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SYLLABUS/ TOPICS COVERED

Synchronous generators (continuation): Open

circuit and short circuit characteristics,
Assessment of reactance- Short Circuit Ratio,
Synchronous reactance, Adjusted synchronous
reactance and Potier reactance. Voltage
regulation by EMF, MMF, ZPF and ASA
methods.
Performance of synchronous generators:
Capability curve for large turbo generators and
salient pole generators. Starting, Synchronizing
Synchronous Generator and control. Hunting and dampers.

Module Objective:
MODULE-V 1. To study the regulation of synchronous
machines by different methods.

Module Outcome:
1. Evaluate the regulation of synchronous
machines by different methods.

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SYNOCHRONOUS MOTORS cont...

2
√[ (sФa) + (V Ф

5.1 Voltage Regulation:

When an alternator is subjected to a varying load, the voltage at the armature terminals varies to a
certain extent, and the amount of this variation determines the regulation of the machine. When the
alternator is loaded the terminal voltage decreases as the drops in the machine stars increasing and
hence it will always be different than the induced emf.
Voltage regulation of an alternator is defined as the change in terminal voltage from no load to full
load expressed as a percentage of rated voltage when the load at a given power factor is removed with
out change in speed and excitation. Or The numerical value of the regulation is defined as the
percentage rise in voltage when full load at the specified power-factor is switched off with speed and
field current remaining unchanged expressed as a percentage of rated voltage.

Hence regulation can be expressed as

% Regulation = (Eph – Vph / Vph ) x 100

where Eph = induced emf /phase, Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase

Methods of finding Voltage Regulation: The voltage regulation of an alternator can be determined by
different methods. In case of small generators it can be determined by direct loading whereas in case
of large generators it can not determined by direct loading but will be usually predetermined by
different methods. Following are the different methods used for predetermination of regulation of
alternators.
1. Direct loading method
2. EMF method or Synchronous impedance method
3. MMF method or Ampere turns method
4. ASA modified MMF method
5. ZPF method or Potier triangle method
All the above methods other than direct loading are valid for nonsalient pole machines only. As the
alternators are manufactured in large capacity direct loading of alternators is not employed for

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determination of regulation. Other methods can be employed for predetermination of regulation.

Hence the other methods of determination of regulations will be discussed in the following sections.

5.2 EMF method: This method is also known as synchronous impedance method. Here the magnetic
circuit is assumed to be unsaturated. In this method the MMFs (fluxes) produced by rotor and stator
are replaced by their equivalent emf, and hence called emf method.
To predetermine the regulation by this method the following informations are to be determined.
Armature resistance /phase of the alternator, open circuit and short circuit characteristics of the
alternator.

OC & SC test on alternator:

Figure 

5.2.1 Open Circuit Characteristic (O.C.C.)

The open-circuit characteristic or magnetization curve is really the B-H curve of the complete
magnetic circuit of the alternator. Indeed, in large turbo-alternators, where the air gap is relatively
long, the curve shows a gradual bend. It is determined by inserting resistance in the field circuit and
measuring corresponding value of terminal voltage and field current. Two voltmeters are connected
across the armature terminals. The machine is run at rated speed and field current is increased
gradually to If1 till armature voltage reaches rated value or even 25% more than the rated voltage.
Figure 5.1 illustrates a typical circuit for OC and SC test and figure 5.2 illustrates OC and SC curve.
The major portion of the exciting ampere-turns is required to force the flux across the air gap, the
reluctance of which is assumed to be constant. A straight line called the air gap line can therefore be
drawn as shown, dividing the excitation for any voltage into two portions, (a) that required to force the
flux across the air gap, and (b) that required to force it through the remainder of the magnetic circuit.
The shorter the air gap, the steeper is the air gap line.
Procedure to conduct OC test:
(i) Start the prime mover and adjust the speed to the synchronous speed of the alternator.
(ii) Keep the field circuit rheostat in cut in position and switch on DC supply.
(iii) Keep the TPST switch of the stator circuit in open position.
(iv) Vary the field current from minimum in steps and take the readings of field current and
stator terminal voltage, till the voltage read by the voltmeter reaches up to 110% of rated
voltage. Reduce the field current and stop the machine.

