Cell Structures - AS Level Biology Notes

1. Overview of Cell Types

Prokaryotic Cells

● Characteristics:
○ No nucleus; DNA is free in the cytoplasm (nucleoid region).
○ No membrane-bound organelles.
○ Small ribosomes (70S).
○ Cell wall made of peptidoglycan.
○ Examples: Bacteria and Archaea.

Eukaryotic Cells

● Characteristics:
○ DNA enclosed within a nucleus.
○ Contains membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, chloroplasts).
○ Larger ribosomes (80S).
○ Cell walls present in plants (cellulose) and fungi (chitin).
○ Examples: Plant, animal, and fungal cells.

2. Organelles and Their Functions

Nucleus

● Structure: Surrounded by a nuclear envelope with nuclear pores.

● Function: Contains DNA; controls cell activities and protein synthesis.

Mitochondria

● Structure: Double membrane; inner membrane folded into cristae; contains matrix.
● Function: Site of aerobic respiration; produces ATP.

Chloroplasts (Plant Cells Only)

● Structure: Double membrane; contains thylakoids stacked into grana; stroma surrounds
grana.
 ● Function: Site of photosynthesis; converts light energy into chemical energy.

Ribosomes

● Structure: Small (70S in prokaryotes, 80S in eukaryotes); made of RNA and proteins.
● Function: Site of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

● Rough ER:
○ Studded with ribosomes.
○ Synthesizes and transports proteins.
● Smooth ER:
○ Lacks ribosomes.
○ Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies chemicals.

Golgi Apparatus

● Structure: Stacks of flattened, membrane-bound sacs.

● Function: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or use within
the cell.

Lysosomes

● Structure: Membrane-bound vesicles containing hydrolytic enzymes.

● Function: Breaks down waste materials and cellular debris.

Vacuoles

● Structure: Membrane-bound sacs; large central vacuole in plant cells.

● Function: Stores nutrients, waste products, and provides turgor pressure in plant cells.

Cell Membrane

● Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

● Function: Regulates movement of substances in and out of the cell; provides a barrier.

Cell Wall (Plant, Fungi, and Prokaryotes)

● Structure: Made of cellulose in plants, chitin in fungi, and peptidoglycan in prokaryotes.

● Function: Provides structural support and protection.
3. Specialized Structures in Plant and Animal Cells
Plant Cells

● Chloroplasts for photosynthesis.

● Large central vacuole for storage and turgidity.
● Cell wall for rigidity and structure.

Animal Cells

● Lysosomes for digestion of cellular waste.

● Centrioles involved in cell division.

4. Differences Between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Feature Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells

Nucleus Absent Present

Size Smaller (1-10 μm) Larger (10-100 μm)

DNA Circular, no histones Linear, associated with histones

Organelles Non-membrane-bound only Membrane-bound present

Ribosome Smaller (70S) Larger (80S)

s

Cell Wall Peptidoglycan (if present) Cellulose (plants) or chitin (fungi)

5. The Fluid Mosaic Model of Cell Membranes

● Structure:
○ Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, glycoproteins, and
glycolipids.
○ Hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads face outward; hydrophobic (water-repelling)
tails face inward.
● Function:
○ Provides a semi-permeable barrier.
○ Allows communication and transport through proteins.
6. Microscopy and Cell Structure
Types of Microscopes

● Light Microscope:

○ Uses light to magnify images.

○ Lower resolution (200 nm).
○ Useful for viewing living cells.
● Electron Microscope:

○ Uses electron beams for higher resolution (0.2 nm).

○ Types: Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) and Scanning Electron
Microscope (SEM).

Magnification Formula
Magnification=Image sizeActual size\text{Magnification} = \frac{\text{Image size}}{\text{Actual
size}}

7. Key Definitions
● Organelle: A specialized structure within a cell that performs a specific function.
● Cytoplasm: Jelly-like substance where chemical reactions occur.
● Nucleoid: Region in prokaryotes containing circular DNA.
● Plasmid: Small circular DNA in prokaryotes.

Study Tips

● Memorize organelle functions and structures.

