Chapter: How Do Organisms Reproduce?

Introduction
• Reproduction: The biological process by which
organisms produce new individuals of the same
species. It ensures the continuity of life.
• Significance:
o While reproduction is not essential for an
individual’s survival, it is crucial for maintaining
the existence of species.
o Allows transfer of genetic material from one
generation to another.
o Variations introduced during reproduction play
a vital role in species’ survival and evolution.

7.1 Do Organisms Create Exact Copies of Themselves?

• DNA and Similarity:
o Organisms look similar because their body
designs are dictated by DNA.
o DNA acts as a blueprint for building and
maintaining body structures.
• DNA Copying:
o During reproduction, DNA must be copied to
pass genetic information to offspring.
 o Copying is not perfectly accurate, leading to
minor variations.
o Variations occur due to errors in DNA replication
and are mostly subtle.
• Role of Variations:
o Ensure survival in changing environments by
introducing traits better suited to new
conditions.
o Example: Heat-resistant bacteria surviving in
warmer waters due to genetic variations.

7.2 Modes of Reproduction Used by Single Organisms

7.2.1 Fission
• A form of asexual reproduction seen in unicellular
organisms.
• Binary Fission: The parent organism splits into two
equal and identical halves (e.g., Amoeba).
• Multiple Fission: The parent cell divides into many
daughter cells simultaneously (e.g., Plasmodium).
7.2.2 Fragmentation
• Multi-cellular organisms with simple structures break
into fragments.
 • Each fragment grows into a new individual (e.g.,
Spirogyra).
7.2.3 Regeneration
• Organisms regenerate body parts that develop into
complete individuals.
o Example: Planaria, Hydra.
• Note: Regeneration is not the primary mode of
reproduction for most organisms.
7.2.4 Budding
• A small outgrowth called a bud develops on the
parent organism.
• The bud grows, matures, and detaches to form a new
individual (e.g., Hydra, yeast).
7.2.5 Vegetative Propagation
• Seen in plants; new individuals grow from roots,
stems, or leaves.
o Examples: Sugarcane, jasmine, rose,
Bryophyllum (buds form on leaf edges).
• Advantages:
o Faster reproduction compared to seeds.
o Plants retain parental traits and can reproduce
even if seeds are not viable.
7.2.6 Spore Formation
 • Spores are specialized reproductive structures with
thick walls for protection.
• When conditions are favorable, spores germinate
and grow into new individuals.
o Example: Rhizopus (bread mold).

7.3 Sexual Reproduction

7.3.1 Why Sexual Reproduction?
• Involves the fusion of gametes from two parents.
• Produces offspring with unique genetic
combinations, increasing variation.
• Gametes:
o Male gamete (sperm): Small, motile, and
produced in large numbers.
o Female gamete (egg): Large, immobile, and
nutrient-rich.
7.3.2 Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants
• Structure of a Flower:
o Stamen (male part): Produces pollen containing
male gametes.
o Pistil (female part): Contains ovary with ovules
(female gametes).
 • Process:
1. Pollination: Transfer of pollen from stamen to
stigma.
▪ Self-pollination: Pollen transferred within
the same flower.
▪ Cross-pollination: Pollen transferred
between flowers by wind, water, or
animals.
2. Fertilization: Pollen tube carries male gamete to
ovule, where fusion occurs to form a zygote.
3. Post-Fertilization:
▪ Zygote develops into an embryo.
▪ Ovule becomes a seed; ovary ripens into a
fruit.
7.3.3 Reproduction in Human Beings
(a) Male Reproductive System
• Testes: Produce sperm and the hormone
testosterone.
• Scrotum: Keeps testes at a temperature suitable for
sperm production.
• Vas Deferens: Transports sperm from testes.
• Seminal Vesicles and Prostate Gland: Add fluids to
sperm, forming semen.
 • Urethra: Common passage for semen and urine.
(b) Female Reproductive System
• Ovaries: Produce eggs (ova) and hormones.
• Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts): Site of fertilization;
transport eggs to the uterus.
• Uterus: Supports the growth and development of
the embryo.
• Vagina: Receives sperm and serves as the birth canal.
(c) Fertilization and Development
• Fertilization occurs when sperm and egg meet in the
fallopian tube.
• Zygote Development:
o Zygote divides to form an embryo, which
implants in the uterus.
o Placenta: A tissue that exchanges nutrients and
waste between mother and fetus.
o Pregnancy lasts about nine months.
(d) Menstruation
• Occurs if the egg is not fertilized.
• The uterine lining sheds and is expelled as menstrual
flow every 28 days.
7.3.4 Reproductive Health
 • Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):
o Bacterial: Gonorrhea, syphilis.
o Viral: HIV-AIDS, genital warts.
• Contraceptive Methods:
o Barrier methods: Prevent sperm-egg contact
(e.g., condoms).
o Hormonal methods: Prevent ovulation (e.g.,
oral pills).
o Intrauterine devices: Prevent implantation (e.g.,
Copper-T).
o Surgical methods: Sterilization (e.g., vasectomy,
tubectomy).
• Importance: Ensures physical well-being, prevents
unwanted pregnancies, and controls population
growth.

Key Questions
1. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission?
2. Why is variation beneficial to species?
3. What are the advantages of sexual reproduction over
asexual reproduction?
4. How does the embryo get nourishment inside the
mother?
 5. What are the different methods of contraception?

Summary
• Reproduction ensures species continuity and
introduces genetic variation.
• Asexual reproduction involves single organisms
creating genetically identical offspring.
• Sexual reproduction combines genetic material from
two parents, increasing variation.
• Human reproduction involves specialized male and
female systems.
• Reproductive health is crucial for individual and
societal well-being.