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Performance Optimization
Techniques in Analog,
Mixed-Signal, and
Radio-Frequency Circuit
Design

Mourad Fakhfakh
University of Sfax, Tunisia

Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle
INAOE, Mexico

Maria Helena Fino

New University of Lisbon, Portugal

A volume in the Advances in Computer and

Electrical Engineering (ACEE) Book Series
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Performance optimization techniques in analog mixed-signal, and radio-

frequency circuit design / Mourad Fakhfakh, Esteban Tlelo-Cuautle, and Maria
Helena Fino, editor.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4666-6627-6 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-6628-3 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-6630-6 (print & per-
petual access) 1. Radio frequency integrated circuits. 2. Mixed signal circuits. I. Fakhfakh, Mourad. II. Tlelo-Cuautle,
Esteban. III. Fino, Maria Helena, 1958-
TK7874.78.P47 2015
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 323

Chapter 13
Thermometer to Gray Encoders
Yogendra Gupta
The LNM Institute of Information Technology, India

Sandeep Saini
The LNM Institute of Information Technology, India

ABSTRACT
Analog to Digital Converter (ADC) is a key functional block in the design of mixed signal, system on chip,
and signal processing applications. An optimized method for the direct conversion of analog signal to
Gray code representation is presented. This eliminates the need for binary-to-Gray code conversion in
many digital modulation techniques like M-PSK and M-QAM, which uses Gray coding representation to
represent the symbols that are modulated. The authors design a low-power and high-speed Thermometer
to Gray encoder for Flash ADC, as encoders have been widely utilized in high-performance critical
applications which persistently impose special design constraints in terms of high-frequency, low power
consumption, and minimal area. In this chapter, they propose a new circuit that converts the Thermometer
code to Gray code and also yields minimized power.

INTRODUCTION information. The current scenario of VLSI design

for signal processing system demands high speed
In a communication system with real world data and low power consumption ADCs. In this chapter
represent some physical quantity such as speech, a method for direct conversion of analog signal
temperature, etc. The real world physical quan- to their Gray code representations is presented.
tity exists in the analog domain and if we want This eliminates the need for binary-to-Gray code
to send it via digital communication system, it is conversion in many digital modulation tech-
imperative to convert it into digital domain. So the niques. When multilevel signals are transmitted
process of converting an analog signal to digital over a binary channel (PCM) or binary words
signal is done by Analog to Digital Converter transmitted over a multilevel channel, the mutual
(ADC). The digital circuits are more robust and representation of the binary and non-binary sig-
transmission errors are less and also digital circuit nals are often in terms of Gray code, whose unit
offers greater advantages over analog circuit in distance property proves to be of some advantage
processing speed and efficient transmission of in such circumstances. So we have designed a
DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-6627-6.ch013

Copyright © 2015, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited.
 
Thermometer to Gray Encoders

low power and high speed Thermometer to Gray posed of a series of resistor. The reference ladder
encoder, as encoders have been widely utilized used to generate 2n equally spaced reference
in high-performance critical applications which voltages. In the second part an array of compara-
persistently impose special design constraints in tor compares the input voltage with the set of
terms of high-frequency, low power consumption increasing reference voltages (Yoo Jincheol,
and minimal area. Kyusun Choi, and Ali Tangel, 2001). If the input
Flash ADC is a type of ADC which offers signal is greater than the reference voltage, the
highest sampling rate (Kanan, Kaess and Declercq, corresponding comparator output is high and
1999). In the Flash ADC an array of comparators denoted as logic “1”. On the other side, if the
compares the input voltage with a set of increasing input signals voltage is lower than the specific
reference voltages. The comparator output rep- reference voltage output is low and denoted as
resents the input signal in digital (Thermometer) logic “0”. Note that comparison of the input sig-
code, which can be easily converted into Gray code. nal with all reference voltage is performed at the
Figure 1 shows the main structure of Flash same time.
ADC. In this figure there are three main parts. As shown in figure the transition of output
The First part is reference ladder network com- code from “1” to “0” denote the input signal

