Human Anatomy and Physiology 1.

Chemical level , the simplest level of

structural ladder .At this level atoms
CHAPTER 1 combine to form molecules such as
The Human Body: An Orientation water, sugar, & proteins
2. Cellular level the smallest units of
Anatomy – the study of the structure and shape living things.
of the body and body parts & their relationships 3. Tissue level , groups of similar cells
to one another. The term anatomy comes from that have a common function (4 basic
the Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) apart types)
( ana) . 4. Organ level, an organ is a structure
composed of 2 or more tissue types
• Gross anatomy( macroscopic that performs a specific function .
anatomy) – the study of large, easily 5. Organ System is a group of organs that
observable structures (by naked eye), work together to accomplish a
such as the heart or bone. common purpose (each organ has its
own job to do)
• Microscopic anatomy (cytology,
histology) – the study of very small 6. Organismal level , represents the
highest level of structural
structures, where a magnifying lens or
microscope is needed. organization( total of 11 organ
systems)
Physiology – the study of how the body and
its parts work or function
physio = nature , ology = the study of.
• Like anatomy , physiology has many
subdivisions. For example,
neurophysiology explains the working
of the nervous system , and cardiac
physiology studies the function of the
heart.

Relationship between Anatomy and

Physiology
Anatomy and Physiology are always related .
Structure determines what functions can take
place. For example, the lungs are not muscular
chambers like the heart and can not pump
blood, but because the walls of lungs are very
thin, they can exchange gasses and provide
oxygen to the body.

