MECHANICS AND PROPERTIES OF

MATTER
PHY 101 (DR DAMI’S NOTE)
August 16, 2023

1. Units

ˆ Basic SI Units
ˆ Derived Units
ˆ Dimensional Analysis

2. Scalar and Vectors

ˆ Static Concurrent Forces

ˆ Non-Concurrent Forces
ˆ Frictional Forces

3. Elastic Forces in Static Structures

4. Moment of a Force

5. Kinetics

ˆ Speed
ˆ Velocity
ˆ Acceleration
ˆ Equations of motion for bodies moving with uniform acceleration
and variable acceleration
ˆ Displacement and velocity time graph
ˆ Free-fall and vertical projection

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 ˆ Projectile in 2-dimensional and trajectory

6. Dynamics of particles

ˆ Forces and Linear Motion

ˆ Conservation of Momentum
ˆ Work, Energy, Power and Efficiency
ˆ Elastic and Inelastic Collisions
ˆ Rotational Dynamics and Gravitation
ˆ Motion of Rigid Bodies
ˆ Fluids at Rest and Fluids in Motion

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 MECHANICS
Mechanics is the branch of physics dealing with the study of motion when
subjected to forces or displacement and the subsequent effect of the bodies
on their environment.

KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS

Kinematics is a type of mechanics taking place in a body without putting
into consideration the cause of the displacement.
Dynamics is a displacement which takes the cause into consideration.

SPEED

Speed is the rate of change of distance moved with time. It is the distance
traveled by the object in 1 second. It is a scalar quantity. i.e.
distance m
Average speed = or (ms−1 )
time s
Instantaneous speed is the speed at a specific instant in time.
Let the earth be the distance traveled in a specific time.

∆S( i.e t → t + ∆t)

The average speed is given as

∆S
= ∆Vavg
∆t
Hence, the instantaneous speed at time t is given as:
∆S dS
lim Vins = =
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Given that a car traveling from point a to b with a speed:
S = t3 î + 3t−2 ĵ − 4k̂ (When t = 2s)

3
VELOCITY

Velocity is the rate of change of distance with time in a specified direction.

It is a vector quantity. If a particle moves with a uniform speed in a
cycle it’s speed remains constant but it’s velocity changes as the direction of
motion keeps changing. A body is said to move with uniform or homogeneous
velocity if it’s rate of change of distance moved with time in a specified
direction is constant.
displacement ∆S
Average Velocity = =
time ∆t
r2 − r1 ∆r
=
t2 − t1 ∆t
If at time t1 ; t = t, the particle is at p having position vector r1 . And at
t = t2 the particle is at q, having position vector r2 as shown below

⃗r = xî + y ĵ + z k̂
OP + P Q = OQ

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 ∆r r2 − r1
Average Velocity(VA ) = =
∆t t2 − t1
(x2 − x1 )î + (y2 − y1 )ĵ + (z2 − z1 )k̂
=
t2 − t1
Instantaneous Velocity:
∆⃗r dr
Vins = lim = (ms−1 )
∆t→0 ∆t dt
Note: Change in time varies more
Change in distance is along the direction of the motion of the particle.i.e.
The length(dr) is equal to the distance(ds) traveled in this interval

|dr| ds
∴ Vins = =
dt dt

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ACCELERATION

It is the rate of increase of velocity with time. It is a vector quantity. Accel-

eration can be both positive and negative. A negative acceleration is called
deceleration or retardation, this means that the body is slowing down. If the
velocity changes by equal amount in equal interval of time the acceleration
of the body is said to be uniform or constant. SI unit (ms−2 )

∆V Final Velocity - Initial Velocity V2 −V1 V −U

∴a= ∆t
= Change in time
= t2 −t1
= t2 −t1

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INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION
∆v
ains = lim ; t → t + dt; v → v + dv
∆t→0 ∆t

1. A car accelerating with an average velocity

⃗v = (5 sin 2t)î − (4 cos t)ĵ + (t2 )k̂

Determine the acceleration at t = 0.5s

2. A car travels at a speed of 40 km

hr
for 2 hours. What is the average speed
in meters per second.