Figure 1. Flash ADC architecture

324

Thermometer to Gray Encoders

voltage level because the reference voltage are DSCH v3.5 and simulated using Microwind v3.5
arranged increasingly from the bottom to the top and Xilinx ISE.
of comparators array, the output code will all
be equal to “1” as the reference voltage is lower
than input voltage level and all “0” as reference BACKGROUND
voltage is higher than input voltage level (Pereira
& Fernandes, 2001). Hence all the comparator’s Encoder is a combinational logic function. It
output looks like a Thermometer. Finally the third converts the binary information from one form to
part is Thermometer to Gray encoder. another. It gives a unique combination at the
Gray coding representation that is used output according to the information at the unique
ubiquitously in all applications. In Gray coding, input at one line. A n-bit encoder has 2n input
the adjacent representations (symbols) differ by lines and n output lines (Sall, Vesterbacka and
only one bit. Gray coding, when combined with Andersson, 2004). In this section, Thermometer
Forward Error Correction codes capable of cor- to Gray encoders are introduced.
rective single bit errors, it can aid in correction of
erroneous reception of bits that spills into adjacent
symbols. Digital modulation techniques like M- BUBBLE ERROR EFFECT
PSK and M-QAM use Gray coding representation
to represent the symbols that are modulated. In As mentioned in the previous section, the output of
M-PSK and M-QAM modulation techniques if the comparator array is a set of Thermometer code in
constellation symbols are Gray encoded, and then Flash ADC as shown in Table 1. In general there
the adjacent constellation symbol differs only by will be only one “1” to “0” transition occurs in
one bit. Thus this Gray encoded structure gives Thermometer code indicating the corresponding
a lesser probability of error than natural binary input voltage level. However, in practical circuits
ordering. Gray code is useful because only one there will be more than one “1” to “0” transition
bit changes at a time. When used as encoders for occur in the Thermometer code. When such a
a position sensor, for instance, if the sensor were situation occurs, it looks like bubbles in Ther-
right at the edge of a change boundary, there is mometer. Therefore we refer more than one “1”
uncertainty. to “0” transition to “bubble error” (Chuang, Jen,
A new improved multiplexer based encoder Hung and Da Liu, 2005).
for flash analog-to-digital converter is proposed, Figure 2 Shows two examples 2 (a) is bubble
which converts Thermometer code to Gray code. free Thermometer code and 2 (b) is shows Ther-
Gray codes are mainly used in glitch free fast mometer code with bubble error. Take Figure 2
circuit design, in communication for error cor- (b), for example there will more than single “1”
rection in digital modulation techniques and in to “0” transition is detected in the Thermometer
digital design for data path synchronization. It can code. Consequently, the input voltage level is cor-
be configured to operate on Thermometer code responded to two different output codes defined
with reduced length without any extra overhead by these two transitions (Chuang, Jen, Hung and
which is suitable for adaptive resolution analog to Da Liu, 2005). However, the actual input voltage
digital converters. Simulation results indicate that level should be corresponded to only one output
the proposed encoder results in better performance code. These two transitions will induce some
when compared to the existing encoders in terms unexpected coding errors for Thermometer to
of power, delay, area and figure of merit. All the Gray encoder.
architectures were structurally designed using

325
 
Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Table 1. Correspondence among decimal, Thermometer, and Gray code

Decimal Thermometer Code Gray Code

D T7 T6 T5 T4 T3 T2 T1 G2 G1 G0
7 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
6 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
5 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
3 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0
2 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Figure 2. The occurrence of bubble error

