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Planar Multibody ­Dynamics
Planar Multibody Dynamics
Formulation, Programming with MATLAB®,
and Applications

Second Edition

Parviz E. Nikravesh
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® software.

CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Nikravesh, Parviz E., 1946- author.

Title: Planar multibody dynamics : formulation, programming with MATLAB®, and
applications / Parviz Nikravesh.
Description: Second edition. | Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, CRC Press,
2018. | Includes bibliographical references.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018017483| ISBN 9781138096127 (hardback : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781315105437 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Machinery, Kinematics of. | Machinery, Dynamics of.
Classification: LCC TJ175 .N527 2018 | DDC 621.8/11—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2018017483

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This book is dedicated to the memory of

Dr. Moris Nikravesh

“The Medicine Man”

Contents

Preface............................................................................................................................................ xiii
Acknowledgments...................................................................................................................... xvii
Author............................................................................................................................................ xix

1. Introduction..............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Multibody Mechanical Systems...................................................................................1
1.2 Types of Analyses..........................................................................................................2
1.3 Methods of Formulation...............................................................................................2
1.4 Computer Programs......................................................................................................9

2. Preliminaries.......................................................................................................................... 13
2.1 Reference Axes............................................................................................................. 13
2.2 Scalars and Vectors...................................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Arrays............................................................................................................... 20
2.3 Matrices......................................................................................................................... 21
2.3.1 Matrix Operations.......................................................................................... 23
2.3.2 Linear Algebraic Equations........................................................................... 26
2.4 Vector, Array, and Matrix Differentiation................................................................ 27
2.4.1 Time Derivatives............................................................................................. 27
2.4.2 Partial Derivatives.......................................................................................... 28
2.5 Equations and Expressions......................................................................................... 31
2.5.1 Compact and Expanded Forms.................................................................... 31
2.6 Problems........................................................................................................................ 32

3. Fundamentals of Planar Kinematics................................................................................. 37

3.1 A Particle....................................................................................................................... 37
3.1.1 Kinematics of a Particle................................................................................. 37
3.2 Kinematics of a Rigid Body........................................................................................ 38
3.2.1 Coordinates of a Body.................................................................................... 39
3.2.2 Velocity of a Body...........................................................................................43
3.2.3 Acceleration of a Body....................................................................................44
3.3 Definitions..................................................................................................................... 46
3.3.1 Array of Coordinates...................................................................................... 46
3.3.2 Degrees of Freedom........................................................................................ 48
3.3.3 Constraint Equations...................................................................................... 49
3.3.4 Kinematic Joints.............................................................................................. 51
3.4 Problems........................................................................................................................ 53

4. Fundamentals of Planar Dynamics................................................................................... 57

4.1 Newton’s Laws of Motion........................................................................................... 57
4.2 Particle Dynamics........................................................................................................ 58
4.2.1 Dynamics of a System of Particles............................................................... 58
4.3 Rigid body Dynamics.................................................................................................. 61
4.3.1 Moment of a Force and Torque..................................................................... 62

vii
viii Contents

4.3.2 Centroidal Equations of Motion...................................................................63

4.3.3 Noncentroidal Equations of Motion............................................................. 67
4.4 Multibody Dynamics................................................................................................... 69
4.4.1 Applied Forces................................................................................................. 69
4.4.2 Reaction Forces................................................................................................ 75
4.5 Friction Force................................................................................................................ 76
4.5.1 Wheel and Tire................................................................................................80
4.5.2 Motor and Driver............................................................................................ 82
4.6 Work and Energy.........................................................................................................83
4.7 Problems........................................................................................................................84
References................................................................................................................................ 88

5. Vector Kinematics.................................................................................................................. 89
5.1 Use of Vectors............................................................................................................... 89
5.1.1 Unit Vectors.....................................................................................................90
5.1.2 Types of Vectors.............................................................................................. 92
5.2 Open-Chain Systems................................................................................................... 94
5.3 Closed-Chain Systems................................................................................................. 97
5.3.1 Slider-Crank Mechanism............................................................................... 97
5.3.2 Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 101
5.3.3 Six-Bar Quick-Return Mechanism.............................................................. 105
5.3.4 Six-Bar Dwell Mechanism........................................................................... 107
5.3.5 Complete Kinematic Analysis..................................................................... 108
5.4 Problems...................................................................................................................... 108