3. A car covered a distance in it’s function of

S(t) = et − 20t2 + 5

Find it’s acceleration and velocity at t = 2

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 ˆ Velocity:
Velocity is a vector quantity. It is the rate of displacement with total
time.
Displacement
∴ mathematically =
T ime
ˆ Instantaneous Velocity:
It is the change in displacement of an object in a particular time
interval.

ˆ Acceleration:
It can be defined as the change in velocity in respect to time.

ˆ Instantaneous Acceleration:
It is the change in velocity at a particular time.

Exercise 1:
The position of a particle moving on the x-axis is given by

x = 7.8 + 2.1t3 + 9.2t

with x in meters and t in seconds.

1. What is the intantaneous velocity at t = 3s

2. Identify if the velocity is constant or is changing.

Exercise 2:
The position of the displacement function is given by

S(t) = 4t2 î + 5tĵ + 6t3 k̂

Hence calculate the position velocity at t = 2s

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DISPALCEMENT AND VELOCITY TIME GRAPH

Figure 1: Displacement-Time Graph

Displacement implies distance traveled from a given point i.e. distance +

direction = displacement and it’s measured in meter(m)

Example:
Francis jogged 3km at a constant speed due east in half an hour towards
Uniabuja’s main gate. He rests for half an hour and runs at a constant speed
9km due west in one hour.

ˆ Plot a graph of his displacement against time.

ˆ Determine his speed during the first and last part of his journey and
his average speed of the whole journey

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 Figure 2: Francis’ Displacement-Time Graph

d 3km km d 9km km
Vs1 = = =6 ; Vs2 = = =9
t 0.5hr hr t 1hr hr
;

T otal distance 3+9 12 km

Average speed V⃗s = = = =6
T otal time 0.5 + 0.5 + 1 2 hr

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RELATIVE VELOCITY

This is the difference between 2 or more velocity subtracted vectorically.

Case 1:
Assuming that particle A and B of velocities VA and VB are moving in the
same direction as shown below

VAB = VB − VA i.e. Particle A in respect to B

VBA = VA − VB i.e. Particle B in respect to A

Where:
V⃗A = 3î + 5ĵ − 6k̂
V⃗B = ĵ − 4k̂
V⃗BA = 3î + 5ĵ − 6k̂ − (ĵ − 4k̂)
= 3î + 4ĵ − 2k̂
Case 2:
Particle A and B moving in opposite direction.

V⃗AB = V⃗B − (−V⃗A )

= V⃗B + V⃗A

V⃗AB = 3î + 5ĵ − 6k̂ + (ĵ − 4k̂)

= 3î + 6ĵ − 10k̂

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 Case 3:
Particle A and B moving with velocity V⃗A and V⃗B of angle gamma(γ)

V⃗AB = V⃗B − V⃗A

Also you can say: V⃗BA = V⃗A − V⃗B
Example:
Consider two particles whose position vectors are R1 and R2 respectively as
shown below:


⃗r1 + ⃗r12 = ⃗r2
Must be True when dealing with position vector and resultant
⃗r2 − ⃗r1 = ⃗r12

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 V⃗12 = dr12
dt
= d
dt
(⃗r2 − ⃗r1 ) = d⃗
r2
dt
− d⃗
r1
dt
= V⃗2 − V⃗1

⃗12
dV ⃗2
dV ⃗1
dV d2 ⃗
r12
∴ ⃗a12 = dt
= dt
− dt
= dt2

ASSIGNMENT
A particle is acceleration with ⃗a(t) = (8 cos t)î + (7e−2t )ĵ − (sin 4t)k̂. If the
particle is located at ⃗x = 4î − ĵ − 6k̂ and moving with V⃗ = 3ĵ + k̂. Determine
the velocity and displacement of the particle at t = 2s

EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION:

Let a body move with a velocity(Vo ) at an instant t = 0. They accelerated
uniformly at the rate ”A” for t = ts , and it’s velocity becomes ”V ”.

