software to calculate jump performance can be protocols was 1 UJ, 5 UJ and the 30 UJ, each separated by three
used to collect jump performance data. minutes of standing recovery. The jump protocols were not
These systems are of lower cost and provide greater transport- counterbalanced or randomized, but kept consistent for both
ability compared to a force platform. However, the linear posi- pre- and post-testing. The rationale for this was to enhance the
tion transducer and switch mat have not been directly compared throughput of volunteers. For the 5 UJ and 30 UJ tests, the sub-
even though, independently, each method has been shown to be jects were instructed and encouraged to jump as high as possible
a valid and reliable measurement system to assess physical per- on each jump until completion of the jumps. Maximal effort was
formance [4, 6]. The purpose of the current investigation was to emphasized during the multiple jump tests in an effort to reduce
1) examine the utility of using single and multiple jump tests to pacing during the jumping tests. The depth of the countermove-
detect decrements in physical performance associated with ment was self-selected. The subjects wore shorts, t-shirts, socks,
overreaching, and 2) determine agreement between two differ- and athletic shoes during all tests. Although the subjects were
ent physical performance testing devices for the purposes of re- jumping with a load (body weight), for the purposes of this
peated jumping. study, unloaded refers to no additional load applied to the sub-
jects other than body weight.
During the countermovement jump maneuvers, the subjects
held a wooden rod (~ 0.5 kg) across their upper trapezius/poste-
rior deltoid muscles. This bar placement was similar to the
placement of a barbell while performing a back squat. There

Welsh TT et al. Effects of Intensified … Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing

tact and flight time to an accuracy of 1 ms. Jump power and

height can be calculated from known variables: body mass, grav-
ity, contact time and flight time on the switch mat.
The manufacturer has used the equation developed by Harman
et al. to calculate jump height and power [14]. The flight time
was used to estimate jump height, which in turn is entered into
an equation that estimates jump power. Hoffman et al. [16] re-
ported that similar SM technology was reliable in assessing ver-
tical jump height and anaerobic power using a 30 jump un-
loaded jumping protocol. Across three trials, the intra-class reli-
ability was 0.96 for a 30 jump unloaded test and for all three tri-
als, Pearson product moment correlations were all r > 0.90. These
results indicated, during unloaded jumping tests, minimal or no
practice is needed and improvements due to learning do not ap-
pear to occur. According to the manufacturer, the error for the
variable displacement for the LPT being measured was approxi-
Fig. 1 Architectural design of the field-expedient jumping apparati. The mately 1.5 mm and 8 mm different from the actual distances of
linear position transducer (LPT) is the black box suspended over head with 0.7 m and 1.6 m. Similarly, the accuracy and precision of the LPT
its cable extending to the floor. This cable was attached to a wooden rod were no worse than 0.5 % with the majority of measures being
that was placed and held on the subject’s soldiers during jumping. The
0.2 % or better.
switch mat (SM) is pictured on the floor. Data was collected simultane-
Jump power was calculated from jump height and body mass us-
ously for both measurement systems. All of the data collection was gath-
ered on the computer systems pictured to the left of the photograph. ing validated equations [14]. For the 30 UJ, a fatigue index was
calculated. The relative difference between the average of the
first and last five jumps was used to calculate the fatigue index.
This technique is similar to assessing relative performance dec-
was a cable that extended from the LPT connected to the rod. rements over 30 seconds for the Wingate cycle ergometer test
Body position was recorded from the displacement of the wood- [27].
en rod relative to a LPT suspended overhead. Subjects were in- Flight time was determined for the LPT in order to make a direct
structed not to move the bar on their back. The LPT required the comparison with the SM. Time and displacement data measured
volunteer to “zero position” the instrument. This is an arbitrary by the LPT were transferred to a spreadsheet where jump height,
position above which displacement will be positive and below jump power and flight time were determined by using a custom
which it will be negative. Thus, it represented the theoretical macro that searched the data from the LPT. The macro was used
point at which it was last in contact with the ground. According to find the differences of takeoff and landing point for each jump.
to the manufacturer, for vertical jump, the zero position is best These points corresponded to the zero displacement position
set for the subject standing erect on the tips of the toes. The best that was defined by having the subject in a fully plantar flexed
indication of height jumped above this takeoff point. The SM did position and setting that position as the point of takeoff and
not require one to stand on their toes to determine this position. landing. LPT displacement was calibrated daily to a fixed known
Test administrators monitored if there was movement of the bar distance and the BMS was set to collect displacement data at
off or away from the shoulders. The cable displacement was 200 Hz. Flight time was calculated by subtracting the time of
measured from the LPT at 200 Hz by the Ballistic Measurement takeoff to the time of landing. Finally, LPT displacement data
System (Innervations, Inc., Fitness Technology, Skye, Australia). were used to determine jump height. Jump power for the LPT
The LPT produces electrical signals that are equivalent to the dis- was calculated using the same equations used by the SM. The
placement of the mass in motion. The BMS translates these elec- KMS software collected real-time data for the variables flight
trical signals (analog-to-digital) to real-time displacement [6, 8] time, jump height, and jump power.
Dugan et al. [8] has described the methods of how data is trans-
formed from the LPT to physical performance variables (i.e., Body composition
power). The LPT measured to an accuracy of 0.03 mm with a res- Body mass was measured using a floor scale (Seca Corp., Colum-
olution capable of 10 – 250 pulses per 2.5 cm. Utilization of a LPT bia, MD, USA) and percent body fat was assessed via dual energy
to measure jump performance has been shown to be valid [6] X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) using manufacturer supplied algo-
and have high test-retest reliability (intra-class correlations rithms (Total Body Analyses, version 3.6, Lunar Corp., Madison,
0.89 – 0.98) for repetitive loaded jump tests, suggesting minimal, WI, USA) before and after eight days of military operational field
if no practice is needed in order to obtain reliable results and training. Fat free and fat mass was calculated from body mass
eliminate any learning effects [1]. l" Fig. 1 shows the physical ap- and percent body fat measures [11,12]. The rationale for this cal-
prati of the testing systems and how both systems were used in culation and not using the measurements from DEXA has been
conjunction with one another. Use of the Kinematic Measure- described by Friedl et al. [12]. Total body water (n = 24) and daily
ment System (KMS; Fitness Technology, Skye, Australia) was energy expenditure (n = 12) were determined for a subset of
used simultaneously with the above-mentioned technology. Marines using the deuterated water and doubly labeled water
The KMS is a physical performance data acquisition program techniques, respectively [7]. Daily energy intake was calculated
that is interfaced with a switch mat (SM; Tapeswitch, Farming- from empty food wrappers collected daily. Empty food wrappers
dale, NY, USA). The switch mat was placed on a firm surface on were assumed the food item was entirely consumed by the sub-
the ground that detects when the subject was on (standing/re- ject.
bounding) or off (flight phase) the mat. The KMS measured con-

Welsh TT et al. Effects of Intensified … Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing

Statistics
Table 1 Change in body composition following the eight-day military opera-
Student’s t-test for dependent samples was used to examine the tional field training
effect of military operational field training on 30 UJ fatigue in-
dex, total body water, and body mass. Repeated measures analy- Pre Post % change
sis of variance (ANOVA; test × time) was used to compare differ- Body mass (kg) 83.1 ± 1.4 79.7 ± 1.3* – 4.1 ± 1.6 %
ences in jump power and jump height between the different Fat free mass (kg) 69.8 ± 1.2 68.2 ± 1.2* – 2.4 ± 1.2 %
tests and the effect of military operational field training and rep- Fat mass (kg) 13.3 ± 0.6 11.6 ± 0.6* – 12.7 ± 7.0 %
Total body water (L) 46.8 ± 3.2 47.5 ± 3.2 1.5 ± 0.4 %
etition number on 5 UJ and 30 UJ jump height and power. When
a comparison was significant, Tukey’s HSD post hoc analysis was *an asterisk denotes a statistical difference from pre- to post-military operational
used to determine where the significance occurred. Comparisons field training. Statistical significance was set at p £ 0.05
made between the SM and the LPT also used the Student’s t-test
for dependent samples. Pearson product moment correlation
was used to evaluate the association between the SM and LPT the 30 UJ was significantly lower following military operational
before and after military operational field training. Measure- field training (l" Fig. 2 d). There was no change in the fatigue in-