encoder. Every input Thermometer code combina-
tion corresponds to an address, which is “read” to
produce 4-bit Gray code. The advantage of ROM
encoder is its simplicity. However the conversion
speed is relatively slow and power consumption
is large due to, a constant static current used to
preset the ROM encoder. Algorithmically, ROM
encoder circuit signal delay is O (N).
The encoder is composed of two parts, the
one out of N (1-of-N) circuit and Gray ROM.
The 1-of-N circuit is used to detect the “1” to “0”
transition occurred in the Thermometer code which
indicates the input voltage level, by an array of two
input NAND logic gate with one input inverted
(Hiremath & Ren, 2007). When the input in the
non-inverted port is “1” and the inverted port
“0” than only the output will be equal to “0”. For
the other input patterns the output will be equal
ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY) to “1”. In general if no bubble errors occurred
- BASED ENCODER there will only one “1” to “0” transition detected
in the Thermometer code. So there will be only
In this section a conventional Gray ROM based one“0”appearing at the output of 1-of-N circuit.
Thermometer to Gray encoder is introduced. This “0” signal used to enable the corresponding
ROM is basically a programmable logic device. row in the Gray ROM. The total number of NAND
It is the most straightforward encoding structure. gate required for 1-of-N circuit is equal to
It stores combination of input variables and for
each combination it will generate the output (Niket 2n −1 + 2n − 2 + ....... + 21 + 20 = 2n − 1 (1)
and Paily 2008). ROM is actually a truth table
in hardware form. Figure 3 shows an example
of 4 bit Gray ROM based Thermometer to Gray

326

Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Figure 3. A 4-bit Gray ROM based Thermometer to Gray encoder

The operation of Gray ROM encoder can be outputs with turned on PMOS connected to the
separated- into two phases. In phase 1 when the power supply are charged to “1”. That’s how we
clock signal is high, the NMOS on the top of obtain a Gray code representation of correspond-
Gray ROM are turned on and the output nodes ing Thermometer code.
are discharged to a low logic level through the
turned on transistors. In phase 2 when the clock Encoding Scheme
is low, the NMOS are turned off to prevent cur-
rent leakage at the output nodes. At the same time Figure 4 shows the encoding scheme of a 3-bit
PMOS in the enabled row of Gray ROM is turned Gray ROM based encoder. At first the 1-of-N
on by”0”signal at the output of 1-of-N circuit. The circuit detect the transition occurred between T

327
 
Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Figure 4. The encoding scheme of 3-bit Gray ROM

signal delay is O (log2 N). Therefore, the fat tree
based encoder
circuit is faster than the ROM encoder circuit.
The Boolean expressions of the fat tree en-
coder are:

G3 = d 0
G2 = d 0 ⊕ ( c0 + c1 )
G1 = ( c0 + c1 ) ⊕ (b0 + b1 + b2 + b3 )
G0 = (b0 + b1 + b2 + b3 )
⊕( a0from
Apart + a1the a2 + athe
+ speed, a4 tree
3 + fat + a5encoder
+ a6 +does
a7 )
not require any clock signal, sense amplifiers, or
pull-up resistors. The fat tree circuit is more noise
tolerant than the ROM circuit. Full static CMOS
implementation of the OR gates eliminates any
static power consumption otherwise necessary
in circuits with pull up resistors. Therefore, the
fat tree circuit is less power consuming than the
ROM circuit.
On the other hand, the layout of the fat tree
[3] and T [4] bit. This “0” at the output of 1-of-N is more difficult to design than the ROM. A tree
circuit is used to enable the corresponding row is considered as a regular structure but it is not
of the Gray ROM. That’s how the Gray output as regular as the ROM. Moreover, the fat tree is
code “110” is obtained according to the input a 3-D structure, challenging to layout on a two
Thermometer code “00001111”. dimensional chip.