Initial velocity = Vo @ ts
f inal time = ts
F inal V elocity = V @ t
acceleration = a
initial time = to
Z v Z t
dv
a= ; dv = adt; dv = adt; [v]vvo = a[t]t
dt vo to
dS
V − Vo = a(t − to ); V = Vo + a(t − to ); V = ; dS = V dt
dt
ds = (Vo + at)dt
V = Vo + at (1)
S t t
at2
Z Z
dS = (Vo + at)dt; [S]SSo = [Vo t +
So to 2 to
at2
S = So = 0; t = 0; S = S; t = t S − So = Vo t + 2

at2
S = Vo t + (2)
2
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 From (1)
V = Vo + at; at = V − V o ;
V − Vo
t= (3)
a
V −Vo a V −Vo V −Vo




S = Vo a
+ 2 a a

V 2 = Vo2 + 2aS (4)

EQUATION OF MOTION FOR FREELY FALLING BODIES

For freely falling bodies the equations become

m
V⃗ = V⃗o − gt where a = g = 9.8
s
1
s = V⃗o t − gt2
2
V⃗ 2 = V⃗o2 − 2gS
But for horizontal motion:

V⃗ = V⃗o 


S⃗ = V⃗o t a=0
V⃗ = V⃗
2 2

o

Example:
A body covered a distance in seconds, if Sn is the distance traveled in n
seconds and Sn−1 is the distance traveled in n − 1 seconds, then the distance
traveled in the nth second will be equal to Sn − Sn−1

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 Let the initial velocity of the body be Vo then the distance traveled in the
nth second will be:
1
Sn = Vo t + at2
2
1
= Vo n + an2 (1)
2
for (n − 1):
1
Sn − 1 = Vo (n − 1) + a(n − 1)2 (2)
2
Thus distance traveled in the nth second will be:

a(n − 1)2
 
1 2
Snth = Sn − Sn−1 = Vo n + an Vo (n − 1) +
2 2
2 2
an a(n − 1)
= Vo n + − Vo (n − 1) −
2  2

a 1
Snth = Vo + an − = Vo + a n −
2 2

ASSIGNMENT
A mass rolling down from the mountain top with a speed Vg and main-
tained contact with the platform supported by a number of springs. The
acceleration of the rock after impact is a = g − ch where, c is a positive
constant and h is the height and g is the acceleration due to gravity. If the
maximum compression of the spring is observed to be wide, Evaluate the
constant c.

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 PROJECTILES

This is the motion that occurs when an object is thrown into the atmo-
sphere at air resistance alone. E.g. A thrown javelin, A fired bullet, A kicked
football e.t.c

PROJECTILE MOTION:

This is the two dimensional motion a particle thrown obliquely into the
air. It follows a parabolic path.
It is due to 2 independent motion at right angle to each other. These
motions are:

1. Constant or uniform velocity on the horizontal direction.

2. Constant or uniform acceleration due to gravity in the vertical direc-

tion.

Since the acceleration due to gravity (g) is vertically downward, the hori-
zontal acceleration of a projectile is always zero. Hence, the horizontal com-
ponent of the initial velocity of a projectile remains invariant(unchanged)
throughout it’s motion.
The projection of a projectile at anytime is specified if its vertical position
y(t) and horizontal x(t) are known.
Lets consider a mass(m) projected with a velocity(U ) at an angle(θ) with
the horizontal as shown below.