6. Free-Body Diagram............................................................................................................. 113

6.1 FBD Examples............................................................................................................. 113
6.1.1 Two-Body System (Unconstrained)............................................................ 113
6.1.2 Two-Body System (Constrained)................................................................ 116
6.1.3 Sliding Pendulum......................................................................................... 118
6.1.4 Slider-Crank Mechanism............................................................................. 120
6.1.5 Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 122
6.2 Equations of Motion.................................................................................................. 126
6.3 Force Analysis............................................................................................................ 126
6.3.1 Slider-Crank Mechanism............................................................................. 127
6.3.2 Four-Bar Mechanism.................................................................................... 128
6.3.3 Generalization of Force Analysis............................................................... 130
6.4 Problems...................................................................................................................... 130

7. Body-Coordinate Formulation.......................................................................................... 135

7.1 General Procedure..................................................................................................... 135
7.2 Kinematic Joints......................................................................................................... 137
7.2.1 Revolute (Pin) Joint....................................................................................... 139
7.2.2 Translational (Sliding) Joint......................................................................... 141
7.2.3 Revolute–Revolute Joint............................................................................... 142
7.2.4 Revolute–Translational Joint........................................................................ 144
7.2.5 Rigid Joint...................................................................................................... 145
7.2.6 Simple Constraints........................................................................................ 146
Contents ix

7.2.7 Circular Disc.................................................................................................. 146

7.2.8 Driver Constraints........................................................................................ 147
7.2.9 System Jacobian............................................................................................. 148
7.3 Unconstrained Equations of Motion....................................................................... 149
7.4 Constrained Equations of Motion........................................................................... 152
7.4.1 Reaction Forces and Lagrange Multipliers............................................... 153
7.5 Total Energy................................................................................................................ 160
7.6 Problems...................................................................................................................... 161

8. Body-Coordinate Simulation Program........................................................................... 169

8.1 Application Examples................................................................................................ 170
8.1.1 Double A-Arm Suspension.......................................................................... 170
8.1.2 MacPherson Suspension.............................................................................. 173
8.1.3 Cart................................................................................................................. 177
8.1.4 Conveyor Belt and Friction.......................................................................... 180
8.1.5 Rod Impacting Ground................................................................................ 182
8.2 Problems...................................................................................................................... 183

9. Joint-Coordinate Formulation........................................................................................... 185

9.1 Definitions................................................................................................................... 185
9.1.1 Joint Coordinate and Joint Reference Point............................................... 186
9.1.2 Recursive Kinematics................................................................................... 188
9.2 Open-Chain Systems................................................................................................. 190
9.2.1 Absolute Angle.............................................................................................. 195
9.2.2 Equations of Motion..................................................................................... 197
9.3 Closed-Chain Systems............................................................................................... 203
9.3.1 Cut-Joint Constraints.................................................................................... 203
9.3.2 Equations of Motion..................................................................................... 206
9.3.3 Jacobian Matrix............................................................................................. 213
9.3.4 Initial Conditions.......................................................................................... 217
9.3.5 Reaction Forces.............................................................................................. 218
9.3.6 Driver Constraint.......................................................................................... 220
9.4 A MATLAB Program................................................................................................. 221
9.5 Problems......................................................................................................................222

10. Point-Coordinate Formulation.......................................................................................... 229

10.1 Classical Method........................................................................................................ 229
10.2 Primary and Stationary Points................................................................................. 231
10.3 Constraints.................................................................................................................. 233
10.3.1 Length Constraint......................................................................................... 235
10.3.2 Angle Constraints......................................................................................... 235
10.3.3 Simple Constraints........................................................................................ 236
10.4 Secondary Points........................................................................................................ 238
10.5 Equations of Motion.................................................................................................. 241
10.6 Force and Torque Distribution................................................................................. 242
10.7 Mass Distribution...................................................................................................... 246
10.8 Mass Condensation.................................................................................................... 248
10.8.1 Two Primary Points...................................................................................... 248
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x Contents

10.8.2 Three Primary Points................................................................................... 253

10.9 F  orce and Mass Addition..........................................................................................254
10.10 Problems...................................................................................................................... 255

11. Contact and Impact.............................................................................................................. 261

