PHY 103 Discovery Labs: Quantization of light

Danciu Cezara Cherif Omar

January 24, 2025

Contents
1 Introduction 2

2 Measuring Planck’s constant using LEDs : 2

2.1 LEDs: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 The Experiment : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Results: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.4 Determining Planck’s constant : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

3 The Photoelectric Effect: 7

3.1 The Photoelectric apparatus : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 Determination of the stopping voltage : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Stopping Voltage in function of light intensity : . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Stopping voltage as a function of the LED frequency: . . . . . . . . . . 9

4 Conclusion : 10

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1 Introduction
The nature of light has long been a subject that intrigued physicists, and was considered a
major component for the understanding of the universe, using methods like Spectroscopy
allowed us to study the composition of stars and atoms all thanks to light .Before Einstein
, early theories, such as Newton’s particle-based ”corpuscle” model, dominated scientific
thought for centuries. However, experiments like Young’s double-slit interference and
Fresnel’s theoretical developments in the 19th century established the wave-like nature of
light, seemingly resolving the debate. Maxwell’s elegant electromagnetic theory further
solidified this understanding, describing light as oscillating electric and magnetic fields
propagating through space.
Yet, the dawn of the 20th century brought new puzzles that challenged the classical
wave framework. The blackbody radiation problem, addressed by Max Planck, required
the introduction of quantization—a revolutionary concept that energy is emitted in dis-
crete units. Building on this idea, Einstein proposed that light itself consists of quanta,
later called photons, whose energy is proportional to their frequency, E = h.v , where
h is Planck’s constant. This breakthrough explained phenomena like the photoelectric
effect, where light ejects electrons from metals in a frequency-dependent manner, a result
classical wave theory could not reconcile.
The quantization of light revealed its dual nature: while it exhibits wave-like behavior
in many scenarios, its particle-like properties emerge in interactions with matter. Planck’s
constant, though small, underpins this quantum description, defining the scale at which
these effects become significant. In this lab, we explore the quantized nature of light
and demonstrate how accessible experiments can measure h, connecting macroscopic
observations to the principles of quantum mechanics and deepening our understanding
of the bridge between the classical and quantum worlds.

2 Measuring Planck’s constant using LEDs :

2.1 LEDs:
A LED is created by joining two types of semiconductors: an n-type semiconductor
(which has an excess of electrons) and a p-type semiconductor (which has a deficiency
of electrons). This setup creates a p-n junction. There is a migration of electrons from
the n-type region to the p-type region to fill up the deficiency of electrons. These two
regions are separated by an energy barrier, which prevents the electrons from crossing
freely. The necessary energy required to cross this barrier is denoted as E.
When a voltage V is applied to the LED in the correct orientation, the potential
energy of the electrons increases by an amount equal to eV (e = 1.60.10−19 C). At a
specific voltage, V , the extra energy supplied by the voltage matches the energy barrier:
E = eV .
Charged with the voltage, electrons gain enough energy to cross the barrier. Upon
crossing, they lose energy as they descend to a lower energy level on the other side of the
junction. The energy lost by the electron is released in the form of a photon which is
equal to E.
Using Planck’s constant , E = hv , where h is Planck’s constant we get that the
energy of a photon is proportional to its frequency .Also , when the electrons move from

2
 Figure 1: The Led and its energy levels

the n-type to the p-type the energy levels drop while crossing the barrier releasing photons
which determine the color of the Led.We present the diagrams down below .

2.2 The Experiment :

During the laboratory session, we analyzed two experiments targeted at determining the
numerical value of Planck’s constant h.To do so , we begin by forming a circuit having a
generator and connected in series a LED and a resistor .
To measure the voltage , we use a voltmeter in parallel to the LED .
To measure the current we use an ammeter (ampere meter) in series with the circuit .