Levels of Structural Organization

- The human body exhibits 6 levels of
structural complexity :
Body systems: The human body has 11
systems E. ENDOCRINE
ORGANS
A. INTEGUMENTARY ◼ Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids,
ORGANS adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal,
◼ Skin ovaries, testes…..etc.
FUNCTIONS FUNCTIONS
◼ Waterproofs, cushions, ◼ Slow -acting control system
protects deeper tissue ◼ Glands produce hormones that
◼ Excretes salts & urea; pain, regulate growth, reproduction,
pressure metabolism,…. etc.
◼ Regulates body temp;
synthesize vitamin D F. Circulatory
ORGANS
B. SKELETAL ◼ Heart, blood vessels, capillaries
ORGANS &blood
◼ Bones, cartilages, ligaments, FUNCTIONS
joints ◼ Carries O2 nutrients, hormones, &
FUNCTIONS other substances to and from tissue
◼ Protects & supports body cells
organs ◼ White blood cells protect against
◼ Framework for muscles & bacteria, toxins, tumors
movement
◼ Hematopoiesis; store minerals G. LYMPHATIC
ORGANS
C. MUSCULAR ◼ Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
ORGANS spleen, tonsils
◼ Skeletal muscle (attached to FUNCTIONS
bone) ◼ Complements circulatory system
FUNCTIONS by returning leaked fluid back to
◼ Contraction & mobility blood vessels
(locomotion) ◼ Cleanses the blood; involved in
◼ Facial expression, posture immunity
◼ Produce body heat
H. RESPIRATORY
D. NERVOUS ORGANS
ORGANS ◼ Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx,
◼ Brain, spinal cord, nerves, & trachea, bronchi, & lungs
sensory receptors FUNCTIONS
FUNCTIONS ◼ Keeps blood supplied with O2 &
◼ Fast-acting central control system removes CO2
◼ Responds to external/internal ◼ Carries out gas exchanges through
stimuli via nerve impulses air sacs in lungs
(electrical messages)
I. DIGESTIVE Maintaining Life
ORGANS I. Necessary Life Functions : All living
◼ Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, organisms carry out certain vital functional
small intestine, large intestine, activities necessary for life, including :
rectum, anus (liver & pancreas)
1. Maintenance of boundaries: Every living
FUNCTIONS
organism must maintain its inside distinct
◼ Breaks food down into absorbable
from outside.
units that enter the blood;
-All the cells are surrounded by a
indigestible food eliminated as
selectively permeable membrane.
feces
-The body as a whole is enclosed and
protected by the integumentary system, or
J. URINARY (EXCRETORY)
skin, which protects our internal organs
ORGANS
from drying out, bacteria, heat, sunlight,
◼ Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder,
and chemicals .
urethra
FUNCTIONS
2. Movement :
◼ Eliminates nitrogenous waste from
-It includes the activities promoted by the
the body (urea & uric acid)
muscular system , the skeletal system
◼ Regulates water, electrolytes, &
provides the bony framework that the
acid-base balance of the blood
muscles pull on as they work.
K. REPRODUCTIVE
-Movement also occurs when substances
ORGANS
such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are
◼ Male
propelled through internal organs .
◼ Seminal vesicles, prostate,
- On the cellular level, the muscle cell’s
penis, vas deferens, testis,
ability to move by shortening is more
scrotum
precisely called contractility.
◼ Female
◼ Ovaries, mammary glands,
3. Responsiveness or irritability, is the
uterus, vagina, uterine tube
ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the
FUNCTIONS
environment and then respond to them.
◼ Primary function for both sexes is
-you involuntarily pull your hand away
to produce offspring
from the painful stimulus .
◼ Male – testes produce sperm & -When carbon dioxide in your blood rises
male sex hormones to dangerously high levels, your breathing
◼ Female – ovaries produce eggs & rate speeds up. Because nerve cells are
female sex hormones; mammary highly irritable and communicate rapidly
glands for nourishment with each other via electrical impulses, the
nervous system is most involved with
responsiveness. However, all body cells are
irritable to some extent.
4. Digestion :is the breaking down of 7. Reproduction : is making a whole new
ingested foodstuffs to simple molecules person which is the major task of the
that can be absorbed into the blood. The reproductive system.
nutrient-rich blood is then distributed to - When a sperm unites with an egg, a
all body cells by the cardiovascular system. fertilized egg forms, which then develops
In a simple, one-celled organism such as an into a baby within the mother’s body.
amoeba, the cell itself is the “digestion - The reproductive system is regulated by
factory,” but in the multicellular human hormones of the endocrine system.
body, the digestive system performs this - Because males produce sperm and
function for the entire body. females produce eggs (ova), there is a
division of labor in the reproductive
5. Metabolism is a broad term that process, and the reproductive organs of
includes all chemical reactions that occur males and females are different .
within body cells. It includes breaking - The female’s reproductive structures
down substances into their simpler provide the site for fertilization of eggs by
building blocks (catabolism), synthesizing sperm, then protect and nurture the
more complex cellular structures from developing fetus until birth.
simpler substances (anabolism), and using
nutrients and oxygen to produce (via 8. Growth is an increase in size of a body
cellular respiration) ATP, that power part or the organism. It is usually
cellular activities. accomplished by increasing the number of
Metabolism depends on the digestive and cells. However, individual cells also
respiratory systems to make nutrients and increase in size when not dividing. For
oxygen available to be distributed true growth to occur, constructive
throughout the body. Metabolism is activities must occur at a faster rate than
regulated largely by hormones secreted by destructive ones
endocrine system glands.
II. Survival Needs
6. Excretion is the process of removing Survival needs include:
excreta (ek-skre′tah), or wastes, from the 1. Nutrients: Nutrients, taken in via the
body. – The digestive system rids the body diet, contain the chemical substances
of indigestible food residues in feces. used for energy and cell building.
-The urinary system disposes of nitrogen- - Carbohydrates are the major energy
containing metabolic wastes, such as urea, fuel for body cells.
in urine. - Proteins, and to a lesser extent fats, are
- Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular essential for building cell structures.
respiration, is carried in the blood to the - Fats also provide a reserve of energy-
lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled rich fuel.
air. - Selected minerals and vitamins are
required for the chemical reactions
that go on in cells and for oxygen
transport in the blood. The mineral
calcium helps to make bones hard and
is required for blood clotting.
2. Oxygen : All the nutrients in the world atmospheric pressure. At high
are useless unless oxygen is also altitudes, where atmospheric pressure
available. Because the chemical is lower and the air is thin, gas
reactions that release energy from exchange may be inadequate to
foods are oxidative reactions that support cellular metabolism.
require oxygen, human cells can Notice :The mere presence of these survival
survive for only a few minutes without factors is not sufficient to sustain life. They
oxygen. Approximately 20% of the air must be present in appropriate amounts;
we breathe is oxygen. It is made excesses and deficits may be equally harmful.
available to the blood and body cells
For example, the food we eat must be of high
by the cooperative efforts of the
quality and in proper amounts; otherwise,
respiratory and cardiovascular
nutritional disease, obesity, or starvation is
systems.
likely.
3. Water accounts for 60–80% of body
weight and is the single most abundant Homeostasis
chemical substance in the body. It provides
◼ Describes the body’s ability to
the watery environment necessary for
maintain relatively stable internal
chemical reactions and the fluid base
conditions even though the outside
for body secretions and excretions.
world is continuously changing
Water is obtained chiefly from
◼ The literal translation of homeostasis
ingested foods or liquids and is lost
is “unchanging,”( homeo= the same,
from the body by evaporation from the
stasis = standing still which is not
lungs and skin and in body excretions.
true).
4. If chemical reactions are to continue at
The term does not really mean a static, or
life-sustaining rates, normal body
unchanging, state. Rather, it indicates a
temperature must be maintained. As
dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in
body temperature drops below 37°C
which internal conditions vary, but always
(98.6°F), metabolic reactions become
slower and slower, and finally stop. within relatively narrow limits. In general, the
When body temperature is too high, body is in homeostasis when its needs are adequately
body proteins lose their characteristic met and it is functioning smoothly.
shape and stop functioning. At either
extreme, death occurs. Most body heat is Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
generated by the activity of the muscular
Communication within the body is essential
system.
for homeostasis.
Communication is accomplished chiefly by
5. Atmospheric pressure is the force that the nervous and endocrine systems, which use
air exerts on the surface of the body. neural electrical impulses or blood borne
Breathing and gas exchange in the hormones, respectively, as information
lungs depend on appropriate carriers.
Regardless of the factor being regulated(the mechanisms cause the variable to change in a
variable)all homeostatic control mechanisms direction opposite to that of the initial change,
have at least three interdependent components . returning it to its “ideal” value; thus the name
The first component, the receptor, is some type “negative” feedback mechanisms.
of sensor that monitors the environment and
responds to changes, called stimuli, by sending A good example of a nonbiological negative
information (input) to the second component, feedback system is a home heating system
the control center. Input flows from the receptor connected to a temperature-sensing
to the control center along the so-called thermostat . If the thermostat is set at 20°C
afferent pathway. The control center, analyzes (68°F), the heating system (effector) is
the input it receives and then determines the triggered ON when the house temperature
appropriate response or course of action. drops below that setting. As the furnace
produces heat and warms the air, the
temperature rises, and when it reaches 20°C
The third component, the effector, provides the
or slightly higher, the thermostat triggers the
means of response (output) to the stimulus.
furnace OFF.
Information flows from the control center to
the effector along the efferent pathway. The
This process results in a cycling of “furnace-
results of the response then feed back to
ON” and “furnace-OFF” so that the
influence the stimulus, either depressing it
temperature in the house stays very near the
(negative feedback) so that the whole control
desired temperature of 20°C. Your body
mechanism is shut off or enhancing it
“thermostat,” located in a part of your brain
(positive feedback) so that the reaction
called the hypothalamus, operates in a similar
continues at an even faster rate.
fashion.
Homeostatic control mechanisms are TWO:
Positive Feedback Mechanisms
◼ Negative feedback mechanisms – the net
In positive feedback mechanisms, the result or
effect of the response to the stimulus is the
response enhances the original stimulus so
shut off of the original stimulus or to
that the activity (output) is accelerated. This
reduce its intensity
feedback mechanism is “positive” because the
◼ E.g. – body temp, blood chemical
change that occurs proceeds in the same
levels
direction as the initial disturbance, causing
◼ Positive feedback mechanisms – tend to
the variable to deviate further and further
increase the original disturbance
from its original value or range.
(stimulus) and push the variable farther
from its original value
In contrast to negative feedback controls,
◼ E.g. – ovulation, blood clotting,
birth which maintain many physiological functions
or keep blood chemicals within narrow
Negative Feedback Mechanisms ranges, positive feedback mechanisms usually
Most homeostatic control mechanisms are control infrequent events that do not require
negative feedback mechanisms. In these continuous adjustments. However, TWO
systems, the output shuts off the original familiar examples of their use as homeostatic
stimulus or reduces its intensity. These
mechanisms are the enhancement of labor The Language of Anatomy
contractions during birth and blood clotting. Anatomical Position

