SEMESTER V: 5SPHY

Unit I: Origin of Quantum Mechanics

1. Historical Background: Failure of classical wave theory in explaining Black body

radiation and Photoelectric Effect; Compton Effect Qualitative explanation only
2. Assumptions of Planck’s Quantum Theory
3. Wave Particle Duality
4. Matter Waves: De Broglie Hypothesis, Davisson Germer experiment
5. Concept of Wave Packet, Phase velocity, group velocity
and relation between them.

6. Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: Different forms of uncertainty principle; Thought

experiments: single slit diffraction and Gamma ray microscope

Origin of Quantum Mechanics:

“The branch of Physics based on Newton's laws of motion and Maxwell's electromagnetic wave
theory to explain the phenomenon related to motion and energy of particles is known as classical
mechanics”. The classical mechanics failed to explain the phenomenon like stability of atoms and
molecules, photo electric effect, Compton effect, black body radiation, heat capacity of solids, atomic and
molecular spectra, emission of X-rays, radioactivity etc.
Max Planck in 1900 proposed quantum theory of radiation and satisfactorily explained the energy
distribution of black body radiation. Planck’s quantum theory of radiation led the foundation of quantum
mechanics.

Black Body Radiation:

When black body is heated, it emits the radiations known as black body radiation. The black body
emits the radiations of all wavelengths at any temperature. The following figure shows the experimental
black body spectrums (i.e. graph plotted between the wavelength and intensity or energy density or
emissive power 𝐸𝜆 ).

Figure 1

From graph it is seen that,

1) At a given temperature, the energy is not uniformly distributed amongst radiations of all wavelengths
of black body.
2) At given temperature the intensity of radiations emitted by blackbody increases with wavelength,
reaches maximum at certain wavelength denoted by 𝜆𝑚 and then decreases.
3) Intensity for all wavelengths increases with increase in temperature.
4) The wavelength λm for which intensity is maximum, shifted towards shorter wavelength side with
increase in temperature.

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5) The product, 𝜆𝑚 𝑇 = constant (2.89x10-3mK)
The relation is known as Wien’s Displacement law.
6) At any temperature the total energy density over the entire range of wavelength is equal to area under
curve and proportional to fourth power of absolute temperature.
∞
∴ 𝐸 = ∫ 𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝜎𝑇 4
0
𝐸 ∝ 𝑇 4 (∵ 𝜎 = 5.67x10-8 watt/K4)
The relation is known as Stefan Boltzmann's law.
Thus, it can be concluded that energy emitted by black body depends only on temperature and is
independent of nature of solid.

Wein’s Radiation Formula:

Wein in 1893, on the basis of thermodynamics showed that energy density of blackbody radiation
is given by,
𝐶1 −𝐶 ⁄𝜆𝑇
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝑒 2 𝑑𝜆
𝜆5
where, C1 and C2 are constants.
The Wein's law agrees with experimental result in short wavelength side and at low temperature
only and fails to explain in longer wavelength region and at higher temperature.

Raleigh Jean’s Radiation Formula:

Rayleigh and Jean’s in 1980 made better attempt to explain the black body radiation. They
assumed that the black body contains some hypothetical oscillator which emits the electromagnetic
radiations of all possible frequencies. These electromagnetic radiations are reflected by the walls of
blackbody. The superposition of incident and reflected waves results in formation of standing waves with
nodes at the walls.
Rayleigh and Jean’s obtained the following expression for energy density of black body radiation
in wavelength range 𝜆 and 𝜆 + 𝑑𝜆.
8𝜋
∴ 𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 𝜆4
𝑘𝑇 𝑑𝜆 (𝑘 = Boltzmann's constant)

The formula predicts the infinite energy density at extremely short wavelengths (like gamma rays,
X-rays or UV) and it is not possible. This failure of the formula is kwon as Ultraviolet Catastrophe. Thus
Rayleigh-Jean’s formula explains the black body radiation spectrum satisfactorily only in longer
wavelength side.

Planck's Quantum Theory and Radiation Formula:

In order to explain the black body radiation spectrum, Max Planck in 1900 proposed
revolutionary hypothesis known as Planck's Quantum Theory.
According to this theory,
1) The walls of black body consist of simple harmonic oscillator of molecular dimensions known as
Planck's oscillator which vibrates with all possible frequencies.
2) The frequency of radiation emitted by oscillator is same as frequency of its vibration.
3) The energy levels of an oscillator are discrete. If ν is the frequency of radiation emitted by particular
oscillator then it can have energies given by
𝐸 = 𝑛ℎ𝜈 where, 𝑛 = 0,1,2,3, …
4) The oscillator emits or absorbs the energy in the form of packets called as ‘quanta’ named as photon.
The energy of each photon is ℎ𝜈 , where ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽. 𝑠𝑒𝑐, known as Planck's constant.

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 In other words, the emission and absorption of electromagnetic radiation takes place in the form
of energy packets or bundles of energy called quanta and named as photon.
Based on these assumptions, Planck derived the radiation formula (i.e. distribution of radiant
energy of black body amongst radiation of different wavelengths) known as Planck's radiation law. The
energy distribution amongst radiations in wavelength range 𝜆 and 𝜆 + 𝑑λ is given by,
8𝜋ℎ𝑐 1
𝐸𝜆 𝑑𝜆 = 5 ℎ𝑐 ⁄ 𝜆𝑘𝑇
𝑑𝜆
𝜆 (𝑒 − 1)

The law is in good agreement with experimental results for the entire range of wavelength at all
temperatures.

Figure 2

Properties of Photons:
The photon possesses the following properties:
ℎ𝑐
1. Energy : The energy content of a photon is given by 𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 𝜆
.

2. Mass : According to mass energy relation we have,

𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 where m denotes the mass . Since, the photon travels with the velocity of light this
equation can be applied to the photon.
𝐸 ℎ𝜈 ℎ
𝑚 = 𝑐2 = 𝑐2
= 𝑐𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜈 = 𝑐⁄𝜆

But rest mass of photon is zero.

ℎ ℎ
3. Momentum : The momentum of photon is given by, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐 = 𝑐=
𝑐𝜆 𝜆

4. Non-electrical nature of photon : Photons are electrically neutral.

Black Body:

Figure 3

“The body which absorbs all radiations incident on it is called as perfectly black body”. Or “The
body for which the absorption coefficient is unity is called as perfectly black body”. Thus, black body has
zero coefficient of reflection and coefficient of transmission.
Construction:
The perfectly black body consists of double walled hollow metal sphere having small aperture O
and small conical projection C directly opposite to aperture as shown. The inner surface of sphere is

Sem V U I 3
coated with lamp black or Platinum black as shown. The space between two walls is evacuated to prevent
the loss of heat by convection and conduction.
Working:
When the radiant energy i.e. radiation enters the black body through aperture O, it suffers
multiple reflections and about 98% of radiant energy is absorbed at each reflection so that within a few
reflections all the radiant energy entered in the black body is absorbed.

Photoelectric Effect:
The photoelectric effect was discovered in 1887 by German physicist Henritch Hertz. He
observed that when radiation (light in UV region, X-rays, 𝛾 rays etc.) of suitable frequency incident on
metal surface, electrons are emitted from metal surface.
“The phenomenon of emission (ejection) of electrons from metal surface when illuminated or
irradiated by light (or any other radiations) of suitable frequency or wavelength is called as photoelectric
effect".
The electrons emitted from metal surface are called as the photoelectrons and current in circuit
due to photoelectrons are called as photoelectric current.
Most of the metals emits photoelectrons when exposed to the ultraviolet radiations but alkali
metals such as Na, K, Li, Rb, Cs etc. emits electrons when visible light incident on it.
The satisfactory explanation of Photoelectric effect was given by Einstein in 1905 on the basis of
Planck's quantum theory. Einstein awarded Nobel Prize in 1921 for his work on photoelectric effect.

Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect:

The simple experimental arrangement to study the photoelectric effect is as shown.
It consists of an evacuated glass tube having side tube provided with quartz window W. The two
metal plate 𝐴 and 𝐵 are fixed in tube which acts as two electrodes i.e. cathode and anode respectively.
The plate 𝐴 is of photosensitive metal for which photoelectric effect is to be studied. A variable potential
difference is applied between two plates. The voltmeter measures the voltage between plate 𝐴 and 𝐵 and
micro-ammeter measure the photoelectric current.
When light or electromagnetic radiation of suitable frequency from source S is incident on plate
A, the electrons are emitted. These electrons are attracted by plate 𝐵 and hence photoelectric current flows

Figure 4

through circuit. The magnitude of photoelectric current and kinetic energy of photoelectrons is depends
on many factors such as,
1) Potential difference between two plates
2) Intensity of incident radiation,
3) Frequency of incident radiation, and
4) Photo metals or photo cathodes used
From the experimental study of the photoelectric effect we get the following results

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(1) Effect of potential difference on the photoelectric current:
When radiation of a constant intensity (say I) and a given frequency ν is incident on a
photosensitive surface, photoelectrons with kinetic energies ranging from zero to a certain maximum
value are emitted from the surface.
If potential of anode B is made positive and increase gradually, photocurrent is also increases
gradually and then reaches to the saturation value as shown in figure 5.
However, if the potential of anode B is made negative then photocurrent decreases with increase
in negative potential (retarding potential) of anode B. If retarding potential is further increased, the
photocurrent decreases and become zero at certain value of retarding potential.

Figure 5

The negative potential of anode at which the photocurrent becomes zero is called cut off or
stopping potential (V0 ) .
At the stopping potential electrons with maximum kinetic energy are stopped.
Thus at stopping potential, the potential energy of photoelectrons is equal to maximum kinetic
energy.
1 2
i.e, 𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥

where, 𝑒 = charge on photoelectrons

𝑚 = mass of photoelectrons
𝑉𝑠 = the stopping potential.
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum speed of photoelectrons

(2) Effect of frequency of the incident radiation on emission of photoelectrons:

When radiation of varying frequency is incident on the metal surface, the stopping potential is
found to be increased linearly with the frequency, as shown in figure 6. The graph shows that the stopping
potential is zero for frequency ν0 . Which means that, below frequency ν0 , emission of photo electrons is
not possible.
“The minimum frequency of radiation below which there is no emission of photoelectrons
from a given metal surface is called threshold frequency”

Figure 6

(3) Effect of the intensity of the incident radiation on the photoelectric current

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 For the fixed frequency ν of incident radiation (ν>ν0) and at constant potential difference between
plates 𝐴 and 𝐵 , the photoelectric current increases gradually with increase in intensity of incident
radiation. The graph between intensity of incident radiation and photoelectric current is as shown figure 7.
The nature of graph is a straight line passing through origin.