Figure 2: The Led circuit

3
 We first start by measuring the Current voltage characteristics for a 655 nm LED so
that we determine V0 , the threshold voltage for the light emission in order to determine
Planck’s constant h .

25
Smooth curve
Data points
20
Current I (mA)

15

10

0
1.7 1.75 1.8 1.85 1.9 1.95 2
Voltage V (V)

Figure 3: Current-Voltage Characteristics for a 655 nm LED

Since before reaching V0 no current flows in the led we can consider only when the
Current starts increasing off 0 mA and we use a linear fit on the interval [1.7, 1.9] and we
get that V0 = 1.866V

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2.3 Results:
In the next experiments we will only focus on intervals where we have linear fits , this
allows us to read V0 immediately .We check the linear fits for the threshold voltage for 3
wavelengths:
{480nm, 505nm, 700nm}
.
Now once we get the value for V0 , we can immediately calculate the value for Planck’s con-
stant h ,by e.V0 = hc
λ
=⇒ h = eVc0 λ , where e = 1.60.10−19 C and c = 299, 792, 458ms−1

25
Linear Fit
V0 = 1.92 V
20 Measured Data
Current (mA)

15

10

0
1.92 1.93 1.94 1.95 1.96 1.97 1.98 1.99 2 2.01 2.02
Voltage (V)

Figure 4: Current-Voltage Characteristic of 505nm LED

30
Linear Fit
25 V0 = 2.10 V
Measured Data
Current (mA)

20

15

10

0
2.08 2.09 2.1 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18
Voltage (V)

Figure 5: Current-Voltage Characteristic of 480nm LED

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 20
Linear Fit
V0 = 1.65 V
Measured Data
15
Current (mA)

10

0
1.63 1.64 1.65 1.66 1.67 1.68 1.69 1.7 1.71 1.72 1.73
Voltage (V)

Figure 6: Current-Voltage Characteristic of 700nm LED

Wavelength (nm) Threshold Voltage V0 (V) Planck’s constant h(J.s−1

480 2.105 5.38 . 10−34
505 1.92 5.17 . 10−34
655 1.866 6.52 . 10−34
700 1.655 6.18 . 10−34

Table 1: Current and Voltage Measurements for Different Wavelengths

2.4 Determining Planck’s constant :

Using the previous values found in the table we get that h̄ = 5.812.10−34 we then get
that the standard deviation σh = 0.556.10−34 . Thus h = (5.812 ± 0.556).10−34 .

Measuring the uncertainty , we get that σhh = 0.0956 ≈ 9.5% .

We also know that the actual value for Planck’s constant is h = 6.626.10−34 we get that
the estimated error is ϵ = h−h h̄ = 0.12 = 12% .

This method produced results close enough to the expected value for the Planck con-
stant, with an estimated relative error of ϵ = 12%.

One mane problem we have with the data presented is that Planck’s constant varies
a bit whenever the wavelength varies . This problem occurs because we assumed that
the energy of the barrier is exactly equal to the energy of light emitted which is not true
and will give out a certain amount of inaccuracy .

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3 The Photoelectric Effect:
3.1 The Photoelectric apparatus :
The photoelectric apparatus operates based on the interaction of light with matter, specif-
ically through a vacuum phototube. This device consists of a large-area metallic cathode
surrounding a small metallic wire (the anode), both enclosed in a vacuum within a glass
tube. The cathode collects photons that impinge upon it, causing the emission of elec-
trons due to the photoelectric effect.

The energy required to release these electrons, known as the work function, is a
property of the cathode material. The energy of the emitted electrons is determined
by the photon energy (h) minus the work function (W), and it is initially in the form
of kinetic energy. As the electron travels toward the anode, it may lose kinetic energy
depending on the applied potential difference between the electrodes. A bias voltage,
adjustable via a voltage supply, determines whether the electron reaches the anode. If
the electron’s total energy exceeds the potential energy at the anode, it will reach the
anode, and the current will be measured. However, if the bias voltage exceeds a certain
threshold, known as the stopping voltage (Vstop ), the electron will not have sufficient
energy to reach the anode. The stopping voltage varies with the frequency of the light,
enabling the determination of Planck’s constant .

