MUSCULAR SYSTEM ● The shape and appearance of the

lesson 7
cell is single, fusiform,
uninucleate; has no striations
THREE BASIC MUSCLE TYPES
● Connective tissue components of
the smooth muscle is the
SKELETAL MUSCLE endomysium
● Regulation of contractions are
● Attached to bones or, for some involuntary; nervous system
facial muscles to skin controls; hormones, chemicals,
● The shape and appearance of the stretch
cell is single, very long, cylindrical, ● Speed of contraction are very slow
multinucleate cells with very ● There are some rhythmic
obvious striations contractions
● Connective tissue components
consist of the epimysium, FUNCTIONS OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
perimysium, endomysium
● Regulation of contraction are
● Maintain posture and body
voluntary; nervous system
position
controls
● Stabilizes joints
● Speed of contractions are slow to
● Generate heat
fast
● There are no rhythmic
MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF
contractions
SKELETAL MUSCLE

CARDIAC MUSCLE

● Walls of the heart

● The shape and appearance of the
cell has branching chains of cells;
uninucleate, striations;
intercalated discs
● The connective tissue,
endomysium is attached to the
fibrous skeleton of the heart SARCOLEMMA
● Regulation of contractions are ● Specialized plasma membrane
involuntary; the heart has a MYOFIBRILS
pacemaker, also nervous system ● Long organelles inside muscle cell
controls; hormones ○ Light (l) bands
● Speed of contractions are slow ○ Dark (A) bands give the
● There are rhythmic contractions muscle its striated
(banded) appearance

SMOOTH MUSCLE

● Mostly in walls of hollow visceral

organs (other than the heart)

PAGE 1 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

 STIMULATION AND CONTRACTION
OF SINGLE SKELETAL MUSCLE CELLS

● Special functional properties of

skeletal muscles
● Irritability (also called
responsiveness)
○ The ability to receive and
● Banding pattern of myofibrils respond to a stimulus
● Contractility
L BAND ○ Ability to forcibly shorten
● Light band when an adequate
● Contains only thin filaments stimulus is received
● Z disc is a midline interruption ● Extensibility
A BAND ○ Ability of muscle cells to be
● Dark band stretched
● Contains the entire length of the ● Elasticity
thick filaments ○ Ability to recoil and
● H zone is a lighter central area resume resting length
● M line is in center of H zone after stretching

How Do Muscles Contract?

● Origin
○ Doesn’t move
● Insertion
○ Does move
SARCOMERE ● Skeletal muscles must be
● Contractile unit of a muscle fiber stimulated by a motor neuron
(nerve cell) to contract
● Structural and function unit of
skeletal muscle

THE NERVE STIMULUS AND ACTION

POTENTIAL

● When a nerve impulse reaches

the axon terminal of the motor
neuron
○ STEP 1: Calcium channels
open and calcium ions
“SLIDING FILAMENT THEORY” enter the axon terminal
○ STEP 2: Calcium ions entry
● Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) causes some synaptic
● Specialized smooth endoplasmic vesicles to release
reticulum acetylcholine (ACh)
● Surrounds the myofibril ○ STEP 3: ACh diffuses
● Stores and releases calcium across the synaptic cleft
and attaches to receptors

PAGE 2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

 on the sarcolemma of the
muscle cell
○ STEP 4: If enough ACh is
released, the sarcolemma
becomes temporarily
more permeable to
sodium ions (Na+)
■ Potassium ions (K+)
diffuse out of the
cell
■ More sodium ions ● Cell returns to its resting state
enter than when
potassium ions ○ Potassium ions (K+) diffuse
leave out of the cell
■ Establishes an ○ Sodium-potassium pump
imbalance in which moves sodium and
interior has more potassium ions back to
positive ions their original positions
(depolarization),
thereby opening
MECHANISM OF MUSCLE
more Na+ channels CONTRACTION: THE SLIDING
○ STEP 5: Depolarization FILAMENT THEORY
opens more sodium
channels that allow
Q: What causes filaments to slide?
sodium ions to enter the
● In a relaxed muscle fiber, the
cell
regulatory proteins forming part
■ An action called
of the actin myofilaments prevent
potential is created
myosin binding (see a). When an
■ Once begun, the
action potential (AP) sweeps
action potential is
along its sarcolemma and a
unstoppable
muscle fiber is excited, calcium
■ Conducts the
ions (Ca2+) are released from
electrical impulse
intracellular storage areas (the
from one end of
sacs of the sarcoplasmic
the cell to the other
reticulum).
○ STEP 6:
● The flood of calcium acts as the
Acetylcholinesterase
final trigger for contraction,
(AChE) breaks down
because as calcium binds to the
acetylcholine into acetic
regulatory proteins on the actin
acid and choline
filaments, the proteins undergo a
■ AChE nerve
change in both their shape and
impulse produces
their position on the thin
only one
filaments. This action exposes
contraction
myosin-binding sites on the actin,
to which the myosin heads can
attach and the myosin head
immediately begins seeking out
binding sites. The free myosin