● Practice drawing and labeling diagrams.
● Compare plant, animal, and prokaryotic cells.
● Solve past papers to familiarize yourself with exam-style questions.
Biological Molecules - AS Level Biology
Notes
1. Overview of Biological Molecules
Biological molecules are essential for life and include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and
nucleic acids. Water is also a vital component.

2. Water
● Structure:
○ Polar molecule with hydrogen bonding.
○ High specific heat capacity and latent heat of vaporization.
● Functions:
○ Solvent for biochemical reactions.
○ Medium for transport (e.g., blood, xylem).
○ Temperature regulation.

3. Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides

● Examples: Glucose, fructose, galactose.

● Structure: Single sugar units (C₆H₁₂O₆ for glucose).
● Function: Source of energy; building blocks for larger carbohydrates.

Disaccharides

● Examples: Maltose (glucose + glucose), sucrose (glucose + fructose), lactose (glucose

+ galactose).
● Bond: Glycosidic bond formed by condensation reaction.

Polysaccharides
 ● Examples: Starch, glycogen, cellulose.
● Functions:
○ Starch: Energy storage in plants.
○ Glycogen: Energy storage in animals.
○ Cellulose: Structural support in plant cell walls.

4. Lipids
● Structure:
○ Made of glycerol and fatty acids.
○ Triglycerides: One glycerol + three fatty acids.
○ Phospholipids: One glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group.
● Functions:
○ Energy storage.
○ Insulation and protection.
○ Structural component of cell membranes (phospholipid bilayer).

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fatty Acids

● Saturated: No double bonds; solid at room temperature.

● Unsaturated: One or more double bonds; liquid at room temperature.

5. Proteins
Structure:

● Made of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

● Levels of structure:
1. Primary: Sequence of amino acids.
2. Secondary: Alpha-helix or beta-pleated sheet (hydrogen bonding).
3. Tertiary: 3D folding due to interactions (e.g., ionic, hydrogen bonds, disulfide
bridges).
4. Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains (e.g., hemoglobin).

Functions:

● Enzymes: Catalyze biochemical reactions.

● Structural: Keratin, collagen.
● Transport: Hemoglobin.
 ● Defense: Antibodies.

6. Enzymes
● Structure:
○ Globular proteins with an active site.
○ Specific to substrates (lock-and-key model).
● Factors Affecting Activity:
○ Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration.
● Inhibition:
○ Competitive: Inhibitor competes with substrate for the active site.
○ Non-competitive: Inhibitor binds elsewhere, altering active site shape.

7. Nucleic Acids
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid)

● Structure:
○ Double helix; two strands held by hydrogen bonds between complementary
bases (A-T, C-G).
○ Sugar-phosphate backbone.
● Function: Stores genetic information.

RNA (Ribonucleic Acid)

● Structure:
○ Single-stranded; bases include A, U, C, G.
● Function: Transfers genetic information; involved in protein synthesis (mRNA, tRNA,
rRNA).

8. Tests for Biological Molecules

Carbohydrates

● Reducing Sugars: Benedict's test (brick-red precipitate).

● Non-reducing Sugars: Hydrolyze with acid, then Benedict's test.
● Starch: Iodine test (blue-black color).
Lipids

● Emulsion Test: Add ethanol, then water (milky-white emulsion).

Proteins

● Biuret Test: Add sodium hydroxide and copper sulfate (purple color).

9. Key Definitions
● Monomer: Single unit that forms polymers (e.g., glucose).
● Polymer: Large molecule made of repeating units (e.g., starch).
● Condensation Reaction: Forms bonds with the removal of water.
● Hydrolysis Reaction: Breaks bonds with the addition of water.

Study Tips

● Memorize the structures and functions of each molecule.

● Practice drawing diagrams (e.g., triglycerides, DNA).
● Learn biochemical tests and their results.
● Solve past paper questions to reinforce understanding.
Enzymes - AS Level Biology Notes
1. What are Enzymes?
● Definition: Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without
being consumed in the process.
● Nature: They are globular proteins with a specific 3D structure.
● Specificity: Enzymes are highly specific to their substrates due to the shape of their
active site.