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Using the equation of motion for both horizontal and vertical:

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Horizontal component:

Vx = ux = ux + ax t (3)
ax t2
x = ux t + = u cos θt (4)
2
Vertical component:

Vy = uy ± ay t; ay = −g

= u sin θ − gt (5)
gt2
y = uy t − (6)
2
TIME OF FLIGHT OF A PROJECTILE

It is the total time for which the projectile is in the air i.e. The time taken
for the projectile to reach the ground from the time it was projected. Total
time of flight T. (T = 2t)
From equation (5) at max height

Vy = u sin θ − gt = 0 (sinceVy = 0)
u sin θ − gt = 0
gt = u sin θ

u sin θ
t= (7)
g
2u sin θ
T = 2t = (8)
g

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MAXIMUM HEIGHT OF A PROJECTILE

It is the highest vertical distance traveled or attained as measured from

the horizontal projection plane.
From equation (6)

gt3
y = (u sin θ)t −
2
y = Hmax ; t=T
Vy2 = u2y − 2gs
02 = (u sin θ)2 − 2gHmax
u2 sin2 θ = 2gHmax

u2 sin2 θ
Hmax = (9)
2g
HORIZONTAL RANGE OF A PROJECTILE(R)

It is the horizontal distance from the point of projection to the point

where the projectile hits the projection plane again.
ax t
x = ux t + ;
ax = 0
2 
2u cos θ
∴ x = ux t = ux T = T =
g

2u2 sin θ cos θ

 
2u sin θ
R = u cos θ = (10)
g g
Using Trig identities:

sin 2θ = 2 sin θ cos θ

u2 sin 2θ
R= (11)
g

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PROJECTILE ANGLE FOR MAXIMUM RANGE OF A PROJECTILE

From equation(ii), it is shown that the range of a projectile depends upon

the angle of a projection for a given velocity. It is clear that the maximum
range of a projectile will be: sin 2θ. If θ is small, this will be the range of the
projectile:
sin 2θ ≃ 2θ = 90 and cos 2θ ≃ 1; θ = 45◦ into equation (11)

u2 sin(2 · 45◦ )
Rmax = (12)
g

VELOCITY OF A PROJECTILE AT ANY INSTANT

The velocity of a projectile at any instant is the resultant of the velocity

of the projectile along x − component and y − component respectively if V
is the velocity of the projectile after time T of it being fired.

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 ux = u cos θ
V = Vy − gt = u sin θ − gt
Vx = ux − ax t; ax = 0
ux = u cos θ
V2 = Vy2 + Vx2
= (u sin θ − gt)2 + (u cos θ)2
1
V = [(u sin θ − gt)2 + (u cos θ)2 ] 2
1
= [u2 (sin2 θ + cos2 θ) − 2ugt sin θ + g 2 t2 ] 2
Since sin2 θ + cos2 θ = 1
p
V = u2 − 2ugt sin θ + g 2 t2
Direction of V
Vy u sin θ − gt
tan ϕ = =
Vx u cos θ
sin θ gt
= −
cos θ u cos θ
gt
tan ϕ = tan θ − sec θ
 u 
gt sec θ
ϕ = tan θ −
u

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EQUATION OF A TRAJECTORY

The time independent relation between x and y coordinates of any point

on the path is the equation on that path.

x = (u cos θ)t (1)

y = uy t − gt2

= (u sin θ)t − gt2 (2)

x
from (1): t = (3)
u cos θ
Putting equation (3) into (2)
 x  1  x 2
y = (u sin θ) − g
u cos θ 2 u cos θ

x sin θ gx2
= − 2
cos θ 2u cos2 θ

gx2 sec2 θ
= x tan θ − (4)
2u2
Comparing with parabola:

y = bx − cx2 we have:

ˆ b = tan θ
−g sec2 θ
ˆ c= 2u2

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 Equation(4) represents a parabola whose axis is vertically downward.
Thus the trajectory of the projectile is a parabola.
Comment:

ˆ The same approach could be followed on any type of motion in the

plane.

ˆ Each point on the path must satisfy the equation’s trajectory.