Figure 7

Thus, rate of emission of photoelectrons from metal surface is directly proportional to intensity of
incident radiation.
Also it is found that; photocurrent becomes zero at the same instant when incident radiation is
cutoff. This shows that the emission of photo-electrons is an instantaneous process.

(4) Effect of photo metal:

Figure 8

The figure 8 shows the graph between stopping potential and frequency of incident radiation for
number of photo metals. It is observed that, all lines have same slope with different intercepts on
frequency axis. Thus, it is concluded that the threshold frequency is the function of photo metal.

Characteristics of Photoelectric Effect:

The characteristics of Photoelectric effect are stated below.
1) The number of electrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident
radiation.
2) There is minimum frequency called as threshold frequency for given metal surface below which
photoelectrons are not emitted from metal surface.
3) The wavelength corresponding to threshold frequency(𝜈0 ) is called as threshold wavelength 𝜆0 . If c
𝐶
is velocity of light then, 𝜆0 = 𝜈 .
0

4) The maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to frequency of incident

radiation and independent on intensity of incident radiation.
5) The photoelectric effect is an instantaneous process i.e. there is no time lag between incidence of
radiation and emission of photoelectrons.

Failure of Classical Theory:

According to classical theory,
1) The energy of incident radiation is proportional to intensity of radiation. Thus, stopping or cutoff

Sem V U I 6
 potential which is measure of maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons should be proportional to
intensity of radiation. But experimental result shows that stopping potential is proportional to
frequency and not intensity of incident radiations.
2) The existence of threshold frequency for given metal cannot be explained by classical wave theory.
3) According to the wave theory, the energy of the incident light is spread over the wave front and since
the energy incident on any one electron would be very small, some time will be required by an
electron to absorb enough energy to escape from the surface. However emission takes place
instantaneously.
Thus, classical theory completely failed to explain the photoelectric effect.

Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:

In 1905 Einstein was successful in explaining all the features of photo electric effect on the basis
of Planck’s quantum theory of light.
According to Planck's Quantum theory, the light (electromagnetic radiations) is emitted or
absorbed in the form of energy packets called quanta or photon. That is, the radiations of frequency 𝜈
consists of photons each having energy ℎ𝜈 where, ℎ is Planck's constant.
Einstein assumed that, when light incident on metal surface, photons collide with free electrons of
the metal. During the collision photons completely transfer their energy (ℎ𝜈) to the electron. The part of
this energy is used by the electron to just free from the metal surface and remaining energy appears as
kinetic energy of electron.
“The minimum amount of energy required for an electron to just free from the metal surface is
called photoelectric work function (𝜙) of a metal”
Thus, according to law of conservation of energy,
1 2
ℎ𝜈 = 𝜙 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 [1]
2
where, 𝜙 is photoelectric work function of a metal, m is the mass of the electron and vmax is the maximum
speed of the emitted electron. (The electron which takes minimum energy to free from the metal surface
will have the maximum kinetic energy.)
Eq. (1) is known as Einstein's photoelectric equation.
At threshold frequency ν0 for a metal, the maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons is zero. That
1
is at ν = ν0 , 2 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = 0

Thus Eq. (1) becomes

ℎ𝜈0 = 𝜙 [2]
From equation (1) and (2), we have
1
2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 = ℎ𝑣 − ℎ𝜈0 = ℎ(𝑣 − 𝜈0 ) [3]

This is another form of Einstein's photoelectric equation.

Characteristic of Photoelectric Effect on the basis of Einstein's Photoelectric Equation:

Einstein's photoelectric equation is,
1 2
ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈0 + 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 [1]
2
𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0 [2]
1 2
ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈0 ) = 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 [3]
2
where, ℎ = Planck's constant; 𝜈 = frequency of incident radiation; 𝜈0 = threshold frequency; 𝜙 =
photoelectric work function

Sem V U I 7
ℎ𝜈 = energy of photon
1 2
2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = maximum K.E. of photoelectron

The characteristics of Photoelectric effect can be explained on the basis of Einstein's photoelectric
equations.
1) When photoelectrons are emitted from metal surface, the kinetic energy of photoelectrons is either
zero or positive. From equation (3), zero or positive energy is possible only when 𝜈 ≥ 𝜈0 . If 𝜈 < 𝜈0 ,
the kinetic energy is negative and hence emission of photoelectrons is not possible.
Thus, photo electrons are emitted only when the frequency of incident radiation is equal to or
greater than threshold frequency.
2) According to quantum theory, intensity of radiation is number photons falling per unit area per second.
Thus when intense radiation incident on metal surface there is greater number of collisions between
photons and electrons, liberating more number of photoelectrons. Therefore, photocurrent (the rate of
photoelectric emission) is directly proportional to intensity of incident radiation.
3) The photoelectric work function is constant for given metal. Thus, from equation (1), maximum
kinetic energy of photoelectrons increases with increase in frequency of incident radiation. The
maximum kinetic energy of photoelectron is directly proportional to the frequency and is independent
of intensity of incident radiation.
4) The stopping potential is given by,
1
𝑒𝑉𝑠 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥.
Thus, stopping potential 𝑉𝑠 also increases with increase in frequency of incident radiation.
5) As soon as the radiation incident on metal surface, collision between photon and the electron occurs
and at same time photoelectrons are emitted. Thus, photoelectric effect is an instantaneous
phenomenon.

Compton Effect:
Compton Effect states that “when monochromatic X-ray beam scattered from the light elements the
scattered X-ray spectra in a given direction consists of two peaks, one corresponds to original wave length
and other corresponds to slightly higher wavelength”.
In other words, the scattered X-ray have intensity peaks at two different wavelengths, one at
wavelength ( 𝜆 ) of incident radiation known as unmodified radiation and other at slightly longer
wavelength (𝜆′ ) called as modified radiation. The difference in wavelength Δ𝜆 = (𝜆′ − 𝜆) is called as
Compton shift. The Compton shift Δ𝜆is independent of the wavelength of incident X-ray and the nature
of scattering material. The Compton shift Δ𝜆 depends only on angle of scattering.

Experimental arrangement to study Compton Effect:

The experimental arrangement to study Compton Effect is as shown below.

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 Figure 9

A collimated X-ray beam obtained from molybdenum target in X-ray tube incident on carbon
scatterer. The X-ray beam scattered at different scattering angle 𝜙 was analysed with the help of Bragg’s
spectrometer. The current in ionization chamber is proportional to the intensity of scattered X-rays
entering it.
The graph is plotted between intensity of scattered radiation and the corresponding wavelengths
at different scattering angles.
From graph it is observed that, the scattered X-rays have intensity peaks at two wavelengths 𝜆

Figure 10

and 𝜆′. The shorter wavelength is same as the wavelength of incident beam called unmodified X-ray, and
another wavelength 𝝀′ is found to be slightly larger than 𝜆, called as modified X-ray.

Explanation of the result:

Compton explained the phenomenon on the basis of quantum theory of radiations. According to
him the phenomenon of scattering is due to an elastic collision between the photon of incident radiation
and electron of an atom of scattering substance.
When the photon of energy hν collides with the rest electron of scatterer, it transfer some energy
to the electron and get scattered in some direction along with less energy and consequently with low
frequency or greater wavelength. During this process electron is also get recoiled along other direction.

Sem V U I 9
 Figure 11

According to this theory the Compton shift Δ𝜆 is given by,

ℎ
Δ𝜆 = (𝜆′ − 𝜆) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜙) … [1]
𝑚0 𝑐
where, ℎ = Planck’s constant; 𝑚0 = rest mass of electron and 𝑐 = speed of light
From equation (1) we have,
1) If𝜙 = 0, then Δ𝜆 = 0, hence Compton shift is minimum.
∴ 𝜆′ = 𝜆
ℎ ℎ
2) If𝜙 = 900 , thenΔ𝜆 = 𝑚 .The quantity Δ𝜆 = 𝑚 is called as Compton wavelength of electron.
0𝑐 0𝑐

2ℎ
3) If𝜙 = 1800 , then Δ𝜆 = 𝑚 𝑐. Hence, Compton shift Δ𝜆 is maximum.
0

The Compton shift Δ𝜆 is independent of scattering material and wavelength of incident X-ray
beam and depends only on angle of scattering.

Wave Particle Duality of Light:

As far as radiation (light) is concerned the phenomena such as interference, diffraction, reflection,
refraction and polarization are completely explained by the wave theory or electromagnetic wave theory
of radiations. Thus these phenomena indicate that the radiation has wave nature.
However, there are some other phenomena of radiations such as black body radiations,
photoelectric effect and Compton effect which cannot be explained by wave theory or electromagnetic
wave theory of radiations. These phenomena can be explained on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory of
radiations. According to Planck’s theory, radiations of frequency ν consists of stream of photons each
carrying energy E= hν, where h is Planck’s constant.
Thus photon has energy E = hν. Therefore according to theory of relativity mc2 = hν and hence
photon has momentum, mc = hν/c.
As momentum is a characteristic of a particle in motion, therefore, it is concluded that radiation
posses wave as well as particle nature.

Matter Wave: de Broglie hypothesis

In 1923-24 Louis de Broglie proposed the idea of dual nature of particle. According to his
hypothesis, a particle in motion has wave associated with it. The wave associated with a particle is called
de Broglie wave or matter wave. de Broglie proposed that the wavelength of matter wave associated with
the particle is given by
ℎ ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 ,

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where h is the Planck’s constant and p is the momentum ( m and v are mass & velocity respectively) of
the particle. That is particle also has dual nature.

Properties of matter wave :

1. Lighter is the particle ( m is small ) greater is the wavelength associated with it.
2. Smaller is the velocity greater is the wavelength associated with it.
3. When v = 0 then λ =  and when v =  then λ = 0. This shows that matter wave is associated with
only a moving particle.
4. As in the equation for λ there is no term representing charge, matter wave is associated with both
charged and uncharged particles.
5. Velocity of matter waver depends on velocity of particle.