11.1 Piecewise Analysis..................................................................................................... 261
11.1.1 M  omentum.................................................................................................... 261
11.1.2 I mpact of Particles........................................................................................ 262
11.1.3 U  nconstrained Bodies.................................................................................. 267
11.1.4 C  onstrained Bodies...................................................................................... 271
11.1.5 I mpact with Friction..................................................................................... 273
11.2 Continuous Analysis................................................................................................. 274
11.2.1 A  Body Contacting a Rigid Surface............................................................ 274
11.2.2 T  wo-Body Contact......................................................................................... 277
11.3 Problems...................................................................................................................... 281
References.............................................................................................................................. 283

12. Kinematics and Inverse Dynamics.................................................................................. 285

12.1 Kinematic Analysis.................................................................................................... 285
12.1.1 Solution Procedures...................................................................................... 288
12.1.2 Nonlinear Algebraic Equations.................................................................. 290
12.1.3 A Program for Four-Bar Kinematics.......................................................... 294
12.2 Inverse Dynamic Analysis........................................................................................ 297
12.2.1 A Program for Four-Bar Inverse Dynamics.............................................. 302
12.2.2 Application in Robotics................................................................................305
12.3 Problems...................................................................................................................... 307
Reference................................................................................................................................309

13. Forward Dynamics.............................................................................................................. 311

13.1 Unconstrained Formulation..................................................................................... 311
13.1.1 Initial Value Problems.................................................................................. 312
13.1.2 Runge–Kutta Algorithm.............................................................................. 313
13.1.3 Integration Time-Step Size.......................................................................... 315
13.1.4 General Procedure........................................................................................ 318
13.2 Constrained Formulation.......................................................................................... 319
13.2.1 Initial Conditions.......................................................................................... 321
13.2.2 General Integration Procedure................................................................... 321
13.3 Constraint Violation.................................................................................................. 323
13.3.1 Constraint Violation Stabilization Method............................................... 323
13.3.2 Coordinate Partitioning Method................................................................ 326
13.3.3 Penalty Method............................................................................................. 328
13.3.4 Joint-Coordinate Method............................................................................. 331
13.3.5 Momentum Method..................................................................................... 331
13.4 Contact and Impact.................................................................................................... 333
13.5 Adding or Deleting Constraints.............................................................................. 337
13.6 Combined Analyses...................................................................................................340
13.7 Problems...................................................................................................................... 341
References..............................................................................................................................348
Contents xi

14. Complementary Analyses.................................................................................................. 349

14.1 Static Analysis............................................................................................................ 349
14.2 Static Equilibrium...................................................................................................... 351
14.3 Initial Condition Correction..................................................................................... 353
14.4 Redundant Constraints............................................................................................. 355
14.5 Friction......................................................................................................................... 356
14.6 Deformable Body....................................................................................................... 360
14.7 Problems...................................................................................................................... 361

15. Application Examples......................................................................................................... 365

15.1 Film-Strip Advancer.................................................................................................. 365
15.2 Web-Cutter Mechanism............................................................................................ 366
15.3 Six-Bar Quick-Return Mechanism........................................................................... 368
15.4 Six-Bar Dwell Mechanism........................................................................................ 368
15.5 Windshield Wiper Mechanism................................................................................ 369
15.6 Double A-Arm Suspension....................................................................................... 371
15.7 MacPherson Strut Suspension................................................................................. 372
15.8 Half-Car....................................................................................................................... 374
15.9 Mountain Bike............................................................................................................ 374
15.10 Motorcycle................................................................................................................... 377
15.11 Dump Truck................................................................................................................ 377
15.12 Creeping Robot........................................................................................................... 381
15.13 Sled Test and Belted Dummy................................................................................... 382
15.14 Head and Neck........................................................................................................... 385
15.15 Elliptical Exercise Machine...................................................................................... 386
15.16 Swing........................................................................................................................... 388
15.17 Satellite Panels............................................................................................................ 389

Appendix A: L-U Factorization................................................................................................ 393

Appendix B: Dynamic Analysis Program: Body Coordinates (DAP_BC)...................... 399
Appendix C: Dynamic Analysis Program: Joint Coordinates (DAP_JC)........................ 401
Index.............................................................................................................................................. 403
Preface