PROJECTILE MOTION ON AN INCLINED PLANE

Velocity of the horizontal component:

ux = u cos(θ − β)
ax = −g sin β

Vx = u cos(θ − β)t − g sin β (5)

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MAXIMUM HEIGHT ON AN INCLINED PLANE

It is the max-height with respect to the plane. Then at the vertical

distance ”y” = H ′ (Hmax ).
Then the vertical velocity Vy = 0

Vy2 = u2y ± 2ay H ′ (1)

02 = u2y ± 2aH ′
= (u sin(θ − β)2 + 2(−g cos β)H ′
0 = u2 sin2 (θ − β) − 2g cos βH ′
2g cos βH ′ = u2 sin2 (θ − β)

′ u2 sin2 (θ − β)
H = (2)
2g cos β

RANGE ON AN INCLINED PLANE

At t = T, x = Range(R)
From equation(2):

1
R = u cos(θ − β)T − g sin βT
 2   
2usin(θ − β) 1 2usin(θ − β)
= u cos(θ − β) − g sin β
g cos β 2 g cos β

u2 sin2(θ − β) 2u2 sin β sin2 (θ − β)

= − (3)
g cos β g cos2 β

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VELOCITY OF A PROJECTILE AT ANY INSTANT

The velocities of a projectile at any instance is the resultant of the veloci-

ties of the projectile along the x−component and y−component respectively.
It V is the velocity of the projectile after time(t) of it being fired.
Also distance on the horizontal component:

x = ux t ± gxt2 (1)
= u cos(θ − β)t − g sin βt2 (2)

Vertical component of the velocity:

uy = u sin(θ − β)
ay = −g cos β
Vy = uy t − ay

= u sin(θ − β) − g cos βt (3)

1
y = uy t − ay t2
2

1
= u sin(θ − β)t − g cos βt2 (4)
2

TIME OF FLIGHT ON AN INCLINED PLANE

If the particle is projected at t = 0, then at t = T , the vertical distance
”y” = 0′
From equation(4):
1
0 = u sin(θ − β)T − cos βT 2
2
1
g cos βT 2 = u sin(θ − β)T
2

2u sin(θ − β
T = (5)
g cos β

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EXERCISE:

Evaluate the velocity of a projectile of µ which has a horizontal range of

180m, if it’s total time of flight for that range is 120ms.

ASSIGNMENT

A body is projected upward at an angle of 45◦ 18′ with the horizontal,

with an initial speed of 40 km
hr
.

I. In how many seconds will the body reach the ground.

II. How far from the point of projection will it strike

III. At what angle with the horizontal will it strike

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 DYNAMICS OF PARTICLES
It is the branch of mechanics which deals with the physical laws governing
the actual motion of the material bodies. One of the fundamental part is to
predict out of all possible ways a material system can move, which particular
motion.
Therefore, the study of dynamics will be based on Newton’s laws of mo-
tion.
FORCE
Force refers to a push or pull exerted on a body which changes or attempts
to change he condition of the rest of the motion or it’s status of uniform
motion in a straight line. It’s a vector quantity. In order to identify a force
completely the following important criteria is needed.
1. Magnitude
2. Direction i.e descends
3. Point of application
NEWTON’S LAW OF MOTION
ISAAC NEWTON (1642-1727):
The study of Newton’s law and their application is often called Newtonian
or classical mechanics.
It states that:
ˆ Everybody continues in it’s state of rest or uniform motion in a straight
line unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed on
it.
The first law of motion introduces the concept of frame of references.
ˆ The rate of change of linear momentum equals the impressed force i.e.
P = mv
dp d dv
= (mv) = m = ma = F
dt dt dt
Note: If force is equal to zero then the momentum will be equals to a
constant.

27
 This implies that the linear momentum of the body is conserved.
In other words, Newton’s second law can be stated in this form:
A particle of non-zero rest mass moves in a way that the rate of
change of it’s instantaneous linear momentum is equal to the instanta-
neous force acting on it.