NOTE:
1. If Ek is the kinetic energy of material particle then momentum of particle is given by,
1 𝑚2 𝑣 2 𝑝2
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = =
2 2𝑚 2𝑚

∴ 𝑝 = √2𝑚𝐸𝑘
ℎ ℎ
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑒 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒, 𝜆 = =
𝑝 √2𝑚𝐸𝑘
2. If charge particle carrying charge q is accelerated by potential difference V then its K.E. Ek = qV.
ℎ
Therefore, 𝐵𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑤𝑖𝑙𝑙 𝑏𝑒, 𝜆 = .
√2𝑚𝑞𝑉

For electron q=e and hence using the values of other constants in the above equation we get
12.26
de Broglie wave length of electron 𝜆 = 𝐴0 .
√𝑉

Davisson and Germer Experiment:

The first experimental evidence of de Broglie hypothesis was given by two American scientists
Davisson and Germer in 1927. They measured the wavelength of wave associated with electron and
ℎ
verified the relation, 𝜆 = 𝑃.

Experimental arrangement of Davisson and Germer experiment is as shown in figure. The

electrons emitted by filament are accelerated by potential difference V in the electron gun. The fine beam
of electrons from the electron gun then falls normally on the large single crystal of nickel. The electrons
are scattered in all directions by the atoms of a crystal. The detector is moved to various positions and
intensity of scattered electron beam at each position is noted.

Figure 12

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 The intensity of scattered electron beam is plotted against the angle θ between incident and
scattered beam. The variation of intensity of electron beam with angle of scattering θ at potential
difference of 54 volt is shown in figure. It consists of maxima corresponding to θ = 500 .
If the position of detector is kept constant and the accelerating potential is slowly increased and the
corresponding intensity of scattered electron beam is recorded and the graph is plotted between intensity
of scattered radiation and square root of accelerating potential difference i.e.√𝑉. The graph consists of
successive maxima and minima.

Thus, experiment proved that if an electron beam is diffracted or scattered from crystal then it produces
maxima and minima same as that of X-rays diffracted from certain atomic planes of crystal. Thus,
experiment confirms that, an electron exhibits the wave nature and Nickel crystal act as diffraction
grating for electron waves.

We use Bragg law for X-ray diffraction for the scattering of electron beam from Ni-crystal i.e.
2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆 , to determine wavelength 𝜆.
For Nickel crystal, 2𝑑 = 2.16 𝐴0 , and for first order maxima (𝑛 = 1) the (scattering angle) angle of
diffraction 𝜃 = 500 .
2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑛𝜆
2.16 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 500 = (1) × 𝜆
𝜆 = 1.65 𝐴0
It is the value of wave length associated with electron beam obtained from Bragg law for X-ray
diffraction.
According to de Broglie, the wavelength of wave associated with electron accelerated by
potential difference 𝑉 = 54 volt is given by,
12.27 × 10−10
𝜆= 𝑚
√𝑉
12.27 × 10−10
𝜆= 𝑚
√54
𝜆 = 1.67 𝐴0
Thus, experimental value of 𝜆 is in good agreement with theoretical values. Davisson and Germer
awarded Nobel Prize for electron diffraction in 1937.

Concept of Wave Packet:

Let us assume that matter wave associated with a particle is represented by single plane wave
travelling in positive x-direction i.e.
𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 𝑘𝑥)
where A is amplitude; ω=2πν and k = 2π/λ
The velocity of wave called as phase velocity is given by

2𝜋 𝜔
𝑣𝑝 = 𝜆𝜈 = 𝜈= … [1]
𝑘 𝑘

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 According to de Broglie wavelength of matter wave associated with particle of mass m moving
with velocity v is given by,
ℎ
𝜆 = 𝑚v … [2]

According to Planck, E = hν and according to Einstein, E = mc2

∴ ℎ𝜈 = 𝑚𝑐 2
𝑚𝑐 2
Or 𝜈= ℎ
… [3]

From equations 1,2 &3, we have

ℎ 𝑚𝑐 2 𝑐2
𝑣𝑝 = 𝑚v ℎ
= v

This shows that velocity of the matter wave associated with particle is greater than velocity of
particle as c>>v. It is not acceptable.
Hence Schrödinger proposed that matter wave is not single plane wave but it is superposition of
large number of waves having slightly different velocities and wavelengths. The superposition of the
waves is such that, they interfere constructively over a small region of space, as shown in figure. The
resultant of the superposition of the waves is called wave packet. The particle can be located anywhere
inside the wave packet.

Figure 13

Phase velocity:
The velocity of the wave or velocity with which a displacement of a given phase moves forward is
called phase velocity.
It is given by

𝜔
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘

Group velocity:
The velocity of the wave packet formed by the superposition of group of waves having slightly
different velocities and wavelengths is called group velocity.
It is given by
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘
Relation between Phase velocity and Group velocity:
We have phase velocity,
𝜔
𝑣𝑝 =
𝑘
That is
𝜔 = 𝑘𝑣𝑝
Differentiating w.r.t. k on both sides
𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝑣𝑝
∴ =𝑘 + 𝑣𝑝
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑘
As
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘

Sem V U I 13
 𝑑𝑣𝑝
∴ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘
𝑑𝑘

𝑑𝑣𝑝 𝑑𝜆
∴ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 + 𝑘
𝑑𝜆 𝑑𝑘
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑑𝜆 2𝜋
Since 𝜆 = 𝑘
𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑑𝜆 = − 𝑘 2 𝑑𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑘
= − 𝑘2 , therefore above equation becomes

𝑑𝑣𝑝 2𝜋
𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 − 𝑘
𝑑𝜆 𝑘 2

2𝜋 𝑑𝑣𝑝
∴ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑣𝑝 −
𝑘 𝑑𝜆

𝒅𝒗𝒑
𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑 − 𝝀
𝒅𝝀
This is the relation between group and phase velocities.
1) For dispersive medium: (The medium in which phase velocity varies with wavelength is called
dispersive medium)
𝑑𝑣𝑝
≠0
𝑑𝜆
∴ 𝒗𝒈 < 𝒗𝒑
2) For non-dispersive medium: (The medium in which phase velocity does not varies with
wavelength is called non-dispersive medium)
𝑑𝑣𝑝
=0
𝑑𝜆
∴ 𝒗𝒈 = 𝒗𝒑
Show that group velocity is equal to particle velocity:

According to de Broglie hypothesis, the wavelength of matter wave associated with particle of
momentum p is given by,
ℎ
𝜆 =
𝑝

ℎ ℎ 2𝜋 ℎ 2𝜋
𝑝= = = ℏ𝑘 (ℏ = ,𝑘 = )
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
∴ 𝑑𝑝 = ℏ 𝑑𝑘 .... [1]

According to Planck's relation

ℎ
𝐸 = ℎ𝜈 = 2𝜋𝜈 = ℏ𝜔 (∵ 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈)
2𝜋
∴ 𝑑𝐸 = ℏ𝑑𝜔 …. [2]
From equation 1 & 2 we have
𝑑𝐸 𝑑𝜔
=
𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝜅
As group velocity is given by
𝑑𝜔
𝑣𝑔 =
𝑑𝑘
𝑑𝐸
∴ 𝑣𝑔 = 𝑑𝑝 … [3]

The kinetic energy of particle of mass m and momentum p is given by

𝑝2
𝐸=
2𝑚

Sem V U I 14
 2𝑝𝑑𝑝
∴ 𝑑𝐸 =
2𝑚
𝑑𝐸 𝑝
∴ = =v … . [4]
𝑑𝑝 𝑚
where v is velocity of the particle

Thus from equation 3 & 4 we have

𝑣𝑔 = v
This shows that, group velocity is equal to particle velocity.

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle

It states that “it is impossible to determine simultaneously and accurately the position and
momentum for subatomic particles in motion”.

Mathematically it is stated as “the product of uncertainties in simultaneous measurement of position

and momentum for the particle in motion is equal to or greater than h/2π (ℏ)”.
LetΔ𝑥 and Δ𝑝𝑥 be the uncertainties in simultaneous measurement of position and momentum of
particle respectively, then according to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle,
Δ𝑥. Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ … [1]
𝒉
where, ℏ = 𝟐𝝅

Elementary proof: Suppose a particle is in motion along x-direction with momentum px. The de Broglie
wavelength for the particle is given by,
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑝𝑥
ℎ ℎ 2𝜋
𝑝𝑥 = = = ℏ𝑘
𝜆 2𝜋 𝜆
Therefore minimum uncertainty in momentum is
∆𝑝𝑥 = ℏ∆𝑘 … [1]
Let us consider a wave packet representing the particle is the superposition of the waves having
propagation constants k and k+∆k. Then length of a wave packet be Δx which is given by
2𝜋
𝛥𝑥 = ∆𝑘 … [2]

This equation represents the maximum uncertainty in position. Using [1] and [2] we get
2𝜋
𝛥𝑥. ∆𝑝𝑥 = ℏ∆𝑘
∆𝑘
𝛥𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 = 2𝜋ℏ
Or,
𝛥𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ

Physical Significance of uncertainty principle:

The uncertainty principle leads to following conclusions
1. If position of a particle in motion is determined accurately at some instant then at the same instant
uncertainty in determining the momentum become maximum.
2. If momentum of a particle in motion is determined accurately at some instant then at the same
instant uncertainty in determining the position become maximum.

Sem V U I 15
 3. For a particle with mass m and velocity v the uncertainty principle can be written as,
ℏ ℏ
∆𝑥∆𝑝 = ℏ 𝑜𝑟 ∆𝑥∆𝑣 = 𝑚 . Thus for very heavy particles 𝑚 ≈ 0 . That is uncertainty vanish

and all quantities can be measured accurately.