PAGE 3 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

 heads are “cocked,” much like an may give differing
oar ready to be pulled on for responses
rowing. Myosin attachment to ○ Graded responses–
actin causes the myosin heads to different degrees of
snap (pivot) toward the center of skeletal muscle
the sarcomere in a rowing ■ By changing the
motion. When this happens, the frequency of
thin filaments are slightly pulled muscle stimulation
toward the center of the ■ By changing the
sarcomere ATP provides the number of muscle
energy needed to release and cells being
recock each myosin head so that stimulated at one
it is ready to attach to a binding time
site farther along the thin ● Muscle response to increasingly
filament. rapid stimulation
● The free myosin heads are ● Muscle twitch
“cocked,” much like an oar ready ○ Single, brief, jerky
to be pulled on for rowing. Myosin contraction
attachment to actin causes the ○ Not a normal muscle
myosin heads to snap (pivot) function
toward the center of the
sarcomere in a rowing motion.
When this happens, the thin
filaments are slightly pulled
toward the center of the
sarcomere (see c). ATP provides
the energy needed to release and
recock each myosin head so that
it is ready to attach to a binding
site farther along the thin ● In most types of muscle activity,
filament. nerve impulses are delivered at a
rapid rate
CONTRACTION OF A SKELETAL ● As a result, contractions are
MUSCLE AS A WHOLE “summed” (added) together, and
one contraction is immediately
● Graded response followed by another
○ Muscle fiber contraction is
“all-or-none”, meaning iot
will contract to its fullest
when stimulated
adequately
○ Within a whole skeletal
muscle, not all fibers may
be stimulated during the
same interval
○ Different combinations of ● When stimulations become more
muscle fiber contractions frequent, muscle contractions get
stronger and smoother

PAGE 4 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

 ● The muscle now exhibits unfused ○ Direct phosphorylation of
(incomplete) tetanus ADP by creatine
phosphate
○ Aerobic pathway
○ Anaerobic glycolysis and
lactic acid formation

DIRECT PHOSPHORYLATION OF ADP

BY CREATINE PHOSPHATE (CP)

● Fastest
● Muscle cells store CP, a
high-energy molecule
● Muscle response to increasingly ● After ATP is depleted, ADP
rapid stimulation (continued) remains
● Fused (complete) tetanus is ● CP transfers a phosphate group to
achieved when the muscle is ADP to regenerate ATP
stimulated so rapidly that no ● CP supplies are exhausted in less
evidence of relaxation is seen than 15 seconds
● Contractions are smooth and ● 1 ATP is produced per CP
sustained molecule

ANAEROBIC GLYCOLYSIS AND

LACTIC ACID FORMATION

● Reaction that breaks down

glucose without oxygen
● Glucose is broken down to pyruvic
acid to produce about 2 ATP
● Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic
acid, which causes muscle
PROVIDING ENERGY FOR MUSCLE soreness
CONTRACTION ● This reaction is not as efficient,
but it is fast
● ATP ● Huge amount of glucose are
○ Only energy source that needed
can be used to directly
power muscle contraction ANAEROBIC RESPIRATION
○ Stored in muscle fibers in
small amounts that are ● Supplies ATP at rest and during
quickly used up light/moderate exercise
○ After this initial time, other ● A series of metabolic pathways,
pathways must be utilized called oxidative phosphorylation,
to produce ATP use oxygen and occur in the
● Three pathways to regenerate mitochondria
ATP