2. Structure of Enzymes
● Active Site: The region of the enzyme where the substrate binds.
● Enzyme-Substrate Complex: Temporary complex formed when the substrate binds to
the active site.
● Lock-and-Key Model: Substrate fits exactly into the active site like a key in a lock.
● Induced Fit Model: Active site changes shape slightly to accommodate the substrate.

3. Properties of Enzymes
● Reusable: Not consumed in the reaction.
● Specific: Act on one type of substrate.
● Affected by Conditions: Temperature, pH, and substrate concentration.
● Saturation: At high substrate concentrations, all active sites are occupied.

4. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

1. Temperature

● Effect: Increases rate of reaction up to the optimum temperature.

● Denaturation: Above the optimum, the enzyme's structure is altered, and it loses
functionality.

2. pH
 ● Effect: Enzymes have an optimum pH at which they function best.
● Denaturation: Extreme pH levels disrupt bonds, altering the enzyme's shape.

3. Substrate Concentration

● Effect: Increases rate of reaction until all active sites are occupied (saturation point).

4. Enzyme Concentration

● Effect: More enzymes increase reaction rate if substrate is not limiting.

5. Enzyme Inhibition
1. Competitive Inhibition

● Mechanism: Inhibitor competes with the substrate for the active site.
● Effect: Reduces reaction rate but can be overcome by increasing substrate
concentration.

2. Non-Competitive Inhibition

● Mechanism: Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site, altering the enzyme's shape.

● Effect: Reduces reaction rate and cannot be overcome by increasing substrate
concentration.

6. Enzyme Cofactors
● Definition: Non-protein molecules that assist enzyme activity.
● Types:
○ Prosthetic Groups: Permanently bound to the enzyme (e.g., heme in catalase).
○ Coenzymes: Organic molecules that temporarily bind (e.g., NAD, FAD).
○ Inorganic Cofactors: Metal ions (e.g., Mg²⁺, Zn²⁺).

7. Examples of Enzymes
● Amylase: Breaks down starch into maltose.
● Lipase: Breaks down lipids into glycerol and fatty acids.
 ● Protease: Breaks down proteins into amino acids.
● Catalase: Breaks down hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen.

8. Industrial Applications of Enzymes

● Detergents: Proteases and lipases remove stains.
● Food Industry: Amylase in brewing, lactase in lactose-free milk.
● Biotechnology: DNA polymerase in PCR.

9. Enzyme Kinetics
Michaelis-Menten Curve

● Vmax: Maximum rate of reaction when all active sites are saturated.
● Km (Michaelis constant): Substrate concentration at half Vmax; indicates enzyme
affinity for substrate.

10. Key Definitions

● Catalyst: Substance that speeds up a reaction without being consumed.
● Denaturation: Irreversible loss of enzyme structure and function.
● Allosteric Site: Site other than the active site where molecules can bind and affect
enzyme activity.

Study Tips

● Understand diagrams of enzyme action (e.g., lock-and-key, induced fit).

● Practice drawing and labeling enzyme-substrate complexes.
● Learn examples of enzymes and their roles.
● Solve past paper questions to familiarize yourself with enzyme-related topics.
Cell Membranes & Transport - AS Level
Biology Notes
1. Structure of Cell Membranes
The Fluid Mosaic Model

● Components:

○ Phospholipid Bilayer:
■ Hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads face outward.
■ Hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails face inward.
○ Proteins:
■ Intrinsic (integral): Span the bilayer (e.g., carrier and channel proteins).
■ Extrinsic (peripheral): Found on the surface.
○ Cholesterol: Provides stability and fluidity.
○ Glycoproteins and Glycolipids: Involved in cell recognition and signaling.
● Properties:

○ Semi-permeable: Allows selective entry and exit of substances.

○ Dynamic: Components can move laterally.

2. Functions of the Cell Membrane

● Barrier: Separates the internal environment from the external environment.
● Transport: Regulates movement of substances.
● Communication: Receptors for signal transduction.
● Recognition: Glycoproteins and glycolipids act as markers.