Uncertainty principle for energy & time:

∆𝑬∆𝒕 ≥ ℏ
Elementary proof :
A particle in motion is represented by a wave packet moving with group velocity vg which is
equal to particle velocity vx . Let Δx be the width of the wave packet moving along X direction.
Suppose the wave packet moves through distance Δx in time Δt.
∆𝑥
Then 𝑣𝑥 = ∆𝑡
… [1]

where Δx represent the uncertainty in the x- coordinate of the particle and Δt is the uncertainty in time.
The kinetic energy of the particle is given by,
𝑝𝑥 2
𝐸= 2𝑚
, now taking differential of this equation, the uncertainty in energy is given by,

2𝑝𝑥 ∆𝑝𝑥 𝑝𝑥 𝑚𝑣𝑥

∆𝐸 = = ∆𝑝𝑥 = ∆𝑝𝑥
2𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
∆𝐸 = 𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑝𝑥
Therefore from equation [1], we have
∆𝑥
∆𝐸 = ∆𝑝
∆𝑡 𝑥
Or
∆𝐸∆𝑡 = ∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ( from equation [1])
But
∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ
Therefore,
∆𝑬∆𝒕 ≥ ℏ
This is the energy-time uncertainty relation.

Physical Significance of energy-time uncertainty principle

If ΔE is uncertainty in energy emitted by the system during transition from an excited state to
ground state, then Δt is the life time of the system in the excited state. Thus if the system remain in an
excited state for a maximum time interval ∆𝒕, then there is minimum uncertainty in the emitted energy
during its transition to ground state.

Thought Experiments
A thought experiment is an imaginary experiment which does not violets the fundamental laws of
nature but cannot be performed in practice.

Diffraction of Electrons at Single Slit :

A parallel mono-energetic beam of electrons is allowed to passed through a slit of width Δy and
received on the screen as shown in the figure. When the electron passed through the slit we can not
specify its position accurately. That is an uncertainty in the position is equal to the width of the slit Δy.

Sem V U I 16
 Figure 14

From the theory of diffraction, we have

𝜆
∆𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 , … [1]
1

where λ is de Broglie wavelength associated with the electron and θ be the angle of diffraction of
electron corresponding to first minimum.
If p =h/λ is the momentum of the incident electron, component of this momentum in the vertical
direction (y-axis) after diffraction from the slit is
ℎ
𝑝 cos(90 − 𝜃1 ) = 𝑝𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1
𝜆
Since position of electron at the slit is uncertain, angle 𝜃1 corresponding to the first diffraction
minima is uncertain.
Therefore an uncertainty in the component of momentum in the vertical direction (y-axis)
ℎ
∆𝑝𝑦 = 𝜆 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃1 … [2]

From equation [1] and [2], we have

∆𝑦 ∆𝑝𝑦 = ℎ
More accurately
ℎ
∆𝑦∆𝑝𝑦 ≥ 2𝜋 , which is the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle.

Gamma Ray Microscope Thought Experiment:

This thought experiment was first proposed by Heisenberg.
When position of an electron in an atom is to be located then the electron should be illuminated by
radiation of wavelength of the order of 10-12 A0. Suppose the rest electron at O is illuminated by γ –rays of
frequency ν and wavelength λ along x-direction as shown in figure.
Then momentum of incident γ photon in x-direction is
ℎ𝜈 ℎ
= =
𝑐 𝜆
The photon is scattered with frequency ν’ and wavelength λ’ along OA by the electron and is enter the
microscope. While the electron get recoil with momentum p in other direction making angle θ with the x-
direction.
Then momentum of scattered γ photon along OA is
ℎ𝜈′ ℎ
= =
𝑐 𝜆′
Then according to law of conservation of momentum we get,
ℎ ℎ
= 𝑐𝑜𝑠(90 − 𝛼) + 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝜆 𝜆′
ℎ ℎ
𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝜆
− 𝜆′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼, as 𝑝𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 is the x component px of the momentum p, we get

Sem V U I 17
 ℎ ℎ
𝑝𝑥 = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝜆 𝜆′
ℎ ℎ
Since the momentum 𝜆
is accurately known, 𝜆′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 represent the maximum uncertainty in 𝑝𝑥 .

That is
ℎ
∆𝑝𝑥 = 𝜆′ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 … [1]

Figure 15

The image of the electron formed by the microscope is diffraction pattern consist of central
circular bright spot surrounded by alternate dark and bright rings. Thus the electron may be located within
the central bright spot. Let Δx be the diameter of the bright spot then uncertainty in position of the
electron will be Δx.
In this case resolving power (Rayleigh criterion) is given by,
∆𝑥
𝑅. 𝑃. = 2
… [2]

We have expression for resolving power of microscope

𝜆′
𝑅. 𝑃. = 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
… [3]

From equation [2] and [3] we get,

∆𝑥 𝜆′
=
2 2𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝜆′
∴ ∆𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
… [4]

Thus multiplying equation [1] by [4] we get,

𝜆′ ℎ
∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛼 𝜆′
∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 = ℎ
Since ∆𝑝𝑥 is maximum this equation can be written as,
∆𝑥∆𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ
This is the Heisenberg’s Uncertainty principle.

Application of Uncertainty Principle:

(Nonexistence of Electron inside the Nucleus)
The radius of nucleus is of the order of 10−14 𝑚. If all the electrons in atom are inside the nucleus
then maximum uncertainty in position of electron is 10−14 𝑚.
∴ Uncertainty in momentum of electron is,
Δ𝑥. Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ

Sem V U I 18
 ℏ ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
Δ𝑝𝑥 = = = = 1.055 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
Δ𝑥 2𝜋Δ𝑥 2𝜋 × 10−14
If this is the uncertainty in momentum, then the minimum momentum of electron must be equal
to uncertainty itself.
∴ 𝑝𝑥 = 1.055 × 10−20 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
An electron having such high momentum has very large speed hence we have to consider the
relativistic kinetic energy of electron.
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 = 𝑝𝑐 (∵ 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑐)
−20
𝐸 = 1.055 × 10 × 3 × 108 = 3.165 × 10−12 𝐽 = 20 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Thus, the minimum kinetic energy of electron is 20 MeV, if an electron remains inside the
nucleus. But experiment shows that, the maximum kinetic energy of electron is 4 MeV and much less than
that of electron inside the nucleus.
Let us find energy of electron in an atom i.e. outside the nucleus. The radius of hydrogen atom is
about 5 × 10−11 𝑚.
∴ the uncertainty in position of electron inside the atom is 5 × 10−11 𝑚.
∴minimum uncertainty in momentum of electron is,
Δ𝑥. Δ𝑝𝑥 ≥ ℏ
ℏ ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
Δ𝑝𝑥 =
= = = 2.11 × 10−24 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚
Δ𝑥 2𝜋Δ𝑥 2𝜋 × 5 × 10−11
∴ an electron whose momentum is of this order is nonrelativstic.
∴ its kinetic energy is,
𝑝2 (2.11 × 10−24 )2
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 =
= = 15 MeV
2𝑚 2 × 9.1 × 10−31
∴ Electron cannot remain inside the nucleus.

EXERCISE: (SOLVED PROBLEMS)

1) In an experimental arrangement, a tungsten cathode has a threshold wavelength 2300 𝐴0 and is

irradiated by ultraviolet light of wavelength 1800 𝐴0 . Calculate (i) Work function for tungsten (ii)
Maximum energy of emitted photoelectrons.
(ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 , 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 , 1 𝑒𝑉 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠

𝜆 = 1800 𝐴0 = 1800 × 10−10 𝑚 𝜆0 = 2300 𝐴0 = 2300 × 10−10 𝑚

(i) We have,
ℎ𝑐 6.6 ×10−34 ×3×108 8.608×10−19
𝜙 = ℎ𝜈0 = 𝜆 = 2300 ×10−10
= 8.608 × 10−19 𝐽 = 1.6×10−19
𝑒𝑉 = 5.38 𝑒𝑉
0

(ii) We have,
1 2
𝑐 𝑐 1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ℎ(𝜈 − 𝜈0 ) = ℎ ( − ) = ℎ𝑐 ( − )
2 𝜆 𝜆0 𝜆 𝜆0

1 1
= 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 ( −10
− )
1800 × 10 2300 × 10−10

6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 1 1

= −8
( − )
10 18 23

= 2.391 × 10−19 𝐽

Sem V U I 19
 2.391 × 10−19
= = 1.485 𝑒𝑉
1.6 × 10−19

2) Potassium has a work function of 2 𝑒𝑉 and is illuminated by monochromatic radiation of wavelength

3600 𝐴0 . Find (i) maximum kinetic energy of ejected electron (ii) maximum velocity of ejected
electron (iii) stopping potential in eV.
Solution:
Given: 𝜙 = 2 𝑒𝑉 = 2 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽 𝜆 = 3600 𝐴0 = 3600 × 10−10 𝑚

ℎ𝜙
(i) We have, 𝜙 = ℎ𝜙0 = 𝜙0

ℎ𝜙 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝜙0 = = = 6.1875 × 10−7 𝜙 = 6186 × 10−10 𝜙
𝜙 2 × 1.6 × 10−19
1 𝜙 𝜙 1 1
∴ 𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙0 ) = ℎ ( − ) = ℎ𝜙 ( − )
2 𝜙 𝜙0 𝜙 𝜙0

1 1
= 6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 ( −10
− )
3600 × 10 6186 × 10−10

6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 1 1

= ( − )𝜙
10 −10 3600 6186

6.6 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 6186 − 3600

= ( )𝜙
10−10 3600 × 6186

= 0.00229922 × 10−16 𝜙

= 2.325 × 10−19 𝜙

(ii) We have,
1
2
𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙0 )

2ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙0 ) 2 × 2.325 × 10−19

𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = = 𝜙/𝜙
𝜙 9.1 × 10−31

𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 7.07 × 105 𝜙/𝜙

1
(iii) We have, 2
𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝑉𝜙

2.325 × 10−19
𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙 = 1.45 𝜙𝜙
1.6 × 10−19

3) The photo electric threshold wavelength of silver is 2762 𝜙0 .Calculate (i) Maximum kinetic energy
of electron emitted (ii) Stopping potential in 𝜙𝜙. When silver surface is irradiated with ultraviolet of
wavelength 2000 𝜙0 . (ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 ,1 𝜙𝜙 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝜙, 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙, 1 𝜙𝜙 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝜙 , 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙
𝜙 = 2000 𝜙0 = 2000 × 10−10, 𝜙0 = 2762 𝜙0 = 2762 × 10−10 𝜙

(i) We have,
1 𝜙 𝜙 1 1
𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙0 ) = ℎ ( − ) = ℎ𝜙 ( − )
2 𝜙 𝜙0 𝜙 𝜙0