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(v) Plot of terminal voltage/ phase vs field current gives the OC curve.

5.2.2 Short Circuit Characteristic (S.C.C.)

The short-circuit characteristic, as its name implies, refers to the behaviour of the alternator when its
armature is short-circuited. In a single-phase machine the armature terminals are short-circuited
through an ammeter, but in a three-phase machine all three phases must be short-circuited. An
ammeter is connected in series with each armature terminal, the three remaining ammeter terminals
being short-circuited. The machine is run at rated speed and field current is increased gradually to If2
till armature current reaches rated value. The armature short-circuit current and the field current are
found to be proportional to each other over a wide range, as shown in Figure 5.2, so that the short-
circuit characteristic is a straight line. Under short-circuit conditions the armature current is almost 90°
out of phase with the voltage, and the armature mmf has a direct demagnetizing action on the field.
The resultant ampere − turns inducing the armature emf are, therefore, very small and is equal to the
difference between the field and the armature ampere − turns. This results in low mmf in the magnetic
circuit, which remains in unsaturated condition and hence the small value of induced emf increases
linearly with field current. This small induced armature emf is equal to the voltage drop in the winding
itself, since the terminal voltage is zero by assumption. It is the voltage required to circulate the short-
circuit current through the armature windings. The armature resistance is usually small compared with
the reactance.

Air Gap line

Figure 5.2: O.C.C. and S.C.C. of an Alternator

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5.3 Short Circuit Ratio

The short-circuit ratio is defined as the ratio of the field current required to produce rated volts on
open circuit to field current required to circulate full-load current with the armature short-circuited.

Short-circuit ratio = Ιf1/If2

Determination of synchronous impedance Zs:

As the terminals of the stator are short circuited in SC test, the short circuit current is circulated against
the impedance of the stator called the synchronous impedance. This impedance can be estimated form
the oc and sc characteristics.
The ratio of open circuit voltage to the short circuit current at a particular field current, or at a field
current responsible for circulating the rated current is called the synchronous impedance.

synchronous impedance Zs = (open circuit voltage per phase)/(short circuit current per phase)│for same If

Hence Zs = (Voc) / (Isc)│for same If

From figure 33 synchronous impedance Zs = V/Isc
Armature resistance Ra of the stator can be measured using Voltmeter – Ammeter method. Using
synchronous impedance and armature resistance synchronous reactance and hence regulation can be
calculated as follows using emf method.

Zs = √(Ra)2 + (XS)2 and Synchronous reactance Xs = √( Zs)2 - (Ra)2

Hence induced emf per phase can be found as Eph = √[ (V cosФ + IRa)2 + (V sinФ ± IXS)2]
where V = phase voltage per phase = Vph , I = load current per phase
in the above expression in second term + sign is for lagging pwer factor ans – sign is for leading
power factor.

% Regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100

where Eph = induced emf /phase, Vph = rated terminal voltage/phase

Synchronous impedance method is easy but it gives approximate results. This method gives the value
of regulation which is greater (poor) than the actual value and hence this method is called pessimistic
method. The complete phasor diagram for the emf method is shown in figure 5.3

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Figure 

Ex.1. A 1200 kVA, 3300 volts, 50 Hz, three phase star connected alternator has an armature
resistance of 0.25 Ω per phase. A field current of 40 Amps produces a short circuit current of 200
Amps and an open circuit emf of 1100 volts line to line. Find the % regulation at full load 0.8 pf
lagging and leading by using emf method.