3. Types of Transport Across Membranes

1. Passive Transport

● Definition: Movement of substances down their concentration gradient without energy

input.
● Types:
 ○ Simple Diffusion:
■ Movement of small, non-polar molecules (e.g., oxygen, carbon dioxide).
■ Occurs directly through the phospholipid bilayer.
○ Facilitated Diffusion:
■ Movement of larger or charged molecules (e.g., glucose, ions).
■ Requires channel or carrier proteins.
○ Osmosis:
■ Movement of water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane.
■ Water moves from a region of high water potential to low water potential.

2. Active Transport

● Definition: Movement of substances against their concentration gradient using energy

(ATP).
● Mechanism:
○ Requires carrier proteins (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).
○ ATP provides the energy for conformational changes in the protein.

3. Bulk Transport

● Endocytosis:
○ Process of taking in substances via vesicle formation.
○ Types:
■ Phagocytosis: Uptake of solid particles.
■ Pinocytosis: Uptake of liquids.
● Exocytosis:
○ Process of expelling substances via vesicle fusion with the membrane.

4. Water Potential
● Definition: Measure of the potential energy of water molecules.
● Key Points:
○ Pure water has the highest water potential (0 kPa).
○ Adding solutes lowers water potential (negative value).
○ Water moves from a region of higher (less negative) water potential to lower
(more negative) water potential.

5. Effects of Osmosis on Cells

Animal Cells

● Hypotonic Solution: Water enters; cell swells and may burst (lysis).
● Hypertonic Solution: Water exits; cell shrinks (crenation).
● Isotonic Solution: No net movement; cell remains the same.

Plant Cells

● Hypotonic Solution: Water enters; cell becomes turgid.

● Hypertonic Solution: Water exits; cell becomes plasmolyzed.
● Isotonic Solution: No net movement; cell becomes flaccid.

6. Specialized Membrane Proteins

● Channel Proteins: Provide a hydrophilic pathway for specific molecules or ions.
● Carrier Proteins: Bind to specific substances and change shape to transport them
across the membrane.
● Receptor Proteins: Bind to signaling molecules and initiate a cellular response.

7. Practical Investigations
● Osmosis:
○ Use potato cylinders in solutions of varying concentrations to observe changes in
mass.
● Diffusion:
○ Use agar blocks with pH indicators to observe diffusion of acids or bases.
● Permeability:
○ Use beetroot cells to measure pigment leakage under different conditions (e.g.,
temperature, solvents).

8. Key Definitions
● Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
● Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semi-permeable membrane.
● Active Transport: Movement of substances against the concentration gradient using
energy.
● Water Potential: Potential energy of water in a system.
Study Tips

● Practice drawing and labeling the fluid mosaic model.

● Understand the differences between types of transport.
● Memorize the effects of osmosis on animal and plant cells.
● Solve past paper questions related to transport mechanisms.
The Mitotic Cell Cycle - AS Level Biology
Notes
1. Overview of the Cell Cycle
● Definition: The cell cycle is the series of events that cells go through as they grow and
divide.
● Phases:
1. Interphase: Preparation for cell division.
2. Mitosis: Division of the nucleus.
3. Cytokinesis: Division of the cytoplasm.

2. Interphase
● Longest phase of the cell cycle.
● Stages:
○ G1 Phase (Gap 1):
■ Cell grows and synthesizes proteins.
■ Organelles are replicated.
○ S Phase (Synthesis):
■ DNA replication occurs.
■ Each chromosome forms two identical sister chromatids.
○ G2 Phase (Gap 2):
■ Cell prepares for mitosis by synthesizing more proteins and organelles.

3. Mitosis
Purpose

● Produces two genetically identical daughter cells.

● Ensures growth, repair, and asexual reproduction.

Stages of Mitosis

1. Prophase:
 ○ Chromosomes condense and become visible.
○ Nuclear envelope breaks down.
○ Spindle fibers form from centrioles.
2. Metaphase:

○ Chromosomes align at the equator of the cell.

○ Spindle fibers attach to centromeres.
3. Anaphase:

○ Sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles.

○ Spindle fibers shorten.
4. Telophase:

○ Chromatids reach the poles and uncoil into chromatin.