Sem V U I 20
 1 1
= 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 ( −10
− )
2000 × 10 2762 × 10−10

6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 1 1

= ( − )
10 −8 20 27.62

= 2.745 × 10−19 𝜙

(ii) We have,
1
𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙𝜙
2

2.745 × 10−19
𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙 = 1.715 𝜙𝜙
1.6 × 10−19

4) Calculate stopping potential for photo electrons emitted by Gold cathode if wavelength of incident
radiation is 2 × 10−7 𝑚. Given that the work function for gold is 4.80 𝑒𝑉.
( ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 ,1 𝜙𝜙 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝜙 𝜙𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙, 1 𝜙𝜙 = 1.6 × 10−19 𝜙 , 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙 𝜙 = 4.80 𝜙𝜙
𝜙 = 2 × 10−7 𝜙

1
We have, 2
𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙0 ) = 𝜙𝜙𝜙

𝜙𝜙𝜙 = ℎ𝜙 − ℎ𝜙0 = ℎ𝜙 − 𝜙

ℎ𝜙 𝜙 ℎ𝜙 𝜙
𝜙𝜙 = − = −
𝜙 𝜙 𝜙𝜙 𝜙

6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 4.80 × 1.6 × 10−19

= − = 1.404 𝜙
1.6 × 10−19 × 2 × 10 −7
1.6 × 10−19

5) Find the maximum energy of photoelectrons in 𝑒𝑉 when a light of frequency 1.5 × 109 𝑀𝐻𝑧 falls
on the metal surface for which threshold frequency is 1.2 × 109 𝑀𝐻𝑧.
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙s, 𝜙 = 1.5 × 109 𝜙𝜙𝜙, 𝜙0 = 1.2 × 109 𝜙𝐻𝜙

1
We have, 2
𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙0 )

= 6.63 × 10−34 (1.5 × 1019 − 1.2 × 1015 )

= 1.989 × 10−19 𝜙

1.989 × 10−19
= = 1.24 𝜙𝜙
1.6 × 10−19

6) Calculate velocity of photoelectrons if work function of 1.24 𝑒𝑉 and wavelength of incident light is
4.36 × 10−7 𝑚. What retarding potential is necessary to stop the emission of electron?
Solution:

Sem V U I 21
 Given: 𝜙 = 4.80 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 4.36 × 10−7 𝜙 ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙
ℎ𝜙
We have, 𝜙 = ℎ𝜙0 = 𝜙
0

ℎ𝜙 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

𝜙0 = = = 10.02 × 10−7 𝜙
𝜙 1.24 × 1.6 × 10 −19

The maximum kinetic energy of photo electrons,

1 𝜙 𝜙 1 1
𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙0 ) = ℎ ( − ) = ℎ𝜙 ( − )
2 𝜙 𝜙0 𝜙 𝜙0

1 1
= 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 ( −7 − )
4.36 × 10 10.02 × 10−7

= 2.577 × 10−19 𝜙

2 × 2.577 × 10−19
∴ 𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙 = −31
= 56.63 × 1010 𝜙/𝜙
9.1 × 10

∴ 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 7.52 × 105 𝜙/𝜙

he stopping potential is given by,

1
𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙2𝜙𝜙𝜙
2

2.577 × 10−19
𝜙𝜙 = = 1.61 𝜙
1.6 × 10−19

7) An x- ray photon of 0.3𝐴0 is scattered through an angle 450 by a loosely bound electron. Find the
wavelength of scattered photon. (ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠 )
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙, 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙

𝜙 = 0.3𝜙0 , 𝜙 = 450 , 𝜙0 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝜙𝜙

ℎ
We have, ∆ 𝜙 = (𝜙′ − 𝜙) = 𝜙 (1 − cos 𝜙)
0𝜙

ℎ
𝜙′ = 𝜙 + (1 − cos 𝜙)
𝜙0 𝜙

6.63 × 10−34
= 0.3 + −31 8
(1 − cos 450 )
9.11 × 10 × 3 × 10

= 0.3 + 0.02426(1 − 0.7071)

= 0.3 + 0.007106

= 0.3071 𝜙0

8) If the minimum wavelength recorded in an x-ray spectrum of a 50 𝑘𝑉 tube is 0.257𝐴0. Calculate the
value of Planck’s constant.
Solution:
Given: 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 0.257𝜙0 = 0.257 × 10−10 𝜙 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙

Sem V U I 22
 𝜙 = 50 𝜙𝜙 = 50 × 103 𝜙

𝜙ℎ
We have, 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙

𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 1.6 × 10−19 × 50 × 103 × 0.257 × 10−10

ℎ= = = 6.85 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙
𝜙 3 × 108

9) In a Compton scattering the incident photon have wavelength 3.0 × 10−10 𝑚 . Calculate the
wavelength of scattered radiation if they are viewed at an angle 600 to the direct radiation. (ℎ =
6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙, 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙 , 𝜙 = 600 , 𝜙 = 3.0 × 10−10 𝜙 = 3𝜙0
𝜙0 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝜙𝜙

ℎ
We have, ∆ 𝜙 = (𝜙′ − 𝜙) = 𝜙 (1 − cos 𝜙)
0𝜙

2ℎ 𝜙
𝜙′ = 𝜙 + 𝜙𝜙𝜙2 ( )
𝜙0 𝜙 2

2 × 6.63 × 10−34 600

= 3.0 + 8
𝜙𝜙𝜙2 ( )
9.11 × 10−31 × 3 × 10 2

1
= 3.0 + 2 × 0.02426 ( )
4

= 3.0 + 0.01213

= 3.012 𝜙0

10) A photon of energy 1.02 𝑀𝑒𝑉 is scattered through 900 by free electron. Calculate energy of
scattered photon. ( ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠, 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙, 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙, 𝜙 = 900 , 𝜙 = 1.02 𝜙𝜙𝜙
𝜙0 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝜙𝜙

ℎ
We have, ∆ 𝜙 = (𝜙′ − 𝜙) = 𝜙 (1 − cos 𝜙)
0𝜙

6.63 × 10−34
= (1 − cos 900 )
9.11 × 10−31 × 3 × 108

= 0.2426 × 10−11 × (1 − 0)

= 2.426 × 10−10 𝜙

The change in energy of scattered photon,

ℎ𝜙 6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108

∆ 𝜙 = ℎ∆ 𝜙 = = = 8.1986 × 10−16 𝜙
∆𝜙 2.426 × 10 −10

11) An X-ray with 𝜆 = 2.00𝐴0 is scattered from a cathode block and scattered radiation is viewed at an

Sem V U I 23
 angle 900 to the incident beam. Find Compton shift. ( ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚0 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔)
Solution:
Given : ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙 𝜙0 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 900

ℎ
We have, ∆ 𝜙 = (𝜙′ − 𝜙) = 𝜙 (1 − cos 𝜙)
0𝜙

6.63 × 10−34
= −31 8
(1 − cos 900 )
9.11 × 10 × 3 × 10

= 0.02426 × 10−10 (1 − 0)

= 0.02426 × 10−10 𝜙

= 0.02426 𝜙0

12) An X- ray Photon of frequency 1.5 × 1019 𝐻𝑧 is scattered by free electron and the scattered photon
has a frequency 1.2 × 1019 𝐻𝑧 . Find the change in energy of incident Photon. ( ℎ = 6.63 ×
10−34 𝐽𝑠 𝑐 = 3 × 108 𝑚/𝑠)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 , 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙 , 𝜙 = 1.5 × 1019 𝜙𝜙 𝜙′ =
1.2 × 1019 𝜙𝜙
We have, ∆ 𝜙 = ℎ∆ 𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙 − 𝜙′ )

= 6.63 × 10−34 (1.5 × 1019 − 1.2 × 1019 )

= 1.989 × 10−15 𝜙

13) If the uncertainty in position of electron is 4 × 10−10 𝑚, calculate uncertainty in momentum.

Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 ∆𝜙 = 4 × 10−10 𝜙

We have,

∆𝜙. ∆𝜙𝜙 ≈ ℎ

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
∆𝜙𝜙 = = −10
= 1.65 × 10−24 𝜙𝜙. 𝜙/𝜙
∆𝜙 4 × 10 𝜙

14) An electron has a speed of 300 𝑚/𝑠 accurate to 0.01%. With what fundamental accuracy we can
locate the position of electron. ( ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 300 𝜙/𝜙

The accuracy in speed is,

0.01
∆𝜙 = 0.01%𝜙 = 300 × = 0.03 𝜙/𝜙
100

∴ ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙𝜙 ≈ ℎ

Sem V U I 24
 ℎ ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
∆𝜙. = = = = 24.25 × 10−3 𝜙
∆𝜙𝜙 𝜙∆𝜙 9.11 × 10−31 × 0.03

15) The average period that elapses between the excitation of an atom and the time it emits radiation is
10−8 𝑠. Find the uncertainty in energy emitted and the uncertainty in the frequency emitted. (ℎ =
6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠, ℏ = 1.054 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙, ℏ = 1.054 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 ∆𝜙 = 10−8 𝜙

We have, ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ

ℏ 1.054 × 10−34
∆𝜙 = = = 1.054 × 10−26 𝜙
∆𝜙 10−8

∴ The uncertainty in frequency is given by,

∆𝜙 = ℎ∆𝜙

∆𝜙 1.054 × 10−26
∆𝜙 = = = 1.59 × 107 𝜙𝜙
ℎ 6.63 × 10 −34

16) Using the uncertainty relation ∆𝐸. ∆𝑡 ≈ ℏ, calculate the time required for atomic system to retain the
excitation energy for a line of wavelength 6000 𝐴0 and width 10−4 𝐴0 .
Solution:
Given: 𝜙 = 6000 𝜙0 ∆𝜙 = 10−4 𝜙0 ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 3 × 108 𝜙/𝜙
ℏ = 1.054 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙

We have, 𝜙 = ℎ𝜙

𝜙 𝜙 𝜙2 − 𝜙1 ∆𝜙
∆𝜙 = ℎ∆𝜙 = ℎ(𝜙1 −𝜙2 ) = ℎ ( − ) = ℎ𝜙 ( ) = ℎ𝜙 2
𝜙1 𝜙2 𝜙1 𝜙2 𝜙

(∵ 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 𝜙1 = 𝜙2 = 𝜙)

6.63 × 10−34 × 3 × 108 × 10−4

∆𝜙 = = 0.5525 × 10−16 𝜙
6000 × 10−10 × 6000 × 10−10

ℏ 1.054 × 10−34
∴ ∆𝜙 = = = 1.90 × 10−18 𝜙
∆𝜙 0.5525 × 10−16

17) Find the deBroglie wavelength (i) if electron is moving with velocity 1000 𝑚/𝑠. (ii) an object of
mass 100 𝑔𝑚 is moving with same velocity. (ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 𝜙𝜙 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 1000 𝜙/𝜙

(i) The deBroglie wavelength of electron is,

ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝜙= = = 7285 × 10−10 𝜙 = 7285 𝜙0
𝜙𝜙 9.11 × 10−31 × 1000

(ii) Given: mass of object 𝑚 = 100𝑔𝑚 = 0.1𝑘𝑔

The deBroglie wavelength of object is,

Sem V U I 25
 ℎ 6.63 × 10−34
𝜙= = = 8.63 × 10−36 𝜙 = 8.63 × 10−26 𝜙0
𝜙𝜙 0.1 × 1000
The deBroglie wavelength of object is extremely small and hence the wave behavior
of object cannot be demonstrated.

18) Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of electron with kinetic energy 3 𝑒𝑉 .( ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠
𝑚𝑒 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔)
Solution:
Given: ℎ = 6.63 × 10−34 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 3 𝜙𝜙 = 3 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝜙

The deBroglie wavelength is given by,

ℎ ℎ 6.63 × 10−34 6.63 × 10−34

𝜙= = 𝜙= = =
𝜙 √2𝜙𝜙 √2 × 9.11 × 10−31 × 3 × 1.6 × 10−19 9.35 × 10
−25

= 0.7090 × 10−9 𝜙 = 7.090 𝜙0 = 7.1 𝜙0

19) The radius of first Bohr orbit in hydrogen atom is 0.53 𝐴0 . Find the wavelength of electron travelling
along the first Bohr orbit.
Solution:
Given: 𝜙 = 0.53 𝜙0 = 0.53 × 10−10 𝜙

The angular momentum of electron in first orbit is,

𝜙ℎ ℎ
𝜙𝜙𝜙 = 2𝜙 = 2𝜙 (∵ 𝜙 = 1)

ℎ
𝜙𝜙 = 2𝜙𝜙

The deBroglie wavelength of electron is,

ℎ ℎ
𝜙= = = 2𝜙𝜙 = 2 × 3.14 × 0.53 = 3.3 𝜙0
𝜙𝜙 ℎ
2𝜙𝜙

20) An electron is accelerated by potential difference 5000 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡. Find the deBroglie wavelength.
Solution:
Given: 𝜙 = 5000 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙

The deBroglie wavelength of electron is given by,

12.26 12.26 12.26 0

𝜙= 𝜙0 = 𝜙0 = 𝜙 = 0.1730𝜙0
√𝜙 √5000 70.71

FILL IN THE BLANKS

(1) The quantum mechanics deals with the study of motion of .............. particles.
(2) The radiation consists of bundles or packets of energy called as ..............
(3) The energy associated with Photon of light of classical frequency 𝜈 and energy 𝐸 is ..............
(4) The retarding potential which stops the electrons of maximum kinetic energy is called as ..............

Sem V U I 26
 (5) According to Einstein the stopping potential should depend on ..............
(6) The frequency below which no Photoelectric effect is observed is called as ..............
(7) The relation .............. is called as deBroglie relation.
(8) The localized structure formed by superposition of large number of waves is called as ..............
(9) The wave function representing the particle of energy 𝐸 and momentum 𝑝 is given by ..............
(10)The uncertainty relation for momentum and space is mathematically stated as ..............
(11)The photoelectric effect is the emission of .............. from metal when they are illuminated by light
of suitable wavelength.
(12)The photoelectric emission depends upon both .............. of emitter and quality of light used.
(13)The maximum energy with which photoelectrons are ejected from a given metal surface is entirely
independent .............. of light but depends only on frequency of light.
(14)There exists a critical frequency known as .............. frequency for each emitter below which no
photoelectric emission is possible no matter how high the intensity of light is.
(15)Compton experimentally found that the spectrum of scattered X-ray in addition to the classical
incident wavelength, another line of .............. wavelength, the wavelength increases with the angle
at which scattering is observed.
(16)According to Compton theory the wavelength increase ∆𝜆 is .............. of the incident wavelength
and is the same for all substances containing free electrons.
(17)We can expect particles to exhibit the properties of .............. under appropriate circumstances.
(18)The wavelength of wave associated with particle is given by the relation ..............
(19)deBroglie wave group associated with a moving body travels with the .............. velocity as the
body.
(20)According to uncertainty principle the exact location of position of particle and exact determination
of its momentum cannot be affected ..............
(21)The product of uncertainty in position of body at some instant and the uncertainty in its momentum
is at best equal to ..............

ANSWERS:

(1) Microscopic (2) photons (3) 𝜙 = ℎ 𝜙 (4) stopping potential (5) frequency of radiation (6) threshold
−𝜙⁄ (𝜙𝜙−𝜙𝜙)
frequency (7) 𝜙 = ℎ/𝜙 (8) wave packet (9) 𝜙(𝜙,𝜙) = 𝜙𝜙 ℏ (10) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙𝜙 = ℎ/2 (11)

electrons (12) nature (13) intensity (14) threshold (15) longer (16) independent (17) wave (18) ℎ/𝜙𝜙
(19) same (20) simultaneously (21) ℏ

CHOOSE THE CORRECT ALTERNATIVES:

(1) The law which can successfully explain the experimental distribution of energy density over the entire
range of wavelength is
a) Wein's law b) Stephen's law c) Rayleigh Jean's law d) Planck’s law

(2) The problem of ultraviolet catastrophe arose while explaining

a) Stephen's law b) Rayleigh Jean's law c) Planck's law d) Wein's law

(3) The Planck's radiation law fits the experimental spectral distribution curve in
a) Short wavelength range b) In long wavelength range
c) In entire wavelength range d) None of the above

Sem V U I 27
(4) Classically the potential and hence kinetic energy should depend on
a) Intensity b) frequency c) wavelength d) none of the above

(5) By uncertainty principle what happens to the uncertainty in momentum if we try to measure the
position of particle with greater accuracy.
a) it tends to be infinite b) it does not change
c) it decreases d) none of the above

(6) In Photoelectric effect the electrons are not emitted by photosensitive material unless
a) velocity of incident light exceed s certain minimum velocity
b) frequency of incident light exceeds a certain minimum frequency
c) wavelength of incident light exceeds a certain minimum wavelength
d) none of these

(7) What happens when the light intensity incident on a photoelectric surface is doubled?
a) the frequency of emitted photons is doubled b) the number of photons is doubled
c) the number of photons becomes 4 times d) there is no effect at all

(8) Choose the incorrect statement.

a) the number of photoelectrons emitted is proportional to intensity of light
b) the velocity of photoelectrons is directly proportional to wavelength of light.
c) the velocity of photoelectrons is inversely proportional to the wavelength of light
d) none of these

(9) The phenomenon of ejection of electron from the surface of metals when light of suitable wavelength
falls on it is known as
a) electrolysis b) Photoelectric effect c) ionization d) Radioactivity

(10) The idea of quantum nature of light has emerged in an attempt to explain
a) Thermal radiation of black body b) Radioactivity
c) fusion d) Interference of light

(11) Photo electric cell is a device which converts

a) light energy into electrical energy b) chemical energy into electrical energy
c) electric energy into light energy d) magnetic energy into electrical energy

(12) The threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission from a material is 5200𝐴0 . Photoelectrons
will be emitted when this material is illuminated with monochromatic radiation from a,
a) 50 Watt infrared lamp b) 1 Watt infrared lamp
c) 50 Watt ultraviolet lamp d) 1 Watt ultraviolet lamp

(13) The energy of photon corresponding to the visible light of maximum wavelength is
approximately
a) 1 𝜙𝜙 b) 1.6 𝜙𝜙 c) 3.2 𝜙𝜙 d) 7 𝜙𝜙

(14) The work function of the metal is ∅ and frequency of incident light is 𝝂 there is no emission of
photoelectron when

Sem V U I 28
 a) 𝜙 < 𝜙/ℎ b) 𝜙 = 𝜙/ℎ
c) 𝜙 > 𝜙/ℎ d) 𝜙 ≥ 𝜙/ℎ

(15) Lights of two different frequencies whose photons have energy is 1 and 2.5 𝑒𝑉 respectively,
successively illuminate metal whose work function is 0.5 𝑒𝑉. The ratio of maximum speed of the
emitted electrons will be
a) 1: 5 b) 1: 4 c) 1: 2 d) 1: 1

(16) The work function of photoelectric material is 3.3 𝑒𝑉. The threshold frequency will be equal to
a) 8 × 1014 𝜙𝜙 b) 8 × 1010 𝜙𝜙 c) 5 × 1020 𝜙𝜙 d) 4 × 1014 𝜙𝜙

(17) If the energy of photon corresponding to wavelength 6000 𝐴 0 is 3.32 × 10−19 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 , the
photon energy for a wavelength of 4000𝐴0 will be
a) 1.1 × 10−19 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 b) 2.22 × 10−19 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙
c) 4.4 × 10−19 𝑗𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 d) 4.98 × 10−19 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙

(18) Monochromatic light incident on a metal surface emits electron with kinetic energy from 0 to
2.6 𝑒𝑉. What is the least incident energy if the tightly bound electron needs 4.2 𝑒𝑉 to remove,
a) 1.6 𝜙𝜙 b) from 1. 6 𝜙𝜙 to 6.8 𝜙𝜙 c) 6.8 𝜙𝜙 d) greater than 6.8 𝜙𝜙

(19) The work function of photoelectric materials 3.3 𝑒𝑉 . The threshold frequency will be equal to
a) 8 × 1014 𝐻𝑧 b) 5 × 1036 𝐻𝑧 c) 8 × 1010 𝐻𝑧 d) 4 × 1011 𝐻𝑧

(20) The threshold wavelength for a certain metal is 2750 𝐴0 . The minimum energy of photon
producing the photoelectric effect is
a) 0.45 𝜙𝜙 b) 4.5 𝜙𝜙 c) 0.04 𝜙𝜙 d) 0.0045 𝜙𝜙

(21) Which of the following is correct statement.

a) only charged particle in motion are accompanied by matter waves
b) any particle in motion whether charged or uncharged is accompanied by matter waves
c) no particle whether at rest or in motion is ever accompanied by matter waves
d) only subatomic particle in motion are accompanied by matter waves.