ˆ If two particles exert forces at one another, then these forces are equal
in magnitude and opposite in direction and acts along the line joining
the two particles.
In other words, it says that the mutual action of two bodies upon
each other are always equal and directed toward contrary path.
Newton’s first and second laws are valid only for measurement which
are made by an observer in an inertia frame. The first law of motion
give a qualitative definition of force.
It is most interesting and instructive to note that Newton’s laws of
motion and are based upon the view of concept that all interactions in
nature manifest through forces.

1. Action and reaction acts on the same body though they are equal
and opposite.
2. Reaction force always acts normal to the surface on which action
takes place.
3. A body in equilibrium is subjected to a number of forces whose
vector sum is 0
4. Compression or extension in a spring due to external forces is
given by Fext = −kx

Effects of forces

1. It may change the motion of a body

2. It may give rise to the external stress of a body on which it acts

3. It may retard the motion of the body

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TRIANGLE LAWS OF FORCES

If a body is subjected to 3 co-planar forces, the conditions for the body to

be in equilibrium are.

1. The forces must be such that their of line of action passes through a
common point.

2. It should be possible to represent the three forces by the three sides of

the triangle taken in order. Each side of which is parallel to the line of
action of the forces. This is referred to as the triangle law of forces

LAMI’S THEOREM

It states that if a body is in equilibrium under the action of 3 co-planar

forces and concurrent forces, each of the forces is proportional to the sine of
the angle between the other two.
Let’s consider 3 forces, F1 , F2 , F3 acting at a point and let the angle
between F2 and F3 be α, F1 and F3 be β. And F1 and F2 be θ. respectively

29
 F⃗1 F⃗2 F⃗3
= =
sin(180 − α) sin(180 − β) sin(180 − θ)

RESOLUTION OF FORCES

Consider the forces acting at a point as shown below:

30
31
Vertical component (Resolving)
∞
X
F⃗1 y = F⃗1 sin 0 + F⃗2 sin θ2 + F⃗3 sin 90 + F⃗4 sin 180 + F⃗5 sin θ5 + F⃗6 sin 270 + F⃗7 sin θ7
i=1

= 0 + F⃗2 sin θ2 + F⃗3 + 0 − F⃗5 sin θ5 − F⃗6 − F⃗7 sin θ7

= F⃗2 sin θ2 + F⃗3 − F⃗5 sin θ5 − F⃗6 − F⃗7 sin θ7

Horizontal component (Resolving)

∞
X
F⃗1 x = F⃗1 cos 0 + F⃗2 cos θ2 + F⃗3 cos 90 + F⃗4 cos 180 + F⃗5 cos θ5 + F⃗6 cos 270 + F⃗7 cos θ7
i=1

= F⃗1 + F⃗2 cos θ2 + 0 − F⃗4 − F⃗5 cos θ5 − 0 + F⃗7 cos θ7

= F⃗1 + F⃗2 cos θ2 − F⃗4 − F⃗5 cos θ5 + F⃗7 cos θ7

Resultant force
∞
X ∞
X
R= F⃗1 x + F⃗1 y
i=1 i=1

Magnitude |R|

∞
!2 ∞
!2  21
X X
 F⃗1 x + F⃗1 y 
i=1 i=1

Direction

P∞ ⃗
i=1 F1 y
tan θ = P∞
⃗
i=1 F1 x

32
 P∞ ⃗ P∞ ⃗
For instance when i=1 F1 x = +x and i=1 F1 y = −y

33
 GRAVITATIONAL FORCE AND WEIGHT

Gravitational force and contact forces are two categories of forces which
include friction, normal reaction, tension and fluids, drag forces are produced
as a result of contact between the object on which the forces are applied and
intervening fluid or solid medium across which the force is transmitted. The
contact forces are transmitted as a result of short range atomic or molecular
transmission.