ment agreement between the SM and LPT was assessed accord- dex for flight time during the 5 UJ between the KMS and BMS be-
ing to the methods of Bland and Altman [2]. SM and LPT pre-5 UJ fore and after military field operational training (pre: BMS
data was used for the comparison between the SM and LPT, but – 1 ± 0.4 %, KMS – 5 ± 2.2% and post: BMS – 3 ± 1.1%, KMS
all other reported results were gathered from the LPT. The Kol- – 4 ± 0.2 %).
mogorov-Smirnov test and visual inspection of normal Q-Q plots The decline in jump power (as assessed by the LPT) over the 30
and detrended Q-Q were used to assess the normality of the repetitions is depicted in l " Fig. 3 a. The overall fatigue index re-

data. Box’s M tests of homogeneity assessed the homogeneity of mained unchanged pre- (– 18 ± 6%) to post- (– 20 ± 8%) military
the data. Ninety-five percent confidence intervals (CI) were cal- operational field training. At all points there was a lower mean
culated and are presented as a range (i.e., lower bound – upper power for each five repetition groups following military opera-
bound 95 % confidence intervals). Confidence intervals were cal- tional field training (l " Fig. 3 a). l" Fig. 3 b illustrates the decline

culated in order describe both measures of central tendency and in LPT jump power over the repetitions for 5 UJ. During the 5 UJ
variability, as well as better describe the likelihood of data occur- test, there was a loss of jump power by the third repetition, but
ring with a specified range [17]. Data reported as mean ± stan- no further jump power decline thereafter. l " Fig. 3 c represents

dard deviation (SD) with significance set at p < 0.05. the first repetition within each jumping scheme (i.e., first jump
in the series of 1, 5, and 30 UJ). There was a significant interac-
tion for the first jump in each jumping scheme. Main time effects
Results indicated a decline in jump height for the 1 UJ and 5 UJ following
! military operational field training, but not the 30 UJ. Increasing
Changes in body composition and total body water are reported the number of repetitions on the series led to lower initial values
in l
" Table 1. Average daily energy expenditure during the mili- of jump height (l " Fig. 3 c).

tary operational field training was 16.0 ± 0.8 MJ/day (3834 ± 200 A strong correlation was found between the SM and the LPT. In
kcal/day) and the average daily energy intake was 6.4 ± 1.3MJ/ addition, there was high agreement between the LPT and SM as
day (1540 ± 300 kcal/day). Body mass, fat mass and lean body indicated graphically in a Bland-Altman plot (l " Fig. 4 c). How-

mass declined significantly following military operational field ever, LPT pre 5 UJ jump height (37.2 ± 7.2 cm; CI: 35.9 – 40.9 cm)
training. Total body water was not significantly different be- and pre 5 UJ flight time (0.55 ± 0.04 s: 0.53 – 0.56 s) were signifi-
tween pre- and post-measurements. cantly greater compared to the SM pre-5 UJ jump height jump
height (32.4 ± 6.2 cm; CI: 28.5 – 34.6 cm) and pre-5 UJ flight time
Jump performance pre- to post-military operational (0.51 ± 0.04 s; CI: 0.48 – 0.53 s). Pearson product moment corre-
field training lation was performed on the 5 UJ for both pre- and post-military
Mean jump power for the LPT declined following military opera- operational field training. Both pre- and post-military operation-
tional field training for 1 UJ (pre: 1371 ± 159 W, CI: 1313 – 1451 W; al field training had strong correlations between the LPT and SM
post: 1249 ± 165 W, CI: 1178 – 1321 W); 5 UJ (pre: 1291 ± 89 W, for flight time: pre (r = 0.92: l " Fig. 4 a) and post (r = 0.89:

CI: 1223 – 1346 W; post: 1173 ± 94 W, CI: 1095 – 1294 W) and l" Fig. 4 b). Using the 5 UJ jump protocol, the relative change

30 UJ (pre: 1133 ± 204 W, CI 1054 – 1210 W; post: 1036 ± 125 W, (from pre to post) in the SM as compared to the relative change
CI: 950 – 1122 W; refer to l " Fig. 2 a). Mean jump height for LPT in the LPT were not correlated (r = 0.35; p = 0.06) for flight time.
declined from pre- to post-military operational field training for
1 UJ (pre: 40.2 ± 5.8 cm, CI: 38.0 – 42.4 cm; post: 38.1 ± 6.1 cm, CI:
35.8 – 40.5 cm) and 5 UJ (pre: 36.7 ± 4.7 cm, CI: 34.7 – 38.7 cm; Discussion
post: 35.0 ± 4.5 cm, CI: 32.4 – 36.5 cm), but not 30J (pre: 29.5 ± !
4.4 cm, CI: 37.6 – 34.4 cm; post: 28.1 ± 5.2 cm, CI: 25.8 – 30.3 cm; The primary purposes of this investigation were to examine the
l" Fig. 2 b). Jump height for the SM declined for 5 UJ (pre: utility of unloaded countermovement jump tests to monitor
38.0 ± 5.1 cm, CI: 35.2 – 40.2 cm; post: 36.4 ± 4.0 cm, CI: 33.5 – physical performance pre and post short-term military opera-
39.7 cm) and 30 UJ (pre: 35.2 ± 3.4 cm, CI: 31.9 – 37.7 cm; post: tional field training; the utility of singular and/or multiple repe-
34.2 ± 4.5 cm, CI: 30.4 – 36.7 cm), whereas 1 UJ was unaffected tition unloaded jumps for assessment of lower-body physical
(pre: 40.2 ± 3.1 cm, CI: 38.2 – 42.2 cm; post: 38.1 ± 4.1 cm, CI: performance; and lastly, to quantify the agreement between the
37.8 – 41.5 cm; refer to l " Fig. 2 c). Average flight time for the LPT and SM. Jumping was selected because of its simplicity [4],
1 UJ and 5 UJ was not significantly different following military reliability [1,16] and field expediency. The current investigation
operational field training. However, the average flight time over utilized several repetition schemes of unloaded jumping tests to

Welsh TT et al. Effects of Intensified … Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing

Fig. 2 a Mean power for the linear position transducer for the one, five
and thirty jumping schemes. *An asterisk denotes a statistical difference Fig. 2 b Mean jump height for the linear position transducer for the one,
from pre- to post-military operational field training. Statistical significance five, and thirty jumping schemes. *An asterisk denotes a statistical differ-
was set at p £ 0.05. ence from pre- to post-military operational field training. Statistical signifi-
cance was set at p £ 0.05.