The body’s ability to regulate its internal ◼ Standing erect

environment is fundamental, and all negative ◼ Feet parallel
feedback mechanisms have the same goal: ◼ Arms hanging at the sides
preventing sudden severe changes within the
◼ Palms facing forward
body. Body temperature and blood volume are
only two of the variables that need to be
Anatomical position – body is erect with
regulated. There are hundreds! Other negative the feet parallel and the arms hanging at
feedback mechanisms regulate heart rate, the sides with the palms facing forward.
blood pressure, the rate and depth of (It’s important to note throughout this
breathing, and blood levels of oxygen, carbon course, most terminology refers to this
dioxide, and minerals. position regardless of the position the
body happens to be in at the time)
Homeostatic Imbalance
Directional terms
Homeostasis is so important that most disease
can be regarded as a result of its disturbance, a ◼ Superior (cranial or cephalad) –
condition called homeostatic imbalance. As we toward the head end or upper part of a
age, our body’s control systems become less structure or body; above
efficient, and our internal environment
becomes less and less stable. These events ◼ Inferior (caudal) – away from the head
increase our risk for illness and produce the end or toward the lower part of a
changes we associate with aging. structure or body; below
- Examples of homeostatic imbalance
are provided throughout this course to ◼ Anterior (ventral) – toward or at the
enhance understanding of normal front of the body; in front of
physiological mechanisms.
◼ Posterior (dorsal) – toward or at the
backside of the body; behind