GRAVITATIONAL FIELD

The gravitational field including those round the earth and sun are placed
where masses have gravitational forces and gravitational energy. This is the
region round about a material body in which it’s gravitational attraction is
experienced by others.

KEPLER’S LAWS OF PLANETARTY MOTION (1571-1630)

1. Law of orbit

2. Law of area

3. Law of period/harmonic area

Law of orbit:
It states that the planetary describes eclipse about the sun as one focus
Law of area:
It states that the line joining the sun and planet sweeps out equal area in
equal time.
Law of period/harmonic area:
It states that the square of the period of revolution of the planets are
proportional to the cube of their mean distance from the sun. T 2 α r3

34
PROOF OF KEPLER’S LAWS
The force acting on the planet of mass m is given by

F = ma = mω 2 r
2π
ω= = 2πf
T

T = Reciprocalof F requency(P eriod)

ω = AngularF orce
f = F requency
Force on planet,  2
2π
F⃗p = mrω = mr
2
T

4π 2 mr
= (1)
T2
This is equal to the force of attraction of the sun on the planet.
m
F⃗p α 2
r

km
F⃗ = 2 (k = constant) (2)
r
Equation (1) = (2)

km 4mπ 2 r3
=
r2 T2

T 2 km = 4mπ 2 r3

4π 2 r3
T2 =
k

35
 4π 2
 
2
T = r3
k
Let:
4π 2
Q=
k

T 2 = Qr3

T 2 α r3

MOTION OF THE MOON AROUND THE EARTH

The force on the moon is given as

 2
2π
F⃗ = mRω 2 = mR
T

4π 2 mR
= (1)
T2

36
 If the moon were at the Earth’s surface, the force of attraction on it due
to the earth will be

Fc = mg (2)

Assuming that the force of attraction varies as the inverse of the distance
between the earth and moon, then:
1 1
Fm : Fe : Fe α , Fm α
rE R2

4π 2 mR 1 1
: mg = :
T2 R2 rE2

4π 2 R rE2
=
T 2g R2

Making ′ g ′ the subject of the equation

4π 2 R3
g=
T 2 rE2

rE = 6.4 × 106 m
rm = 60.1rE

37
NEWTON’S LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION

It states that the force of attraction between two particles if directly

proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the
square of their distance apart. The force of attraction always acts along the
line joining the two particles

1 Mp Me
F⃗ α Mp Me ; F⃗ α 2 ; F⃗ α 2
r rpe

Mp Me
F⃗ = G 2
r
m2
G = 6.67×10−11 N 2
kg
Where G = Universal Gravitational Constant

The law of gravitation accounts satisfactory for the motion of the planet
about the sun. The orbit and time of revolution of modern artificial satellite
are also predicted by the help of this law.

38
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN G AND g
For a mass on the Earth’s surface of radius re .

F⃗a = F⃗g

Mp Me
G 2
= Me g
rpe

GMp
∴g= 2
rpe

Mp = Mass of the proton (1.671 × 10−22 kg)

Me = Mass of the electron (9.11 × 10−31 kg)
Mn = Mass of the neutron(1.673 × 10−22 kg)

39
EARTH’S SATELLITES
Satellites can be launched from the Earth’s surface to circle the earth.
They are kept in their orbit by their gravitational attraction of the earth.
Let’s consider a satellite of mass (m) which just cycled the earth of mass
(M ) close to it’s surface in an orbit. The force of the attraction of the
satellite.
Mm mv 2
F⃗ = ma = mω 2 re = G 2 = mg =
r rE
V = ωr
V2
a= = ω2r
r
mV 2
= mg
rE
V2
= g → V 2 = grE
rE
V = V grE → (Velocity of the earth to revolve round the circle)

PARKING ORBIT
Suppose the direction of rotation is the same as the earth and the orbit is
at distance R from the center of the Earth.
mV 2 mM
F⃗ = =G 2
R R
But,