Fat Tree Based Encoder Wallace Tree Based Encoder

The Thermometer to Gray encoding is carried out Wallace tree based encoder is a very straight
in two stages in the fat tree based encoder (Lee, forward approach to convert Thermometer code
Daegyu et al, 2002). Like the ROM encoder the into Gray code (Pereira, Paula, Fernandes and
first stage converting the Thermometer code to Silva, 2001). The Wallace tree method originally
1-of-N code. This code conversion is done by two used to implement high speed multipliers in com-
input AND gate with one input inverted. The sec- puter arithmetic units. This encoding scheme is
ond stage converts the 1-of-N code to Gray code especially devoted to high speed analog to digital
using multiple trees of OR gate. Figure 5 shows converters. It counts the number of 1s present
the example of 4 bit Flash ADC. A 15 bit 1-of-N in the Thermometer code or we can say that the
code is presented at the leaf nodes of the tree and output of comparator array. It does not process
4-bit Gray output code are produced at the root Thermometer code locally around the transition.
nodes of the tree (Akashe, Shyam, Vinod Rajak Figure 6 shows Wallace tree based Thermometer
and Gunakesh Sharma, 2013). An edge count of to Gray encoder (Wallace, Christopher, 1964).
a node increase as the tree height increases so it is The Wallace tree based encoder is built only
named as fat tree. Algorithmically, fat tree circuit with the elementary full adder cell. These “1” bit

328

Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Figure 5. An example of fat tree encoder for 4 bit Flash ADC

full adder cell is used to count the “1”s occurred m = 2n − n − 1 (2)

in the Thermometer code. At the first stage each
full adder cell counts the number of logical “1”s Where m is the number of full adder cell for
at its entries and the output is 2-bit binary coded n-bit flash ADC. The main advantage of Wal-
output. The second stage consists in adding the lace tree encoder is that the encoded value can
two-bit words of adjacent cells two by two, giving precisely match the best approximated output
3-bit binary outputs ; and so on in order to obtain value. However it takes long latency to obtain
the final binary output code for the converter. The the results, hence it is not suitable for high speed
number of full adder cells used in Wallace tree operation (higher than 1GHz).
encoder is given by equation:

329
 
Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Figure 6. Wallace tree based encoder

PROPOSED MULTIPLEXER idea behind the design of the proposed multiplexer

BASED THERMOMETER based encoder is to group the results of smaller
TO GRAY ENCODER length multiplexer based encoders to form a
larger encoder for Thermometer to Gray conver-
A multiplexer based Thermometer to Gray encoder sion. This idea is explained by designing a 7-bit
is proposed (Gupta, Yogendra, et al, 2013). This Thermometer code to Gray code encoder using
encoder results in higher speed and smaller area as a 3-bit Thermometer code to Gray code encoder.
compared to Wallace and fat tree based encoders. A simple circuit to convert 3-bit Thermometer
The Figure 10 shows the implementation of MUX to Gray code along with the truth table for the same
based encoder for 15-bit thermometer code input. is shown in Figure 7. Here T3 - T1 represents the
This section first describes the idea behind the input Thermometer code and G2 – G1 represents
presented multiplexer and second describes how the Gray code. So this idea is implemented using
it can be generalized (Sail, Vesterbacka, 2004). 2:1 multiplexers which give minimum power and
lesser delay as compared to existing ones.
Basic Idea Now the 3-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder
can be used to design a 7-bit Thermometer to Gray
The basic idea behind this design is self recon- encoder. The truth table and pictorial representa-
figurable property. When this property was used tion of the design of 7-bit Thermometer to Gray
in Wallace and fat tree based design gave higher encoder is shown in Figure 8. In the truth table
delay and more power consumption. The main

330

Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Figure 7.bit Thermometer to Gray encoder for 2-bit Flash ADC

Figure 8. Truth table of 7 bit T to G encoder

331
 
Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Figure 9. Proposed 7-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder for 3-bit Flash ADC