3.2 Determination of the stopping voltage :

In this part of the lab, we measured the stopping voltages in Volts for the LED of
wavelength 500nm at intensities of 100%, 50%, and 15%. We obtained the following
graph.

0
Current I (nA)

−0.2

I=0
−0.4 Intensity = 100%
Intensity = 50%
Intensity = 15%
−0.6
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Voltage V (V)

Figure 7: Graph of current vs voltage for different intensities

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 Intensity % Vstop (V )
100 0.46
50 0.51
15 0.52

We get that the average of all the Vstop values equals 0.496V .

We observe that the stopping voltage changes a bit as the intensity changes from 0.46
V at 100% intensity to 0.51 at 50% intensity ,while theoretically it should stay the same
. This is do to inaccuracies in the experiments .

3.3 Stopping Voltage in function of light intensity :

We plot the stopping voltage curve as a function for the intensity for a 472 nm LED.
Theoretically it should be constant. However our experiment shows some increase in Vstop
as the light intensity increases , this is due to human error.

Also since this Led has a lower wavelength than the one before , we deduce that
the photon from this LED (472nm) has more energy than that from the privious LED
(500nm) . Thus we expect Vstop (LED 472nm) to be greater than Vstop (LED 500nm).

0.56
0.56
Vstop (V)

0.56

0.56

0.56

20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
I (%)

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3.4 Stopping voltage as a function of the LED frequency:
We know that eVstop = hv + W and so drawing the graph of eVstop in function of the
frequency v , we get that the slope =Planck’s constant= h

7
eVstop (10−20 J)

3
Data points
Line of best fit: eVstop = 5.84ν − 26.74
2
5 5.5 6 6.4
Frequency ν (1014 Hz)

Figure 8: Stopping voltage in function of frequency

And thus we get that h ≈ 5.84.10−34 Js and that W = 2.674.10−19 J

Knowing that the actual value for h is 6.626.10−34 , we get that

h−hexperiment
ϵ= h
= 6.626−5.84
6.626
≈ 10% thus the estimated relative error in this case is ϵ = 10%

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4 Conclusion :
This lab explored two foundational experiments in quantum physics: the quantization of
light through LEDs and the photoelectric effect. Both methods were used to determine
Planck’s constant h, while providing direct insights into the quantized nature of energy
transfer and the dual nature of light. The first experiment involved measuring the thresh-
old voltage of LEDs, relating the energy of emitted photons to the frequency of light. The
calculated value of h demonstrated the fundamental relationship between photon energy
and frequency, consistent with theoretical expectations. The second experiment utilized
the photoelectric effect to determine h by measuring the stopping voltage required to
halt the ejection of electrons. This method highlighted the necessity of a minimum pho-
ton energy, corresponding to a threshold frequency, to release electrons from the metal’s
surface—direct evidence of the quantum behavior of light. We deduced that the second
experiment provides us with a much closer value to Planck’s constant than the first one as
we got that ϵexp1 = 12% while ϵexp2 = 10% thus in our experiment determining h with the
photoelectric effect(second experiment 2) is more useful then by using LEDs (experiment
1) .
But still both experiments confirmed that light can behave as particles called photons,
with each photon carrying energy proportional to its frequency. This quantized energy
transfer goes against classical expectations, which predict a continuous energy distribu-
tion. In conclusion, these experiments reshaped our understanding of light and matter by
introducing us to quantum physics. Observing the threshold frequency in the photoelec-
tric effect vividly illustrated light’s particle-like behavior, complementing the wave-like
nature observed in phenomena like Thomas Young’s Double Slit experiment. Together,
these findings form a cornerstone of modern physics, linking macroscopic observations
with quantum principles.

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