Gm = grE2

mV 2 mgrE2
=
R R2
r
gr2 grE2
V = E →V =
2
R R

40
The period of revolution of the satellite into it’s orbit is T , then velocity:
2πR
V = ωR = 2πf =
T

2
grE2

2πR
=
T R

4π 2 R3 grE2
=
T2 R
s
4π 2 R3 2π R3
T2 = 2
→ T =
grE rE g

(ωt ± ϕ) Wave equation

y = A sin(ωt ± ϕ) = A sin(2πf t ± ϕ)

If the period of the satellite in the orbit is exactly equal to the period of
the Earth as it turns about it’s axis which is 24hrs, the satellite will stay
over the same place on the earth while the Earth rotates. This is sometimes
called the parking orbit.
Relay satellite can be placed in parking orbits so that television program
can be transmitted continuously from one part of the world to another.
The height above the Earth’s surface of the parking orbit is given by;
Hp = R − rE .

41
 Where, R = distance of the parking orbit.
MASS AND DISTANCE OF THE EARTH
At the Earth’s surface, the force of attraction on mass m, is F⃗g = mg.
Assuming that the Earth is spherical of radius r then follows that the force
of the attraction on mass m is:
Mm
F⃗a = G
rE

Mm
F⃗g = F⃗a = mg = G
rE

grE2 4π 2 R3
∴M = = 2
G T G
grE2
M ass G
Density (ρ) = = 4πR3
V olume 3

3grE2
ρ= → R = rE
G4πR3

3grE2 3g
ρ= 3
→
G4πrE 4πrE G

The density of the Earth is actually not uniform and may approach the
values of 104 kgm−3 towards the interior.
MASS OF THE SUN
If the mass of the Earth is m, then for circular motion around the sun,
we have:

 2
Ms m 2π
G 2 = ma = mω 2 rs = m rs
rs f r

42
  2
Ms m 2π
G 2 = mω 2 rs = m rs
rs f r

Ms m 4π 2 rs
G =
rs2 f T2

4πr2
∴ Ms =
GT 2
 
Ms = Mass of sun
rs = Radius of Sun

43
 GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

The potential V at a point due to the gravitational field of the Earth is

defined as numerically equal to the work-done in taking unit mass from
infinity to that point.
The potential at infinity is conventionally taken to be zero for a point
outside the Earth assuming spherical work-done:
Gm
ω = F⃗G dr = 2 dr
r
F⃗G = Gravitational field of strength
For the potential at the point R from the center outside the Earth is
given as:

Z R
Gm
Va = dr
∞ r2

Z R
= Gm r−2 dr
∞

R R
r−2+1 r−1
 
Gm → Gm
−2 + 1 −1

 R  
1 1 1
−Gm = −Gm −
r ∞ R ∞

 
1
= −Gm −0
R

−Gm
=
R

44
 The negative sign implies that the potential at infinity(0) is higher than
the potential close to the Earth.

R = rE

On the Earth’s surface,

Gm
Ve = (potential on the Earth’s surface)
rE
Note: Above the Earth, the values of the potential V will be smaller
numerically than at the Earth’s surface since the distance from the Earth’s
center will be greater than the radius of the Earth.

APPLICATION OF GRAVITATIONAL POTENTIAL

Potential and gravitational field due to spherical shell.
At point outside the shell:
Let’s consider a hollow sphere of mass M and let it’s inner and outer
radius be r and ro respectively

45
 Ms 4πr3 4π(r03 − r13 )
ρs = ; Vs = =
Vs 3 3

Ms
= 4π 3
3
− r13 )
(r0

3Ms
ρs =
4π(r03 − r13 )

For exterior
∞
X Mj
Vext = G
j=1
x

∞
GX
=− Mj
x j=1

∞
X
M j = M1 + M2 + M3 + · · · + Mn
j=1

GM
Vext =
x

The gravitational field

   
−d GM GM d 1
Fo = = (1)
dx x dx x

If the system is conserved

46