PAGE 5 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

 ● Glucose is broken down to carbon
TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
dioxide and water releasing
energy (about 32 ATP)
● This is slower reaction that ● Flexion
requires continuous delivery of ○ Decreases the angle of the
oxygen and nutrients joint
○ Brings two bones closer
together
MUSCLE FATIGUE AND OXYGEN
DEFICIT ○ Typical of bending hinge
joints or ball-and-socket
joints
● If muscle activity is strenuous and
● Extension
prolonged, muscle fatigue occurs
○ Opposite of flexion
● Suspected factors that contribute
○ Increases angle between
to muscle fatigue include:
two bones
○ Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+)
○ Typical of straightening
○ Oxygen deficit and lactic
the elbow or knee
acid accumulation
○ Extension beyond 180 is
○ Decrease in energy (ATP)
hyperextension
supply
● Rotation
● After exercise, the oxygen deficit is
○ Movement of a bone
repaid, deep breathing
around its longitudinal axis
○ Common in
ball-and-socket joints
○ Example: moving the atlas
around the dens of axis
TYPE OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
● Abduction
○ Movement of a limb away
● ISOTONIC CONTRACTIONS from the midline
○ Myofilaments are able to ● Adduction
slide past each other ○ Opposite of abduction
during contractions ○ Movement of a limb
○ The muscle shortens, and towards the midline
movement occurs ● Circumduction
○ Example: bending the ○ Combination of flexion,
knee, lifting weights, extension, abduction, and
smiling adduction
● ISOMETRIC CONTRACTIONS ○ Common in
○ Muscle filaments are ball-and-socket joints
trying to slide, but the ○ Proximal end of bone is
muscle is pitted against an stationary, and distal end
immovable object moves in a circle
○ Tension increases, but ● Dorsiflexion
muscles do not shorten ○ Lifting the foot so that the
○ Example: pushing your superior surface
palms together in front of approaches the shin
you (toward the dorsum)
● Plantar flexion

PAGE 6 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

 ○ Pointing the toes away
from the head
● Inversion
○ Turning sole of foot
medially
● Eversion
○ Turning sole of foot
laterally
● Supination
○ Forearm rotates laterally so
palm faces anteriorly
○ Radius and ulna are
parallel
● Pronation
○ Forearm rotates medially
so palm faces posteriorly
○ Radius and ulna cross each
NAMING SKELETAL MUSCLES
other like an X
● Opposition
○ Moving the thumb to ● Location of the muscle
touch the tips of other ● Shape of the muscle
fingers on the same hand ● Size of the muscle
● Direction/Orientation of the
INTERACTIONS OF THE SKELETAL muscle fibers/cells
MUSCLES IN THE BODY ● Number of origins
● Location of the attachment
● Action of the muscle
● Muscles can only pull as they
contract– Not push
● In general, groups of muscles that
MUSCLES NAMED BY LOCATION
produce opposite actions lie on
opposite sides of a joint
● Prime mover– Muscle with the ● Frontalis – Frontal bone
major responsibility for a certain ● Lateralis – Lateral or on the side
movement ● Tibialis anterior – Front of the tibia
● Antagonist– Muscle that opposes ● Fibularis longus – Near fibula
or reverses a prime mover ● Supra – Above
● Synergist– Muscle that aids a ● Infra – Below
prime mover in a movement or ● Sub – Underneath
reduces undesirable movements
● Fixator– Specialized synergists
that hold a bone still or stabilize MUSCLES NAMED BY SHAPE
the origin of a prime mover
● Deltoid – Triangle
● Latissimus – Wide
● Teres – Round
● Trapezius – Trapezoid
● Serratus – Saw-toothe
● Orbicularis – Circular

PAGE 7 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

 ● Levator – Lifts a structure

MUSCLES NAMED BY SIZE DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE

MUSCULAR SYSTEM

● Maximus – Largest
● Minimus – Smallest ● Increasing muscular control
● Vastus – Huge reflects the maturation of the
● Longus – Longest nervous system
● Brevis – Short ● Muscle control is achieved in a
● Major – Large superior/inferior and
● Minor – Small proximal/distal direction
● To remain healthy, muscles must
be exercised regularly
MUSCLES NAMED BY DIRECTIONS OF ● Without exercise, muscles
FIBERS atrophy
● With extremely vigorous exercise,
muscles hypertrophy
● Rectos (straight) – Parallel to the
● As we age, muscle mass
muscle’s long axis
decreases, and muscles become
● Transversus (transverse) – At right
more sinewy
angles to the muscle’s long axis
● Exercise helps retain muscle mass
● Oblique – Diagonal
and strength

MUSCLES NAMED BY NUMBER OF

ORIGINS DIAGRAMS

● Biceps – Two origins

● Triceps – Three origins
● Quadriceps – Four origins

MUSCLES NAMED FOR ORIGIN AND

INSERTION POINTS

● Sterno – Sternum
● Cleiodo – Clavicle
● Mastoid – Location on the
temporal bone

MUSCLES NAMED FOR ACTION

● Flexor carpi radialis – Flexes wrist

● Abductor magnus – Abducts the
thigh
● Extensor digitorum – Extends the
fingers

PAGE 8 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

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