(22) Davisson and Germer experiment relates to

a) Interference b) polarization
c) Electron diffraction d) Phosphorence

(23) Which of the following statement about the energy in Quantum is true.
a) varies directly with frequency b) varies inversely with frequency
c) same for all frequencies d) none of these

(24) The wavelength 𝜆 associated with particle of mass 𝑚 moving with velocity 𝑣 is given by
a) 𝜙 = ℎ⁄𝜙𝜙 b) 𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙/ℎ
c) 𝜆 = ℎ𝜙⁄𝜙 d) 𝜙 = 𝜙⁄ℎ𝜙

(25) The product of uncertainties between position and Momentum is given by

Sem V U I 29
 a) Δ𝜙. Δ𝜙𝜙 ≈ 𝜙 b) Δ𝜙. Δ𝜙𝜙 ≈ ℎ
c) Δ𝜙. Δ𝜙𝜙 ≈ 𝜙ℎ d) Δ𝜙. Δ𝜙𝜙 ≈ 𝜙𝜙

(26) The equation of motion of matter waves was derived by

a) Heisenberg b) Bohr c) deBroglie d) Schrodinger

(27) The deBroglie wave associated with a moving particle is generally

a) a finite monochromatic wave train travelling with velocity less than that of light
b) an infinite monochromatic wave train having the phase velocity greater than that of light
c) a wave packet having group velocity equal to that of moving particle
d) none of these

(28) The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is

ℎ ℎ ℎ ℎ
a) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ 2𝜙 b) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ 2𝜙 c) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ 2𝜙 d) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ 2𝜙

(29) The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle is

ℏ
a) ∆𝜙𝜙 . ∆𝜙 ≥ 2
b) ∆𝜙𝜙 . ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ c) ∆𝜙𝜙 . ∆𝜙 ≥ 2ℏ d) ∆𝜙𝜙 . ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ2

(30) The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle in term of angular momentum and angular position is
a) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ b) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ2 ⁄2 c) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ2 d) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ⁄2

(31) The relation between de-Broglie wave group velocity 𝑣𝑔 and particle velocity 𝑣 is
a) 𝜙𝜙 > 𝜙 b) 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙 c) 𝜙𝜙 < 𝜙 d) none of these

(32) The relation between de-Broglie wave phase velocity 𝑣𝑝 and velocity of light 𝑐 is
a) 𝜙𝜙 > 𝜙 b) 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙 c) 𝜙𝜙 < 𝜙 d) none of these

(33) The phenomenon which points towards corpuscular nature of electromagnetic waves is
a) interference b) diffraction c) polarization d) Compton effect

(34) The shift in wavelength ∆𝜆 in Compton effect is equal to Compton wavelength when
a) 𝜙 = 0 b) 𝜙 = 𝜙⁄2 c) 𝜙 = 𝜙 d) 𝜙 = 𝜙⁄4

(35) Relative to original photon, the photon that emerges from a collision with electron has
a) more frequency b) more wavelength c)more energy d) more velocity

ANSWERS:
(1) d) Planck's law (2) b) Rayleigh Jean's law (3) c) in entire wavelength range (4) a)
intensity (5) a) it tends to be infinite (6) b) frequency of incident light exceeds a certain minimum
frequency (7) b) the number of photons is doubled (8) c) the velocity of photoelectrons is
inversely proportional to the wavelength of light (9) b) Photoelectric effect (10) a) thermal
radiation of black body (11) a) light energy into electrical energy (12) c) 50 Watt ultraviolet lamp
(13) b) 1.6 𝜙𝜙 (14) a) 𝜙 < 𝜙/ℎ
(15) c) 1: 2 (16) a) 8 × 10 14 𝜙𝜙 (17) d) 4.98 × 10−19 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙 (18) c) 6.8 𝜙𝜙

Sem V U I 30
(19) a) 8 × 10 14 𝜙𝜙 (20) b) 4.5 𝜙𝜙 (21) b) any particle in motion whether charged or uncharged is
accompanied by matter waves (22) c) electron diffraction (23) a) varies directly with
frequency (24) a) 𝜙 = ℎ⁄𝜙𝜙 (25) b) Δ𝜙. Δ𝜙𝜙 ≈ ℎ (26) c) deBroglie
(27) c) a wave packet having group velocity equal to that of moving particle
ℎ
(28) b) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ 2𝜙 (29) b) ∆𝜙𝜙 . ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ (30) a) ∆𝜙. ∆𝜙 ≥ ℏ (31) b) 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙 (32) a)

𝜙𝜙 > 𝜙 (33) d) Compton effect (34) b) 𝜙 = 𝜙⁄2 (35) b) more wavelength

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS:

(1) What is black body radiation?

Ans: The perfectly Black body is one which absorbs all the radiations of all wavelengths incident upon
it and emits radiations of all wavelengths when heated. The radiations emitted by perfectly black body
are called as black body radiation.

(2) State Wein's displacement law.

Ans: For a given temperature the energy density corresponding to the certain wavelength (𝜙𝜙 ) is
maximum. As the temperature of radiator is increased this wavelength (𝜙𝜙 ) corresponding to
maximum energy density is shifted towards shorter wavelength. It was experimentally found by Wein
that, 𝜙𝜙 𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙𝜙. This is known as Wien's displacement law.

(3) State Stephen's law.

Ans: At any temperature the total energy density over entire range is proportional to the fourth power
of absolute temperature. Mathematically, u= ∫ 𝜙𝜙 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙4 . This is known as Stephen’s fourth
power law.

(4) What is ultraviolet catastrophe?

Ans: Mathematically, Rayleigh jean’s law for the energy density over the wavelength 𝜙 to 𝜙 + 𝜙𝜙
8𝜙𝜙𝜙
is, 𝜙𝜙 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙4
𝜙𝜙. This equation predicts infinite energy density at extremely short wavelength

like ultraviolet rays. This discrepancy between theory and experiment is known as ultraviolet
catastrophe.

(5) What is Photon?

Ans: According to Planck, the radiation consists of bundles or packets of energy called as a photons
and shows particle properties. For a radiation of given frequency 𝜙 the energy of photon is given as
𝜙 = ℎ𝜙 . Photon travels with speed of light and has zero rest mass.

(6) What is Photoelectric effect?

Ans: The emission of electrons from the metal surface when exposed to the light of suitable frequency
is called as Photoelectric effect.

(7) What is stopping potential or cutoff potential?

Ans: In Photoelectric effect as the potential at collector is made negative, it retards the motion of
electrons thereby reducing the photoelectric current. As the retarding potential is increased more and
more, electrons are retarded. At a particular value of potential the photoelectric current is reduced to
zero stopping even the fastest electron. This potential is called as the stopping potential or cut off
potential.

Sem V U I 31
(8) What is Compton effect?
Ans: When a beam of monochromatic radiation of 𝜙- ray is scattered by some light element like
carbon, the scattered radiation consists of original wavelength 𝜙 as well as wavelength 𝜙′ which is
higher than the original wavelength (𝜙′ > 𝜙) . This phenomenon is known as the Compton effect.
This difference in wavelength (𝜙′ − 𝜙) = ∆𝜙 is called as Compton shift.

(9) State de Broglie hypothesis.

Ans: The radiation exhibits particle like properties in addition to wave nature. In 1924 deBroglie
made a hypothesis that, wave particle duality is not a restricted to radiation but must be universal and
all the material particles (electrons, protons, neutrons) also should exhibit dual wave particle behavior.

(10) What is deBroglie relation?

Ans: Each material particle of momentum 𝒑 behaves as group of waves (matter waves) whose
wavelength is governed by speed and mass of particle. The relation for wavelength of matter wave is
given by,
ℎ ℎ
𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙, This relation is called as deBroglie relation.

(11) What is wave packet?

Ans: The single wave cannot represent the particle as it does not have localized structure. Therefore
the material particle is represented by superposition of large number of waves of varying wavelength
and phases. The amplitude and phases of the interfering wave are so chosen that they interfere
constructively over a region where particle can be located and outside this region waves interfere
destructively. This resultant wave is called as wave packets and it moves with the particle.

(12) What is phase velocity?

Ans: The velocity with which a given phase moves in a forward direction is called as phase velocity.
For a single wave, it is also called as wave velocity and is given by, 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙/𝜙.

(13) What is group velocity?

Ans: The material particle is represented by wave a packet which is formed by superposition of group
of waves. This group of those moves with its own velocity known as group velocity 𝜙𝜙 . It can be
shown to be equal to particle velocity i.e. 𝜙𝜙 = 𝜙.

(14) State Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle.