Soln: Full load current = 1200 x 103/ (√3 x 3300) = 210 amps;
Voltage per phase Vph = 3300/√3 = 1905 volts
Synchronous impedance Zs = oc voltage per phase/ sc current per phase …….. for same excitation
= (1100/√3) / 200 = 3.17 Ω
Synchronous reactance = Xs = √[( Zs)2 - (Ra)2] = √ (3.17)2 + (0.25)2 = 3.16 Ω
0.8 pf lagging: referring to the phasor diagram
Eph = √[ (V cosФ + IRa)2 + (V sinФ + IXS)2]
=√[(1905 x 0.8 + 210 x 0.25)2 + ( 1905 x 0.6 + 210 x 3.16)2
= 2398 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph )/ Vph] x 100
= [(2398 – 1905) / 1905] x 100
= 25.9 %
0.8 pf leading: Eph = √[ (V cosФ + IRa)2 + (V sinФ - IXS)2]
=√[(1905 x 0.8 + 210 x 0.25)2 + ( 1905 x 0.6 - 210 x 3.16)2
= 1647 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(1647 – 1905) / 1905] x 100

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= - 13.54 %
Ex.2. A 3-phase star connected alternator is rated at 1600 kVA, 13500 volts. The armature resistance
and synchronous reactance are 1.5 Ω and 30 Ω per phase respectively. Calculate the percentage
voltage regulation for a load of 1280 kW at a pf of 0.8 leading.

Soln: Full load current = 1600 x 103/ (√3 x 13500 x 0.8) = 68.4 amps;
Voltage per phase Vph = 13500/√3 = 7795volts
0.8 pf leading: Eph = √[ (V cosФ + IRa)2 + (V sinФ - IXS)2]
=√[(7795 x 0.8 + 68.4 x 1.5)2 + ( 7795 x 0.6 – 68.4 x 30)2
= 6861 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(6861 – 7795) / 7795] x 100
= - 12 %
Ex.3. A 3-phase star connected alternator is rated at 100 kVA. On short-circuit a field current of 50
amp gives the full load current. The e.m.f. generated on open circuit with the same field current is
1575 V/phase. Calculate the voltage regulation at (a) 0.8 power factor lagging, and (b) 0.8 power
factor leading by synchronous impedance method. Assume armature resistance is 1.5 Ω.

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Soln:

Ex. 4. A 10 MVA 6.6 kV, 3phase star connected alternator gave open circuit and short circuit data as
follows.
Field current in amps: 25 50 75 100 125 150
OC voltage in kV (L-L): 2.4 4.8 6.1 7.1 7.6 7.9
SC Current in Amps: 288 528 875
Find the voltage regulation at full load 0.8 pf lagging by emf method. Armature resistance per phase =
0.13 Ω.
Soln: Full load current = 10 x 106/ (√3 x 6600) = 875 amps;
Voltage per phase Vph = 6600/√3 = 3810volts

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Corresponding to the full load current of 875 amps oc voltage from the oc and sc characteristics is
6100 volts
Hence synchronous impedance Zs = oc voltage per phase/ sc current per phase
= (6100/√3)/ 875
= 4.02 Ω
0.8 pf lagging: Eph = √[ (V cosФ + IRa)2 + (V sinФ + IXS)2]
=√[(3810 x 0.8 + 875 x 0.13)2 + ( 3810 x 0.6 – 875x 4.01789)2
= 6607.26 volts
Voltage regulation = [(Eph – Vph / Vph )] x 100
= [(6607.26 – 3810) / 3810] x 100
= 73.42%

Ex. 5 The data obtained on 100 kVA, 1100 V, 3-phase alternator is : DC resistance test, E between
line = 6 V dc, I in lines = 10 A dc. Open circuit test, field current = 12.5 A dc, line voltage = 420 V ac.
Short circuit test, field current = 12.5 A, line current = rated value, calculate the voltage regulation of
alternator at 0.8 pf lagging.

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Soln:

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5.4 MMF method: This method is also known as amp - turns method. In this method the all the emfs
produced by rotor and stator are replaced by their equivalent MMFs (fluxes), and hence called mmf
method. In this method also it is assumed that the magnetic circuit is unsaturated. In this method both
the reactance drops are replaced by their equivalent mmfs. Figure 5.4 shows the complete phasor
diagram for the mmf method. Similar to emf method OC and SC characteristics are used for the
determination of regulation by mmf method. The details are shown in figure 5.5 . Using the details it is
possible determine the regulation at different power factors.