○ Nuclear envelopes reform around each set of chromosomes.
○ Spindle fibers disintegrate.

4. Cytokinesis
● Division of the cytoplasm to form two separate daughter cells.
● Animal Cells: Cleavage furrow forms and pinches the cell in two.
● Plant Cells: Cell plate forms, leading to the formation of a new cell wall.

5. Importance of the Mitotic Cell Cycle

● Growth: Increases the number of cells in an organism.
● Repair: Replaces damaged or dead cells.
● Asexual Reproduction: Produces offspring in single-celled organisms and some plants.
● Genetic Stability: Ensures that daughter cells have identical genetic information.

6. Regulation of the Cell Cycle

● Checkpoints:
○ Ensure the cell is ready to proceed to the next phase.
○ Key checkpoints: G1, G2, and M phase checkpoints.
● Role of Cyclins and CDKs:
○ Cyclins: Proteins that regulate the cell cycle.
 ○ Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs): Enzymes that work with cyclins to control
progression.

7. Differences Between Mitosis and Meiosis

Feature Mitosis Meiosis

Number of Divisions One Two

Number of Daughter Two Four

Cells

Genetic Variation None (identical cells) Present (genetically

diverse)

Purpose Growth, repair, asexual Gamete production

reproduction

8. Key Definitions
● Chromatid: One of two identical halves of a replicated chromosome.
● Centromere: Region where two chromatids are joined.
● Spindle Fibers: Microtubules that help separate chromatids.
● Cleavage Furrow: Indentation that begins the process of cytokinesis in animal cells.
● Cell Plate: Structure that forms during cytokinesis in plant cells.

Study Tips

● Memorize the stages of mitosis and their key events.

● Practice drawing and labeling diagrams of mitosis.
 ● Understand the role of checkpoints and regulatory proteins.
● Solve past paper questions to reinforce your understanding.

Nucleic Acids and Protein Synthesis - AS

Level Biology Notes
1. Overview of Nucleic Acids
● Definition: Nucleic acids are biomolecules that store and transfer genetic information.
● Types:
○ DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid): Stores genetic information.
○ RNA (Ribonucleic Acid): Involved in protein synthesis.

2. Structure of DNA
● Components:
○ Nucleotide: Basic unit consisting of:
■ A phosphate group.
■ A deoxyribose sugar.
■ A nitrogenous base (Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine).
○ Double Helix: Two strands coiled around each other.
○ Base Pairing:
■ Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T).
■ Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).
■ Held together by hydrogen bonds.
3. Structure of RNA
● Components:
○ Single-stranded molecule.
○ Ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose.
○ Uracil (U) replaces Thymine (T).
● Types:
○ mRNA (Messenger RNA): Carries genetic code from DNA to ribosomes.
○ tRNA (Transfer RNA): Brings amino acids to ribosomes.
○ rRNA (Ribosomal RNA): Forms part of the ribosome.

4. DNA Replication
● Definition: Process of copying DNA before cell division.
● Steps:
1. Unwinding: DNA helicase unwinds the double helix.
2. Complementary Base Pairing: Free nucleotides pair with exposed bases.
3. Joining: DNA polymerase forms new strands by joining nucleotides.
● Result: Two identical DNA molecules, each with one original and one new strand
(semi-conservative replication).

5. Protein Synthesis
Stages

1. Transcription:

○ Occurs in the nucleus.

○ DNA sequence is transcribed into mRNA.
○ Steps:
■ DNA unwinds.
■ RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA by complementary base pairing (A
pairs with U).
2. Translation:

○ Occurs in the cytoplasm at the ribosome.

○ mRNA is translated into a polypeptide chain.
 ○ Steps:
■ mRNA binds to ribosome.
■ tRNA brings specific amino acids.
■ Codons on mRNA pair with anticodons on tRNA.
■ Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds to form a protein.

6. Genetic Code
● Features:
○ Triplet code: Three bases (codon) code for one amino acid.
○ Universal: Same in all organisms.
○ Degenerate: Multiple codons can code for the same amino acid.
● Start and Stop Codons:
○ Start codon: AUG (Methionine).
○ Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA.