Ans: In quantum mechanics the motion of particle is represented by wave packet. The wave packet has
some spread in space as well as in momentum. Therefore, the concept of exact position and exact
momentum are no longer valid in quantum mechanics. The position of particle and its momentum
cannot be measured accurately at same instant. Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle put the limits to the
accuracy in simultaneous measurement of position of particle and its momentum and stated as follows.
The product of uncertainties or inaccuracies in simultaneous measurement of position and its
momentum is always greater than ℏ/2.
∆𝜙. ∆𝜙𝜙 ≥ ℏ/2.
where, ∆𝜙 = uncertainty in measurement of position
∆𝜙𝜙 = uncertainty in measurement of momentum

Sem V U I 32
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS AND LAWS:

(1) Black body: The body which absorbs all the radiations incident on it is called as perfectly black
body.
(2) Black body radiation: The radiations emitted by black body when it is heated are known as black
body radiations.
(3) Wien's displacement law: The product of wavelength corresponding to maximum energy density
of black body radiation and the temperature at which it emits radiations is constant.
(4) Stephen Boltzmann's law: The law states that at any temperature the total energy density of black
body radiation for the entire range of wavelength is equal to area under the curve and proportional
to the fourth power of absolute temperature.
(5) Ultraviolet catastrophe: The disastrous failure of classical theory i.e Rayleigh Jean's law in
explaining the black body radiation in short wavelength region such as ultraviolet rays, X rays and
gamma rays is known as ultraviolet catastrophe.
(6) Photon: The light or any electromagnetic radiation consists of bundles or packets of energy called
as photon which travels with speed of light and has a zero rest mass.
(7) Photoelectric effect: The phenomenon of emission or ejection of electrons from metal surface when
illuminated or irradiated by light or any other radiation of suitable frequency or wavelength is
known as Photoelectric effect.
(8) Photoelectrons: The electrons emitted or ejected from metal surface when irradiated by light or
radiation of suitable frequency are known as photoelectrons.
(9) Photoelectric current: The current flowing in circuit due to photoelectrons in photoelectric effect is
known as photoelectric current.
(10) Threshold frequency: The minimum frequency of incident radiation for a given metal which can
cause the photoelectric emission is called as threshold frequency.
(11) Threshold wavelength: The longest or maximum wavelength of incident radiation above which
photoelectric emission is not possible from the given metal surface is called as threshold
wavelength.
(12) Stopping or cut off potential: The minimum negative potential applied to anode or collector plate
at which photoelectric current becomes zero is called as stopping potential or cut off potential or
retarding potential.
(13) Work function: The minimum energy required to release or escape or eject or emit an electron
from metal surface is known as work function.
(14) Compton effect: The phenomenon in which, when a beam of monochromatic X-ray is scattered
by light elements such as carbon, then scattered radiation in addition to radiation of initial
wavelength also contain the radiation of higher wavelength is known as Compton effect.
(15) Compton shift: The difference in wavelength of scattered X-ray radiation and wavelength of
incident X-ray radiation in Compton effect is called as Compton shift.
(16) Modified line: In Compton effect scattered X-ray radiation having wavelength higher than the
wavelength of incident X-ray radiation is called as modified line.
(17) Unmodified line: In Compton effect scattered X-ray radiation having wavelength same as that of
the incident X-ray radiation is known as unmodified line.
(18) Compton wavelength of electron: The wavelength of scattered radiation whose photon has
Energy equal to rest mass energy of electron is known as Compton wavelength of electron.
(19) de-Broglie hypothesis: de-Broglie hypothesis states that moving particle behaves like wave of
definite wavelength i.e. all the material particle exhibit a dual nature (particle as well as wave
nature).
(20) Wave velocity or phase velocity: The velocity with which wave travels or propagates in forward

Sem V U I 33
 direction is called as wave velocity or phase velocity.
(21) Particle velocity: The velocity with which particle moves is called as particle velocity.
(22) Group velocity: The resultant of two or more waves after superposition consists of group of wave
which travels with its own velocity is called as group velocity (The velocity with which the wave
packet i.e. group of waves after superposition of large number of waves travels is called as group
velocity)
(23) Wave packet: The resultant wave obtained by superposition of large number of waves each with
slightly different velocity and wavelength with the phases and amplitude so chosen that they
interfere constructively over a small region of space where particle is located and destructively
outside this region is called as wave packet.
(24) Dispersive Medium: The medium in which the phase or wave velocity of waves changes with
wavelength is called as dispersive medium.
(25) Non dispersive medium: The medium in which the phase or wave velocity of all waves of
different wavelength remains same is called as non dispersive medium.
(26) Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle: The Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle states that the least
product of uncertainties or errors or inaccuracies in simultaneous measurement of the position and
momentum of particle is greater than or equal to ℏ i.e never less than ℏ.

QUESTIONS:
1) What is black body?
2) What is black body radiation?
3) Describe the spectral distribution of black body radiation.
4) State Wien's displacement law.
5) Explain Wien's law of blackbody radiation.
6) In which region of spectrum Wien's law fits with the experimental curves?
7) Explain Rayleigh Jean's law of blackbody radiation.
8) What is ultraviolet catastrophe?
9) State Planck's assumption for the explanation of black body spectrum .
10) What is photon?
11) State mathematical form of Planck's law of radiation.
12) What is photoelectric effect?
13) State the important observations in photoelectric effect.
14) State Einstein's photoelectric equation. Explain how it explains the experimental observation.
15) What is cut off potential ?
16) What is threshold frequency?
17) How does classical electromagnetic theory failed to explain Photoelectric effect?
18) What is photoelectric work function?
19) What is threshold wavelength?
20) What is Compton effect ?
21) What are modified and unmodified lines?
22) What is Compton wavelength of electron?
23) State an expression for Compton shift .
24) Explain the presence of unmodified line in Compton effect.
25) Discuss Davison and Germer experiment of electron diffraction supporting the existence of matter
waves.
26) What is de-Broglie hypothesis?
27) Show that the wavelength associated with electron of mass 𝑚 and kinetic energy 𝐸 is given by , 𝜆 =

Sem V U I 34
 ℎ⁄√2𝑚𝐸 .
28) Show that group velocity is equal to particle velocity .
29) Define (i) phase velocity and (ii) group velocity.
30) What is the relation between group velocity and particle velocity?
31) State mathematical equation to represent a wave function of particle of momentum 𝑝 and Energy 𝐸 .
Why single wave is not sufficient to represent the material particle?
32) What is wave packet?
33) Show that the wave packet represents the particle and the group velocity is equal to particle velocity.
34) Obtain the relation between group velocity 𝑣𝑔 and phase velocity 𝑣𝑝 . Show that for non dispersive
medium both are same.
35) State Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
36) State and explain Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
37) Describe Gamma ray microscope to prove the validity of Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.
38) Describe single slit diffraction of electron to support Heisenberg uncertainty principle.
39) A beam of short wavelength gives accurately the position of particle, justify.
40) Show that an electron cannot exist in the nucleus of radius in the range 10−14 𝑚 on the basis of
uncertainty principle.
41) By applying uncertainty principle explain non existence of electron in the atomic nucleus.
42) Derive a formula expressing de Broglie wavelength of an electron in terms of potential difference
𝑉 through which it is accelerated.
43) Why cannot we observe de Broglie wavelength with fast moving cricket ball?
44) Photoelectric and Compton Effect both arise due to the action of photon on electron, but the two
effects are not same. Explain?

PROBLEMS FOR EXERCISE:

(1) The threshold frequency for photoelectric emission in copper is 1.1 × 1014 Hz . Find maximum
energy in eV when light of frequency 1.2 × 1015 Hz is directed on the copper surface. ( Ans:
0.414 𝑒𝑉).
(2) Calculate the work function in electron volt of metal, given that photoelectric threshold
wavelength is 6800A0. ( Ans: 1.828 𝑒𝑉)
(3) The threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission in tungsten is 230 𝑛𝑚. What
wavelength of incident like must be used in order to eject electron with a maximum velocity of
5 × 105 𝑚/𝑠. (Ans: 203 𝑛𝑚)
(4) A copper surface is irradiated by light of wavelength 1849 A0 , stopping potential is
2.72 𝑉.Calculate the work function and threshold frequency. (Ans: 3.99𝑒𝑉, 0.965 × 1016 𝐻𝑧)
(5) The work function of sodium metal is 2.3 𝑒𝑉 . What is the longest wavelength of light that can
cause photoelectric emission from sodium. (Ans: 5405𝐴0 )
(6) Light of wavelength 3000 A0 falls on metal surface having work function 2.3 𝑒𝑉. Calculate the
maximum velocity of ejected electron.( 8 × 105 𝑚/𝑠)
(7) An X- ray photon is found to have doubled its wavelength on being scattered by 900 . Find the
energy and wavelength of incident photon.( 0.51𝑒𝑉, 0.02425𝐴0 )
(8) In an experiment on Compton scattering X-rays of wavelength 10−10 m incident on scatterer.
Calculate wavelength of X-rays scatted in backward direction. (1.0484 A0 )
(9) The energy required to remove an electron from sodium is 2.3 eV. Will the metal show
photoelectric effect for light of 6800 𝐴0 . (Ans: No)
(10) Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of an average Helium atom in furnace of 400 K .
Planck's constant ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 and Boltzmann's constant 𝑘 = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾 and

Sem V U I 35
 1 3
mass of neutron 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔. (Hint: 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 𝑘𝑇 , Ans: 0.62𝐴0 )

(11) Calculate the wavelength of thermal neutrons at 270 C .Given mass of neutron =
1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔 , Planck's constant ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 and Boltzmann's constant 𝑘 =
1.376 × 10−23 𝐽/𝐾. (1.452 𝐴0 )
(12) Calculate the de-Broglie wavelength of 1 MeV Proton. Do we require relativistic
calculation.(Given mass of proton= 1.67 × 10−27 kg (Ans: 2.86 × 10−14 m).
(13) An electron and proton have wavelength of 2 𝐴0 . What are their momenta and total
m
energies.(Ans: Ee = 37.5 eV, me v = 3.31 × 10−24 kg. s , Ep = 0.02 eV,

mp v = 3.31 × 10−24 k. gm/s)

(14) An electron and proton have the same de-Broglie wavelength. Prove that the kinetic
energy of the electron is greater than that of proton.
(15) A proton and an electron have equal kinetic energies. Compare their de-
Brogliewavelengths.
(16) What is the wavelength associated with the electron accelerated through 1000V.
(Ans: 0.338A0)
(17) What voltage must be applied to an electron microscope to produce electron of
wavelength 1 𝐴0 . ( Ans: 150𝑉)
(18) The position and momentum of 5 k eV electrons are simultaneously determined. If its
position is located within 0.2 𝑛𝑚. What is the percentage of uncertainty in its momentum?
(Ans:2.2%)
(19) Calculate the uncertainty in measurement of momentum of an electron if the
uncertainty in locating it is 1 A0 . (Ans: 5.2 × 10−25 kg. m/s)
(20) An electron has momentum 5.4 × 10−26 kg. m/s with an accuracy of 0.05%. Find the
minimum uncertainty in the location of electron. (Ans: 1.96 × 10−6 𝑚)
(21) An electron has a speed of 6.6 × 104 m/s within an accuracy of 0.01%. Calculate
uncertainty in position of electron. Given ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 and 𝑚 = 9.1 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔 .
(Ans: 8.75 × 10−6 𝑚)

Sem V U I 36