Isc rated

If2

Figure  Figure 

From the phasor diagram it can be seen that the mmf required to produce the emf E1= ( V + IRa) is
FR1.In large machines resistance drop may neglected.
The mmf required to over come the reactance drops is (A+Ax) as shown in phasor diagram. The mmf
(A+Ax) can be found from SC characteristic as under SC condition both reactance drops will be
present.
Following procedure can be used for determination of regulation by mmf method.
(i) By conducting OC and SC test plot OCC and SCC as shown in figure 5.5.
(ii) From the OCC find the field current If1 required to produce the voltage, E1= ( V + IRa).
(iii) From SCC find the magnitude of field current If2 (≈ A+Ax) to produce the required
armature current. A+Ax can also found from ZPF characteristics.
(iv) Draw If2 at angle (90+Φ) from If1, where Φ is the phase angle of current w. r. t voltage. If
current is leading, take the angle of If2 as (90-Φ) as shown in figure 5.5.
(v) Determine the resultant field current, If and mark its magnitude on the field current axis.
(vi) From OCC. find the voltage corresponding to If, which will be E0 and hence find the
regulation.
Because of the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit the regulation computed by this method
will be less than the actual and hence this method of regulation is called optimistic method.

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Figure 
Ex.5 A 3.5 MVA, 50 Hz, star connected alternator rated at 4160 volts gave the following results on oc
test.
Field current: amps 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
OC voltage (L-L) : 1620 3150 4160 4750 5130 5370 5550 5650
A filed current of 200 amps was found necessary to circulate full load current on short circuit of the
alternator. Calculate voltage regulation by mmf method at 0.8 pf lagging. Neglect stator resistance.
Soln: Draw oc and sc characteristics as shown in figure below

b
o
Figure 

Full load current = 3.5 x 106 / (√3 x 4160) = 486 amps.

From occ the field current required to produce rated voltage of 4160 volts is 150 amps. From the
characteristics it is ob (If1). The field current required to circulate full load current on short circuit is og
(If2), from the characteristics and is equal to 200 amps. This filed current is drawn at an angle of 90+Φ
w r t ob. The two field currents can be vectorially added as shown in the vector diagram above.
From the above phasor diagram the total field current bg can be computed using cosine rule as

bg = √ (If1)2 + (If2)2 + (If1) x (If2) x cos ( 180 – (90+Φ))

= √ (150)2 + (200)2 + (150) x (200) x cos ( 180 – (90+36.86))

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= 313.8 volts.

Corresponding to this filed current of 313.8 amps the induced emf E0 form the occ is 3140 volts.

Hence % regulation = (3140 – 2401)/ 2401 x 100 = 30.77%

Ex 6. A 10 MVA, 50 Hz, 6.6 kV, 3-phase star connected alternator has the following oc and sc test
data
Field current: amps 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200 225
OC voltage (L-L) : 2400 4800 6100 7100 7600 7900 8300 8500 8700
SC Current amps : 288 582 875
Calculate the voltage regulation of the alternator by emf and mmf method at a pf of 0.8 lagging. The
armature resistance is 0.13 Ω per phase.
Soln: Draw oc and sc characteristics as shown in figure below( already solved by emf method)
Full Load current Ia = 10 x 106 / (√3 x 6.6 x 103) = 875 amps
Phase voltage = 6600/√3 = 3.81 kV
MMF Method: Normal voltage including resistive drop = V + IaRacosφ
= 3810 + 875 x 0.13 x 0.8
= 3901 volts
From OCC the field current required to produce this normal voltage is 98 amps and is represented as
If1 as shown in the phasor diagram. The field current required to produce the rated current of 875 amps
on short circuit is 75 amps and is drawn at an angle of 90+φ as If2 as shown. The total field current
required to obtain the emf E0 is If.