7. Mutations
● Definition: Changes in the DNA sequence.
● Types:
○ Substitution: One base is replaced by another.
○ Insertion/Deletion: Addition or removal of a base, causing a frameshift.
● Effects:
○ Silent: No effect on the protein.
○ Missense: Changes one amino acid.
○ Nonsense: Introduces a stop codon, truncating the protein.

8. Practical Investigations
● DNA Extraction:
○ Use simple materials (e.g., from fruit) to extract DNA.
● Protein Synthesis Models:
○ Use models or diagrams to simulate transcription and translation.

Key Definitions
 ● Gene: A segment of DNA that codes for a protein.
● Codon: A sequence of three bases on mRNA that codes for an amino acid.
● Anticodon: A sequence of three bases on tRNA complementary to a codon.
● Polypeptide: A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.

Study Tips

● Practice drawing and labeling DNA and RNA structures.

● Memorize the steps of transcription and translation.
● Solve past paper questions on nucleic acids and protein synthesis.
Transport in Plants - AS Level Biology
Notes
1. Overview of Transport in Plants
● Purpose: Movement of water, minerals, and organic nutrients to sustain plant life.
● Key Systems:
○ Xylem: Transports water and mineral ions from roots to leaves.
○ Phloem: Transports organic substances (e.g., sucrose) throughout the plant.

2. Water Transport
Water Uptake by Roots

● Root Hair Cells:

○ Large surface area for absorption.
○ Thin cell walls for efficient water uptake.
● Pathways:
○ Apoplast Pathway: Through cell walls and intercellular spaces.
○ Symplast Pathway: Through cytoplasm connected by plasmodesmata.
○ Vacuolar Pathway: Through vacuoles.
● Endodermis:
○ Casparian strip blocks apoplast pathway, forcing water into the symplast
pathway.

Movement in the Xylem

● Cohesion-Tension Theory:
○ Water molecules stick together (cohesion).
○ Adhesion helps water stick to xylem walls.
○ Transpiration creates tension, pulling water upwards.
● Root Pressure:
○ Osmotic pressure in roots pushes water upwards.

3. Transpiration
 ● Definition: Loss of water vapor from leaves through stomata.
● Process:
○ Water evaporates from mesophyll cells into air spaces.
○ Diffuses out through stomata.
● Factors Affecting Transpiration:
○ Light intensity.
○ Temperature.
○ Humidity.
○ Wind speed.
● Adaptations to Reduce Water Loss:
○ Waxy cuticle.
○ Stomata closure.
○ Reduced leaf surface area.

4. Mineral Ion Uptake

● Active Transport:
○ Mineral ions are absorbed against their concentration gradient using energy from
ATP.
● Role of Mycorrhizae:
○ Symbiotic relationship between fungi and roots enhances nutrient absorption.

5. Phloem Transport
Translocation

● Definition: Movement of organic substances (e.g., sucrose) in the phloem.

● Source to Sink:
○ Source: Region where sugars are produced (e.g., leaves).
○ Sink: Region where sugars are used or stored (e.g., roots, fruits).
● Mechanism:
○ Pressure Flow Hypothesis:
1. Sucrose is loaded into the phloem at the source (active transport).
2. Water enters by osmosis, increasing pressure.
3. Sucrose is unloaded at the sink, reducing pressure.
4. Water returns to the xylem.
6. Practical Investigations
● Potometer:
○ Measures the rate of transpiration by recording water uptake.
● Ringing Experiments:
○ Demonstrates the role of phloem in translocation by removing a ring of bark.

Key Definitions

● Xylem: Tissue that transports water and minerals.

● Phloem: Tissue that transports organic nutrients.
● Transpiration: Loss of water vapor from plant surfaces.
● Translocation: Movement of organic substances in the phloem.
● Casparian Strip: Waterproof band in the endodermis that regulates water movement.

Study Tips

● Practice labeling diagrams of xylem and phloem.

● Memorize the pathways of water movement.
● Understand the cohesion-tension theory and pressure flow hypothesis.
● Solve past paper questions on transport in plants.
Transport in Mammals - AS Level Biology
Notes
1. Overview
● Mammals have a closed, double circulatory system.
● Blood passes through the heart twice per circuit: pulmonary circulation (heart to lungs)
and systemic circulation (heart to body).