Fig. 2 c Mean jump height while using the switch mat for the one, five Fig. 2 d Average flight time for the one, five and thirty jumping schemes
and thirty jumping schemes. An asterisk (*) denotes a statistical difference using the switch mat. An asterisk (*) denotes a statistical difference from
from pre- to post-military operational field training. Statistical significance pre- to post-military operational field training. Statistical significance was
was set at p £ 0.05. set at p £ 0.05.

evaluate their ability to detect changes in physical performance. ing. These results extend current knowledge and are in agree-
Eight days of military operational field training was chosen as an ment with previous literature [11,19 – 24] on the impact of mili-
experimental paradigm as performance decrements were antici- tary operational field training on physical performance.
pated based on past studies utilizing military populations being Jump performance in the 1 UJ, 5 UJ and 30 UJ protocols declined
exposed to similar compounding stressors [6, 20 – 24]. The pri- following eight days of military operational field training. One
mary finding of this investigation was that unloaded jump (i.e., repetition unloaded jump power and jump height decreased by
only jumping with body weight and no additional load) tests 8.9 ± 5.5 % and 4.9 ± 2.1%, respectively. Nindl et al. [24] demon-
are sufficiently sensitive to detect changes in lower-body physi- strated, following 72 h of military operational stress, loaded
cal performance associated with military operational field train- jump squat power declined by 9%. These findings agree with

Welsh TT et al. Effects of Intensified … Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing

Fig. 3 a Power for the linear position transducer thirty-jump scheme.

Repetitions are grouped into six groups of the average of five repetitions
(i.e., average of jumps 1 – 5). *An asterisk denotes a statistical difference at
all points following operational field training. Statistical significance was
set at p £ 0.05.

Fig. 4 a and b represent both pre- (3a) and post- (3b) military operation-
al field training to assess associations between linear position transducer
and the switch mat. Data presently depicted are for the five-jump scheme.

Fig. 3 b Mean jump power using the linear position transducer for the
five-jump protocol. Similar letter denote statistical similarity, while differ-
ent letters denote statistical differences. Statistical significance was set at
p £ 0.05.

Fig. 4 c A Bland-Altman plot depicting agreement of measurement be-

tween data acquisition devices while performing the five jump protocol
for flight time. The x-axis is the mean flight time of both the linear position
transducer and the switch mat. The y-axis is the absolute difference be-
tween the linear position transducer and switch mat.

Fig. 3 c Represents the first jump in each of the jumping schemes. Similar
letter denote statistical similarity, while different letters denote statistical
differences. Statistical significance was set at p £ 0.05.

Welsh TT et al. Effects of Intensified … Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing

other studies reporting impaired physical performance follow- The 5 UJ produced maximal values that were less than obtained
ing near-continuous physical activity, sleep deprivation and on 1 UJ test and apparently did not include a sufficient number
underfeeding [1, 5,19 – 24, 27]. However, the aforementioned of jumps to produce progressive fatigue over the five continuous
studies utilized techniques that were not field expedient. The jumps. Therefore, the 5 UJ test does not appear to be an ideal test
current findings may have relevance in populations other than to use as a basis for evaluating the value of training programs or
Soldiers (e.g., athletes, rehabilitation patients) when assessing other interventions that induce alterations in physical perfor-
the efficacy of exercise training and experimental interventions. mance (change pre-post; – 4.1 ± 2.1%). There appeared to be no
The highest maximal jump height and jump power were ob- advantages in using a 5 UJ test over a 1 UJ test for measuring low-
served with the 1 UJ test. We had hypothesized that the highest er body power in either a laboratory or field situation for the
jump height might occur after the first jump of the 5 UJ test. Pre- purposes of monitoring changes in physical performance during
vious research by Bosco et al. [3, 4] had suggested that the re- periods of multi-stressor, military operational paradigms.
bound from a previous jump could increase force and power dur- The near-continuous physical activity, sleep deprivation and
ing a countermovement jump [3]. However, this was not ob- underfeeding experienced by the Marines during the military
served in this study, as the highest jump height and power oc- operational field training did not produce significant decre-
curred on the first of the five jumps during the 5 UJ protocol. In ments in jump height for the 30 UJ. Rapid losses of body mass
accordance, the peak values for jump height fell progressively have previously been reported to mask small decrements in
during the 30 UJ. These results demonstrate that when maximal jump height [5,10]. Weight loss independent of muscle strength
power is desired, a single repetition test be used. and power loss would be expected to increase jump height since
Both jump power and height for the 30 UJ decreased following there is less of a load to overcome. Our current study suggests
military operations. Along with the loss in jump power and jump that although there was a significant loss in body mass and fat-
height was a progressive decline in power and height over the free mass it did not translate in performance decrements (jump
entire test. However, no differences between the pre- (18 ± 6%) height) during the 30 UJ.
and post- (20 ± 8%) fatigue index values for lower-body power There are several explanations for the loss of lower body muscle
were observed, suggesting that the collective stress associated power after eight days of the military operational field training.
with eight days of military operational field training did not alter One possibility is that the near-continuous work resulted in ac-
the rate of fatigability during the jumping tests. Alternatively, cumulation of microtrauma, which may have lowered neuro-
the 30 UJ may have lacked the sensitivity to detect rate of fatigue muscular efficiency [13] and the visco-elastic properties of the
(i.e., fatigue index) changes. The unloaded jump test produced a skeletal muscle tissue [27]. Alternatively, an acute overreaching
rather modest fatigue index (~ 18 – 20 %) compared to compara- state, independent of overt muscular injury, may have resulted
ble tests using loaded jumps with 30 % 1-RM that produced a in the inability to produce maximal muscle force [10,13, 27].
40 % reduction in power over thirty jumps [1, 23]. These indices Whether food restriction contributed to the power loss is un-
of fatigability were calculated in order to observe if the training clear. The underfeeding and subsequent energy deficit produced
had any impact on the ability for the subjects to perform re- a 4% body mass loss as well as fat-free mass loss; both signifi-
peated jumping. This index may have implications for a compro- cantly lower following military operational field training. Filaire
mised glycolytic system, whereas the 1 and 5 UJ test only lasted et al. [9] reported that seven days of rapid weight loss (3.7 % body
for 5 – 10 s, primarily the ATP-creatine phosphate (CP) system. mass loss) in competitive judo athletes resulted in significantly
Whether the addition of a minor load, commonly used by sol- lower jump performance on seven and 30-s repetitive unloaded
diers (body armor, combat gear or rucksack, etc.) would have re- jump tests
sulted in a greater fatigue decline is unknown. The use of a load An additional purpose of this study was to investigate the rela-
during jumping may be relevent to soldier physical performance tionship and agreement between SM and LPT technology with
as conducted during military operations in urban terrain while the use of a Bland-Altman plot [2]. The SM and LPT flight time
carrying loads (i.e., rucksack, first aid bag, weapons systems, were highly correlated for premilitary operational field training
communication devices). (r = 0.92), post (r = 0.89) and they also agree (l" Figs. 4 a – c). Dif-

The observation that 30 UJ produced lower maximal jump height ferences may be attributed to sampling frequency; the LPT sam-
and power values than observed during the 1 UJ test implies that pling rate of 200 Hz compared to the data collected at 1000 Hz
pacing may have affected the fatigue index, in addition to lower- for the SM. Thus, there seems to be better resolution while using
ing maximal values. The subjects were told to jump as high as the SM due to its higher sampling rate. Using an equation (jump
possible on each jump, but were unable to reproduce the 1 UJ height = [g × flight time × flight time]/8), the SM derives jump
maximal jump height on either the 5 UJ or 30 UJ tests. The lower height based on flight time; whereas, the LPT measures the ac-
jump height suggests that either there was residual fatigue over tual displacement by the movement of the LPT cable in space.
the testing protocols or that the volunteers chose to pace them- When the jump height of the SM and LPT are compared, LPT
selves knowing that they had more than one jump to perform jump height (37.2 ± 7.2 cm) was significantly greater compared
before the end of the test. Subjects were allowed three minutes to the SM jump height (32.4 ± 6.2 cm). Conversion of LPT dis-
in between jump protocols in an effort to minimize subsequent placement to flight time resulted in ~ 14% longer flight time than
fatigue. It is unlikely that inadequate recovery was responsible the SM. Additionally, the LPT and SM determined flight time
for the inability to reach maximal jump height on the 5 UJ test. from two different starting positions. For the LPT, the starting
Three minutes rest has been recommended for measuring max- position (i.e., zero position, see Methods) was a subject standing
imal strength and power exercises [1,13]. Regardless of the erect on the tips of the toes. The “zero position” for the SM did
cause, the 30 UJ test may have compromised the ability to mea- not require subjects to perform this movement prior to the
sure maximal jump power and was insensitive to decrements in jump. These slight differences in starting position (an arbitrary
muscle fatigability. position above which displacement will be positive and below
which it will be negative) may contribute to the discrepancies