Fig 5.8

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Using cosine rule

If = √ (If1)2 + (If2)2 + (If1) x (If2) x cos ( 180 – (90+Φ))

= √ (98 + (75 + (98x (75x cos ( 180 – (90+36.86))

= 155 amps.
Corresponding to this filed current of 155 amps the induced emf E0 form the occ is 4619 volts.
Hence % regulation = (4619 – 3810)/ 3810 x 100 = 21.2 %

5.5 ASA Modified MMF Method:Because of the unrealistic assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit
neither the emf method nor the mmf method are giving the realistic value of regulation. In spite of
these short comings these methods are being used because of their simplicity. Hence ASA has
modified mmf method for calculation of regulation. With reference to the phasor diagram of mmf
method it can be seen that F = FR1 - ( A+Ax). In the mmf method the total mmf F computed is based on
the assumption of unsaturated magnetic circuit which is unrealistic. In order to account for the partial
saturation of the magnetic circuit it must be increased by a certain amount FF2 which can be computed
from occ, scc and air gap lines as explained below referring to figure  and .

F2

Figure 

Figure 

If1 is the field current required to induce the rated voltage on open circuit. Draw If2 with length equal to
field current required to circulate rated current during short circuit condition at an angle (90+Φ) from
If1. The resultant of If1 and If2 gives If (OF2 in figure). Extend OF2 upto F so that F2F accounts for the
additional field current required for accounting the effect of partial saturation of magnetic circuit. F2F
is found for voltage E (refer to phasor diagram of mmf method) as shown in figure . Project total
field current OF to the field current axis and find corresponding voltage E0 using OCC. Hence
regulation can found by ASA method which is more realistic.

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=HUR3RZHU)DFWRU =3) PHWKRG3RWLHU7ULDQJOH0HWKRG

During the operation of the alternator, resistance voltage drop IaRa and armature leakage reactance
drop IaXL are actually emf quantities and the armature reaction reactance is a mmf quantity. To
determine the regulation of the alternator by this method OCC, SCC and ZPF test details and
characteristics are required. AS explained earlier oc and sc tests are conducted and OCC and SCC are
drawn. ZPF test is conducted by connecting the alternator to ZPF load and exciting the alternator in
such way that the alternator supplies the rated current at rated voltage running at rated speed. To plot
ZPF characteristics only two points are required. One point is corresponding to the zero voltage and
rated current that can be obtained from scc and the other at rated voltage and rated current under zpf
load. This zero power factor curve appears like OCC but shifted by a factor IXL vertically and
horizontally by armature reaction mmf as shown below in figure . Following are the steps to draw
ZPF characteristics.
By suitable tests plot OCC and SCC. Draw air gap line. Conduct ZPF test at full load for rated voltage
and fix the point B. Draw the line BH with length equal to field current required to produce full load
current on short circuit. Draw HD parallel to the air gap line so as to cut the OCC. Draw DE
perpendicular to HB or parallel to voltage axis. Now, DE represents voltage drop IXL and BE
represents the field current required to overcome the effect of armature reaction.
Triangle BDE is called Potier triangle and XL is the Potier reactance. Find E from V, IRa, IXL and Φ.
Use the expression E = √(V cosΦ + IRa)2 + (V sinΦ) + IXL)2 to compute E. Find field current
corresponding to E. Draw FG with magnitude equal to BE at angle (90+Ψ) from field current axis,
where Ψ is the phase angle of current from voltage vector E (internal phase angle).
The resultant field current is given by OG. Mark this length on field current axis. From OCC find the
corresponding E0. Find the regulation.

Figure 
Ex. A 10 kVA, 440 volts, 50 Hz, 3 phase, star connected, alternator has the open circuit
characteristics as below.

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Field current (amps): 1.5 3 5 8 11 15

OC voltage (L-L): 150 300 440 550 600 635
With full load zero power factor, the excitation required is 14 amps to produce 500 volts terminal
voltage. On short circuit 4 amps excitation is required to produce full load current. Determine the full
load voltage regulation at 0.8 pf lagging and leading.
Soln:
Draw OC, SC and ZPF characteristics to scale as shown. OC characteristics are drawn from the details
given above. For sc characteristics 4 amps field current gives full load current. For ZPF characteristics
two points are sufficient, one is 4 amps corresponding voltage of 0 volts, and the other is 14 amps
corresponding to 500 vols.