◼ Medial – toward or at the midline of

the body; on the inner side of

◼ Lateral – away from the midline of the

body; on the outer side of
◼ Proximal – close to the origin of the
body part or the point of attachment of
a limb to the body trunk.
◼ Distal – farther from the origin of a Body planes and sections
body or the point of attachment of a
A section is a cut made along a plane
limb to the body trunk.
◼ Sagittal – cut made along the
lengthwise or longitudinal plane of the
◼ Superficial (external) – toward or at
body dividing it into left and right
the body surface.
parts
◼ Midsagittal (median) plane – right and
◼ Deep (internal) – away from the body
left parts are of equal size
surface; more internal.
◼ Frontal (coronal) plane – cut made
along a lengthwise plane that divides
Examples: the body into anterior and posterior
◼ The navel is inferior to the breastbone parts
◼ The heart is posterior to the ◼ Transverse plane (cross section) – cut
breastbone made along a horizontal plane dividing
◼ The arms are lateral to the chest the body or organ into superior and
◼ The elbow is proximal to the wrist inferior parts
◼ The skin is superficial to the skeleton
◼ The forehead is superior to the nose Planes
◼ The breastbone is anterior to the spine ◼ Sagittal Plane – divides body into
◼ The heart is medial to the arm right and left parts.
◼ The armpit is intermediate between ◼ Midsagittal =median
the breastbone and the shoulder plane –divides body into two
◼ The knee is distal to the thigh equal halves.
◼ The lungs are deep to the rib cage
Frontal = coronal plane – divides body into
1. The navel is --------------to the anterior and posterior parts
breastbone
2. The heart is ------------- to the Transverse plane = cross
breastbone Section = horizontal section divides into
3. The arms are ------------ to the chest upper and lower parts
4. The elbow is ------------ to the wrist
5. The skin is ------------- to the skeleton Regional terms
6. The forehead is ------------------ to the There are many visible landmarks on the
nose surface of the body:
7. The breastbone is------------ to the - Anterior body landmarks
spine - Posterior body landmarks
8. The heart is ------------to the arm
9. The armpit is ---------between the
breastbone and the shoulder
10. The knee is ---------to the thigh
11. The lungs are ---------to the rib cage
Body Cavities HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
There are two sets of internal body cavities
When the body is subjected to physical
called the dorsal and ventral body cavities.
trauma (as often happens in an automobile
These cavities are closed to the outside.
accident), the abdominopelvic organs are
most vulnerable. This is because the walls
1. Dorsal Body Cavity
of the abdominal cavity are formed only by
Which protects the fragile nervous
trunk muscles and are not reinforced by
system organs has two subdivisions.
bone. The pelvic organs receive a
The cranial cavity, in the skull, encases
somewhat greater degree of protection
the brain. The vertebral, or spinal,
from the bony pelvis
cavity, which runs within the bony
vertebral column, encloses the delicate
Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants
spinal cord. The cranial and spinal
Because the abdominopelvic cavity is
cavities are continuous with one
large and contains several organs, it helps
another
to divide it into smaller areas for study.
One division method, used primarily by
2. Ventral Body Cavity
anatomists, uses two transverse and two
The more anterior and larger of the
parasagittal planes. These planes, divide
closed body cavities is the ventral body
cavity .It has two major subdivisions, the cavity into nine regions :
the thoracic and the abdominopelvic -The umbilical region is the centermost
cavities. It houses internal organs region deep to and surrounding the
collectively called the viscera . umbilicus (navel).
They are separated by the diaphragm,
a dome-shaped muscle important in Abdominopelvic Regions
breathing.
The abdominopelvic cavity, as its name
suggests, has two parts not physically
separated by a muscular or membrane
wall. The inferior part, the pelvic
cavity, lies in the bony pelvis .

-The epigastric region is located superior

to the umbilical region (epi = upon, above;
gastri = belly).
-The hypogastric (pubic) region is located
inferior to the umbilical region (hypo =
below).
-The right and left iliac, or inguinal,
regions (ing′gwĭ-nal) are located lateral to
the hypogastric region (iliac = superior
part of the hip bone).
-The right and left lumbar regions lie
lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus =
loin).
-The right and left hypochondriac regions
flank the epigastric region laterally
(chondro = cartilage).

A simpler scheme to localize the

abdominopelvic cavity organs is to
imagine one transverse and one median
sagittal plane pass through the umbilicus
at right angles. The resulting quadrants
are named according to their positions
from the subject’s point of view:
right upper quadrant (RUQ), left upper
quadrant (LUQ),
right lower quadrant (RLQ), and left
lower quadrant (LLQ).