2. The Heart
● Structure:
○ Four chambers: two atria (upper), two ventricles (lower).
○ Valves prevent backflow: bicuspid, tricuspid, semilunar.
○ Blood vessels: vena cava, pulmonary artery, pulmonary vein, aorta.
● Cardiac Cycle:
○ Atrial systole: Atria contract, blood flows to ventricles.
○ Ventricular systole: Ventricles contract, blood flows to arteries.
○ Diastole: Heart relaxes, chambers fill with blood.
● Control of Heartbeat:
○ SAN (pacemaker) initiates heartbeat.
○ Impulses pass through AVN, Bundle of His, and Purkinje fibers.

3. Blood Vessels
● Arteries:
○ Carry blood away from the heart.
○ Thick walls, narrow lumen, high pressure.
● Veins:
○ Carry blood to the heart.
○ Thin walls, wide lumen, valves prevent backflow.
● Capillaries:
○ One cell thick for exchange of substances.
4. Blood Composition
● Plasma: Transports nutrients, hormones, waste.
● Red Blood Cells:
○ Contain hemoglobin for oxygen transport.
○ Biconcave shape, no nucleus.
● White Blood Cells:
○ Immune response.
● Platelets:
○ Blood clotting.

5. Oxygen Transport
● Hemoglobin binds oxygen to form oxyhemoglobin.
● Releases oxygen in tissues where needed (low oxygen partial pressure).
● Bohr Effect: High CO2 reduces hemoglobin's oxygen affinity.

6. Tissue Fluid and Lymph

● Tissue Fluid:
○ Formed by filtration of plasma at capillaries.
○ Supplies cells with nutrients and removes waste.
● Lymph:
○ Excess tissue fluid drained into lymphatic vessels.
○ Returns to blood via lymph nodes.

Key Terms

● Artery: Vessel carrying blood away from the heart.

● Vein: Vessel carrying blood to the heart.
● Capillary: Thin-walled vessel for exchange of substances.
● Hemoglobin: Oxygen-carrying protein in red blood cells.
● Lymph: Fluid in lymphatic vessels derived from tissue fluid.

Study Tips
 ● Label diagrams of the heart and blood vessels.
● Memorize blood flow through the heart.
● Understand the cardiac cycle and oxygen transport.
● Practice past paper questions.

__________________________________________________________________

Gas Exchange - AS Level Biology Notes

1. Overview
● Gas exchange involves the uptake of oxygen (O2) and the removal of carbon dioxide
(CO2).
● Efficient gas exchange surfaces have:
○ Large surface area.
○ Thin barriers for short diffusion distance.
○ Steep concentration gradient.

2. Gas Exchange in Mammals

Structure of the Respiratory System

● Trachea: Carries air to the lungs; supported by cartilage rings.

● Bronchi and Bronchioles: Branch into smaller airways leading to alveoli.
● Alveoli:
○ Thin walls (one cell thick) for efficient gas diffusion.
○ Surrounded by capillaries.
○ Moist lining to dissolve gases.

Ventilation

● Inhalation:
○ Diaphragm contracts and flattens.
○ External intercostal muscles contract, lifting the ribcage.
○ Thoracic volume increases, pressure decreases, air enters.
● Exhalation:
○ Diaphragm relaxes and domes.
○ External intercostal muscles relax, ribcage moves down.
○ Thoracic volume decreases, pressure increases, air exits.
3. Gas Exchange in Alveoli
● Oxygen Diffusion:
○ O2 diffuses from alveoli into blood (high to low concentration).
○ Binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells.
● Carbon Dioxide Diffusion:
○ CO2 diffuses from blood into alveoli (high to low concentration).
○ Removed during exhalation.

4. Adaptations of Alveoli
● Large surface area for diffusion.
● Thin walls (short diffusion distance).
● Rich blood supply to maintain concentration gradient.
● Moist lining to dissolve gases.