The basic premise of this textbook is to introduce fundamental theories, computational

methods, and program development for analyzing simple to complex planar mechanical
systems. Such a combination of theory, computational methods, and programming did
not exist in any mechanical engineering curricula four decades ago, but since then it has
become a standard course in most programs. In the late 1970s, different institutions began
to offer graduate-level courses on these combined subjects. Several textbooks and mono-
grams were published soon after, all at the graduate level. Eventually, selected chapters
from these books were offered as technical elective courses at the senior undergraduate
level, and shortly after, some of these topics were introduced at the junior level, either
replacing or complementing some of the more traditional courses.
The first edition of this textbook that was published in 2008 was the first book written
specifically for undergraduate students and practicing engineers. In the process of writing
the first edition, I intended for the book not to become a simpler version of a graduate-level
research monogram. The first edition covered three methods for formulating the kine-
matic and dynamic equations of motion, namely, the point-coordinate, body-coordinate,
and joint-coordinate methods. The methodologies for deriving the equations of motion
were all based on Newton’s laws of motion, where as much as possible the use of graduate-
level principles of mechanics was avoided. The methods of analyses that were described
in the first edition included kinematics, inverse dynamics, and forward dynamics, in addi-
tion to other complementary procedures. Due to its popularity and ease of use, MATLAB®
was chosen as the programming language for the book.

New Features
This edition may appear as a completely new textbook to some readers due to numerous
changes and new materials. These changes were made based on the feedback I received
from colleagues and students, and also from my own experience. Every time I taught a
course on planar multibody dynamics, I noticed that most undergraduate students needed
a review of the methods of analyses from their earlier course on kinematics and dynamics
of mechanisms. Therefore, in this edition, an overview of the classical vectorial method
of kinematic analysis, which most mechanical engineering students should be familiar
with by their junior year, and a review of the free-body diagram approach for construct-
ing Newton’s equations of motion have been added. A review of these classical methods
should clarify to students that the more modern computational multibody approaches are
not very different than the classical methods, except for being applied in a more systematic
process.
Other added topics to the second edition are modeling impact between bodies of a mul-
tibody system and a thorough discussion on modeling friction. The discussion of impact
covers two common approaches: the piecewise and continuous methods. In the piecewise
method, the conservation of momenta and momentum–impulse concepts are discussed.
The methodology of modeling friction is extended to represent interacting forces between

xiii
xiv Preface

a wheel–tire model and the ground. These new topics should provide a wide range of
application examples for modeling and simulation.

Computer Programs
Most chapters contain examples that are solved with MATLAB. All of the programs from
the first edition have completely been revised. Since a reader may not be a skilled pro-
grammer, the examples and exercises in the earlier chapters provide a tutorial that begins
with basic commands before introducing the reader to more advanced programming
techniques. All of the programs can be downloaded from the following website: www.
crcpress.com.
Two user manuals that accompany a general-purpose program based on the body-­
coordinate formulation and a semi-general-purpose program based on the joint-coordinate
formulation can also be downloaded. These programs can be used to model and analyze
a variety of multibody systems based on the description provided by the user. A special-
purpose program for kinematic and inverse dynamic analyses of four-bar mechanisms is
also included in this edition. Most of these programs contain an animation routine to dis-
play a stick drawing of the simulated system in motion. Because the listed programs may
contain programming, logical, or typesetting errors, the posted programs will be revised
as the errors are found. Additional complimentary programs and other relevant materials
may also be posted on the website as they become available. The reader is encouraged to
visit the website on a regular basis.

Organization
Almost all of the topics from the first edition have been kept in this edition but slightly
rearranged. With the exception of the first and last chapters, the other chapters can be cat-
egorized into four groups: fundamentals, fundamental formulations, multibody formula-
tions, and analyses.
Chapter 1 provides a brief introduction to multibody dynamics and different forms of
describing the equations of motion for a system.

Fundamentals
Chapter 2 describes the notation and reviews the fundamentals of vector and matrix
algebra.
Chapter 3 begins with a brief review of the fundamentals of particle and rigid-body kine-
matics before discussing commonly used types of kinematic joints, constraints, degrees of
freedom, and other related topics.
Chapter 4 provides a review of planar dynamics beginning with a particle, a system of
particles, a rigid body, and then a multibody system. Formulations for computing applied
forces, such as springs and dampers, and representing reaction forces caused by kinematic
Preface xv

joints are discussed. A discussion on modeling friction between rigid bodies, and comput-
ing kinetic and potential energies are new additions to this chapter.
Understanding these fundamentals is essential in learning the remainder of the textbook.