E1ph
scc

IXL

vph
o

Iph

Figure 

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From the potier triangle BDE, armature leakage reactance DE is 55 volts.

As armature resistance is negligible Vph and IX L drop are to be added.

(i) lagging PF
Vph = 440/√3 = 254 volts. Full load current 10000/(3 x 254) =13.123 amps
Adding Vph and IX L drop vectorially, as shown in figure above.
E1ph = √ ( Vph cosФ)2 + ( Vph sinФ +IX L)2
= √( 254 x 0.8)2 + ( 254 x 0.8 +55)2
= 290.4 volts
Corresponding to this voltage find the field current F1 from occ is 6.1 amps, (If1)
From potier triangle the filed current required to balance the armature reaction is BE is 3.1 amps (If2)

Figure 

Adding the above two currents vectorially , If = 8.337 amps.

Corresponding to this field current the emf Eph from OCC is 328 volts
Hence regulation = (328 – 254)/254 x 100 = 29.11 %
(ii) leading PF
For the leading pf
Adding Vph and IX L drop vectorially,
E1ph = √ ( Vph cosФ)2 + ( Vph sinФ -IX L)2
= √( 254 x 0.8)2 + ( 254 x 0.8 -55)2
= 225.4 volts
Corresponding to this voltage find the field current , If1 from occ is 4.1 amps
From potier triangle the filed current (If2) required to balance the armature reaction BE is 3.1 amps
Adding the above two currents vectorially,(by cosine rule) If = 3.34 amps.
Corresponding to this field current the emf Eph from OCC is 90 volts
Hence regulation = (90 – 254)/254 x 100 = -25.2 %

Ex. A 11 kv , 1000 kVA, 3 phase star connected alternator has a resistance of 2 Ω per phase. The open
circuit and full load ZPF characteristics are given below. Determine the full load voltage regulation at
0.8 pf lagging by Potier triangle method.
Field current (amps): 40 50 80 110 140 180
OC voltage (L-L): 5800 7000 10100 12500 13750 15000
ZPF voltage(L-L): 0 1500 5200 8500 10500 12200
Draw the OCC and ZPF characteristics as shown in figure.
Phase voltage = 11000 = 6350 volts. Rated current per phase = 1000 x 103/ (√3 x 11000) = 52.48 A
Draw OCC ZPF and the Potier triangle as shown.

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Fig. 5.14

From the Potier triangle IXL = 1000 volts

E1ph

vph IphXL
o

IphR

Iph Figure 5.15

From the phasor diagram taking current as reference

E1ph = V∟φ + I (R + j XL)
= 6350∟36.86 + 105 + j1000
= 7072∟42.8 volts.
Corresponding to this voltage of 7072 volts the field current (If1) required 111 amps
From potier triangle the filed current (If2) required to balance the armature reaction is 28 amps
Adding both the field currents If1 and If2 vectorially by cosine rule If = 130 amps.
Corresponding to this field current oc voltage from occ is 7650 volts
Hence % regulation = (7650 – 6350)/6350 x 100 = 20.5 %

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18EE33 TRANSFORMERS AND GENERATORS

Text/Reference Books
D. P. Kothari, I. J.
1 Electric Machines Mc Graw Hill 4th Edition, 2011
Nagrath

Performance and Design of A.C.

2 M. G. Say CBS Publishers 3rd Edition, 2002
Machines

Principles of Electric Machines

3 P.C.Sen Wiley 2nd Edition, 2013
And power Electronics

Mulukuntla
4 Electric Machines Cengage Learning 1st Edition, 2009
S.Sarma, at el

Electrical Machines, Drives and

5 Theodore Wildi Pearson 6th Edition, 2014
Power systems

6 Electrical Machines M.V. Deshpande PHI Learning 1st Edition, 2013

Abhijit
7 Electrical Machines Mc Graw Hill 1st Edition, 2015
Chakrabarti et al

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