5. Gas Exchange in Other Organisms

Fish (Gills):

● Countercurrent Flow:
○ Blood and water flow in opposite directions, maintaining a steep O2 gradient.
● Gill Structure:
○ Gill filaments and lamellae increase surface area.

Insects (Tracheal System):

● Spiracles: Openings for gas entry and exit.

● Tracheae and Tracheoles: Deliver O2 directly to tissues.
● Ventilation Movements: Aid gas exchange.

Key Terms

● Alveoli: Air sacs in the lungs for gas exchange.

● Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
 ● Ventilation: Movement of air in and out of the lungs.
● Countercurrent Flow: Efficient gas exchange mechanism in fish.

Study Tips

● Label diagrams of the respiratory system and alveoli.

● Understand the mechanics of ventilation.
● Compare gas exchange in mammals, fish, and insects.
● Practice past paper questions.

_____________________________________________________________________

Infectious Disease - AS Level Biology

Notes
1. Overview
● Infectious diseases are caused by pathogens (bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa).
● Pathogens can be transmitted through air, water, food, vectors, or direct contact.

2. Key Pathogens and Diseases

● Cholera (Vibrio cholerae):
○ Transmission: Contaminated water/food.
○ Symptoms: Severe diarrhea, dehydration.
○ Prevention: Clean water supply, good hygiene.
○ Treatment: Oral rehydration therapy (ORT), antibiotics.
● Malaria (Plasmodium spp.):
○ Transmission: Female Anopheles mosquito.
○ Symptoms: Fever, chills, sweating.
○ Prevention: Mosquito nets, insecticides.
○ Treatment: Antimalarial drugs.
● Tuberculosis (TB) (Mycobacterium tuberculosis):
○ Transmission: Airborne droplets.
○ Symptoms: Persistent cough, weight loss, fever.
○ Prevention: BCG vaccine, good ventilation.
○ Treatment: Long-term antibiotics.
 ● HIV/AIDS (Human Immunodeficiency Virus):
○ Transmission: Body fluids (blood, sexual contact).
○ Symptoms: Weak immune system, opportunistic infections.
○ Prevention: Safe sex, blood screening.
○ Treatment: Antiretroviral therapy (ART).

3. Immune Response
● Primary Defense:
○ Skin, mucus, cilia, stomach acid.
● Secondary Defense:
○ White blood cells (phagocytes, lymphocytes).
○ Antibodies target specific antigens.

4. Antibiotics
● Effective against bacteria, not viruses.
● Overuse/misuse can lead to antibiotic resistance.

Key Terms

● Pathogen: Microorganism causing disease.

● Vector: Organism transmitting a pathogen.
● Antibody: Protein produced by lymphocytes to neutralize antigens.
● Antigen: Molecule on pathogen surface triggering immune response.

Study Tips

● Learn examples of diseases and their transmission/prevention.

● Understand the immune response and antibiotic use.
● Practice drawing and labeling immune cells.
● Review past paper questions.
Immunity - AS Level Biology Notes
1. Overview
● Immunity: The body's ability to resist infection.
● Types:
○ Active Immunity: Body produces its own antibodies.
○ Passive Immunity: Antibodies obtained from an external source.

2. Active Immunity
● Natural Active Immunity: Gained after infection; memory cells produced.
● Artificial Active Immunity: Gained through vaccination; stimulates immune response
without causing disease.

3. Passive Immunity
● Natural Passive Immunity: Antibodies passed from mother to baby via placenta or
breast milk.
● Artificial Passive Immunity: Antibodies injected for immediate protection (e.g.,
antitoxins).

4. Immune Response
● Primary Response: Slow; body produces specific antibodies and memory cells.
● Secondary Response: Faster and stronger due to memory cells.

5. Vaccination
● Vaccines contain weakened or dead pathogens.
● Stimulate the production of memory cells for long-term immunity.
6. Key Terms
● Antigen: Molecule on pathogen surface triggering immune response.
● Antibody: Protein targeting specific antigens.
● Memory Cells: Long-lived cells enabling faster secondary response.

Study Tips

● Understand the difference between active and passive immunity.

● Learn examples of vaccines and their mechanisms.
● Practice explaining the immune response in simple steps.