T7 – T1 represents the input Thermometer code So we can generalize this concept to a 2N -1

and G3 – G1 represents the Gray code. bit encoder for N bit flash ADC. This encoder
As seen from the truth table G3 = T4, and when can be designed by using two 2N-1–1 bit encoders
T4 = 0 the G2 – G1 are equivalent to the outputs of and an array of multiplexers to generate the Gray
3-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder with T3 - T1 code from the thermometer code. This iterative
input. When T4 = 1 the G2 – G1 are equivalent to self re-configurable implementation can be done
the outputs of 3-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder until the basic element i.e. a 3-bit Thermometer
with T7 – T5 input. to Gray encoder, is reached. The proposed 15-bit
Hence using aT4 as selection signal, 7-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder is shown in Fig-
Thermometer to Gray encoder can be designed ure 10. The proposed encoder results in reduced
using 3-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder and an number of gates when compared to Wallace tree
array of multiplexers. Such an implementation encoder and fat tree encoder. So this encoder gives
of 7-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder is shown better results than the existing encoders in terms
in Figure 9. of power, delay, area and figure of merit.
For an N bit Flash ADC the most significant In general, for an N bit Flash ADC the Ther-
bit (MSB) of Gray output is high if more than mometer output has 2N-1 levels. The Thermometer
half of the outputs in the Thermometer code are output or multiplexer output is connected to the
logic one. Hence MSB is same as Thermometer “0” or “1” input of the multiplexer of next level.
output at level 2N-1. The Boolean expressions of Hence the presented encoder requires 2:1 multi-
proposed 15 bit Thermometer to Gray encoder plexers for N-bit Flash ADC:
are as follows:
N −1

G4 = T8 xN = ∑ (2 N − y − 1) (3)
y =1
G3 = T 8 .T4 + T8 .T 12
G2 = T 8 (T 4 .T2 + T4 .T 6 ) + T8 (T 12 .T10 + T12 .T 14 ) where y is the number of level y = 1, 2, 3…..N-1.
This encoder can be configured to operate as
G1 = T 8 [T 4 .(T2 .T1 + T2 .T3 ) + T4 (T 6 .T5 + T6 .T7 )]
a 7-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder by making
+T8 [T 12 .(T 10 .T9 + T10 .T 11 ) the MSB bits T8-T15 as logic zero. In this case
+T12 (T 14 .T13 + T14 .T 15 )] only the gray colored 2: 1 multiplexer are work-

332

Thermometer to Gray Encoders

Figure 10. Proposed multiplexer based encoder for 4-bit flash ADC

ing. The 15- bit Thermometer to Gray encoder Table 2. Critical path delay comparison of dif-
can be operated as two 7-bit Thermometer to Gray ferent encoder
encoders by making the T8 signal as logic one
and latching the intermediate outputs of the 7-bit 15-bit Encoder No. of Gates in Critical Path
(for 4-Bit Flash adc)
Thermometer to Gray encoder which has T1-T7
Wallace tree 10
as inputs. This property is unique to the proposed
Fat tree 5
multiplexer based encoder and is not present in
Proposed mux based 3
any of the existing encoder designs.

CRITICAL PATHDELAY CONCLUSION

COMPARISION
A new improved multiplexer based encoder for
By taking advantage of multiplexers, the number flash analog-to-digital converters is proposed,
of working gates in the converter is effectively which converts Thermometer code to Gray code.
minimized, and thus, low power and high speed Gray codes are mainly used in glitch free fast
is achieved. The proposed multiplexer based en- circuit design, in communication for error cor-
coder has three gates delay in its critical path for rection in digital modulation techniques and in
a 15-bit Thermometer to Gray encoder shown in digital design for data path synchronization. It can
Figure 10. The 15-bit Wallace tree based encoder be configured to operate on Thermometer code
and fat tree based encoder has a critical path delay with reduced length without any extra overhead
of 10 gates and 5 gates respectively. which is suitable for adaptive resolution analog to
digital converters. Simulation results indicate that

333
 
Thermometer to Gray Encoders

the proposed encoder results in better performance Pereira, P., & Fernandes, J. R. (2001). Compara-
when compared to the existing encoders in terms tive study of encoders for parallel-type ADCs.
of power, delay, area, and figure of merit. In Proc. Int. Workshop on ADC Modelling and
Testing (pp. 142-146). Academic Press.
Pereira, P., Jorge, R., & Fernandes, M. S. (2002).
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a/d converters,” in Circuits and Systems, 2002. cally a programmable logic device. It is actually
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tors in flash ADC.

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