Welsh TT et al. Effects of Intensified … Int J Sports Med

 Training & Testing

in displacement and jump height. Therefore, when comparing 9 Filarie E, Maso F, Degoutte F, Jouanel P, Lac G. Food restriction, perfor-
mance, psychological state and lipid values in judo athletes. Int J
results between SM and LPT, one must consider that SM technol-
Sports Med 1993; 22: 454 – 459
ogy estimates lower jump performance values compared to LPT 10 Fogelholm GM, Koskinen R, Laasko J, Rankinen T, Ruokonen I. Gradual
technology. and rapid weight loss: effects on nutrition and performance in male
In conclusion, jumping tests have previously been demonstrated athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1993; 25: 371 – 377
to be valid [14, 21], reliable [1, 20] and sensitive to changes in fa- 11 Friedl KE, DeLuca JP, Marchitelli LJ, Vogel JA. Reliability of body fat esti-
mates from a four-compartment model by using density, body water
tigue/recovery [25]. These results show that unloaded jump
and bone mineral density. Am J Clin Nutr 1992; 55: 764 – 770
tests are sensitive, easy to implement physical performance tests 12 Friedl KE, Moore RJ, Martinez-Lopez LE. Lower limit of body fat in
and can detect reductions in lower body physical performance healthy active men. J Appl Physiol 1994; 77: 933 – 940
accompanying near-continuous work, sleep disruption, cogni- 13 Fry AC, Kraemer WJ, van Borselen FBF. Performance decrements with
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1994; 26: 1165 – 1173
lead to compromised physical performance (i.e., overreaching).
14 Harman EA, Rosenstein M, Frykman PN, Rosenstein R, Kraemer WJ. Esti-
Our data suggests that field-expedient jumping tests are useful mation of human power output from vertical jump. J Appl Sports Sci
for detecting physical performance decrements associated with Res 1991; 5: 116 – 120
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reaching and overtraining research. Sports Med 2004; 34: 967 – 981
16 Hoffman JR, Kang J. Evaluation of a new anaerobic power testing sys-
Disclaimer tem. J Strength Cond Res 2002; 16: 142 – 148
The opinions or assertions contained herein are the private 17 Hopkins WG. How to interpret changes in athletic performance test.
views of the author(s) and are not to be construed as official or Sportscience 2004; 8: 1 – 7
reflecting the views of the Army or the Department of Defense. 18 Johnson MJ, Friedl KE, Frykman PN, Moore RJ. Loss of muscle mass is
poorly reflected in grip strength performance in healthy young men.
Any citations of commercial organizations and trade names in
Med Sci Sports Exerc 1994; 26: 235 – 240
this report do not constitute an official Department of the Army 19 Kreider RB, Fry AC, O’Toole ML. Overtraining in sport: terms, definitions
endorsement of approval of the products or services of these or- and prevalence. In: Kreider RB, Fry AC, O’Toole ML (eds). Overtraining
ganizations. Approved for public release: distribution is unlim- in Sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1998: vii – xi
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21 Murphy MM, Patton JF, Frederick FA. Comparative anaerobic power of
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