Fundamental Formulations
Chapter 5 (new to this edition) reviews the classical method of vector kinematics and the
vector-loop method that can be found in most textbooks on mechanisms.
Chapter 6 (new to this edition) provides an overview of the classical free-body diagram
technique for constructing the dynamic equations of motion.

Multibody Formulations
Chapter 7 presents the method of body coordinates to formulate multibody equations of
motion. This formulation may be considered the simplest and, at the same time, the most
powerful method for computational multibody dynamics. This formulation is a systematic
extension of the free-body diagram method in Chapter 6, which is suitable for computa-
tional procedures.
Chapter 8 introduces the reader to a general-purpose program based on the body-­
coordinate formulation of Chapter 7. Several examples that have been modeled and ana-
lyzed by this program are presented in this chapter. The program and its user manual are
available for download.
Chapter 9 describes a method known as the joint-coordinate formulation. This method
is a systematic process that transforms the equations of motion from the body coordinates
to a minimal or a much smaller set of equations. This formulation provides computational
efficiency while preserving all the advantages of the body-coordinate formulation. A semi-
general-purpose program accompanies this chapter that can be downloaded. The program
requires some programming by the user to describe a multibody system for analysis.
Chapter 10 presents a method that describes a body or a multibody system as a collection
of interconnected particles, and therefore, it bypasses the use of rotational coordinates.
The resulting equations of motion do not introduce any approximation in describing the
dynamics of a system.
Chapter 11 (new to this edition) discusses two well-known methods for modeling the
impact or contact in multibody dynamics. In the piecewise analysis method, the concepts
of momentum and impulse are reviewed. In the continuous analysis method, several con-
tact models are studied.

Analyses
Chapter 12 provides algorithms for kinematic and inverse dynamic analyses. Numerical
methods for solving linear and nonlinear algebraic equations are reviewed. A special-­
purpose program for these two types of analyses of four-bar mechanisms is also presented.
Chapter 13 begins with a brief discussion on numerical methods for solving ordinary
differential equations. Algorithms for forward dynamic analysis of unconstrained and
constrained equations of motion are presented. The issue of constraint violations in solv-
ing constrained equations of motion is discussed in detail. Finally, solution techniques
for impact analysis with the piecewise method, and adding or deleting constraints are
reviewed.
xvi Preface

Chapter 14 provides a review of several complementary methods in solving the equa-

tions of motion for static and static equilibrium analyses, correcting initial conditions prior
to a forward dynamic analysis, and a method to improve computational efficiency in prob-
lems that involve friction.
Chapter 15 provides several application examples of planar multibody systems. Some
of the simple examples have been used throughout the book as exercises, or as end-of-
chapter problems. Other more complex examples are provided as simulation projects.
An instructor, or a reader, may choose to cover the book in its entirety or to consider only
a selected number of chapters. Four possible options for covering the topics are suggested
in the following. In all these options, Chapters 1–6 and 12–15 must be considered—the
options only apply to the multibody formulation chapters:

• Option A: Chapters 7 and 8, and Chapter 11 as a secondary option

• Option B: Chapters 7–9
• Option C: Chapter 10
• Option D: All chapters

As an undergraduate course, consider Option A, B, or C. Option D is recommended for a

graduate-level course.

MATLAB® is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. For product information,

please contact:

The MathWorks, Inc.

3 Apple Hill Drive
Natick, MA 01760-2098 USA
Tel: 508-647-7000
Fax: 508-647-7001
E-mail: [email protected]
Web: www.mathworks.com
Acknowledgments

Since my first book on the subject of multibody dynamics was published in 1988, I have
received many compliments and acknowledgments from colleagues and readers, many of
whom I have not had the privilege of ever meeting. I am humbled by their kind words, and
because of their encouraging remarks, I decided to write the first edition of this textbook,
and now the second edition.
Over the years, I have received many useful suggestions and ideas from students who
have taken my course. It is their appreciation that makes writing a textbook worthwhile.
I am grateful to all of them.
Finally, I extend my special gratitude to my colleague Dr. Mohammad A. Poursina for
his valuable suggestions, comments, and “cheerleading” during the course of this project.
Without his enthusiastic comments, some of the newly added topics would not have been
included in this edition.

Parviz E. Nikravesh
Tucson, Arizona

xvii
Author

Parviz E. Nikravesh has been a researcher and an educator for more than 40 years. He is
currently a professor in the department of aerospace and mechanical engineering at the
University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona. He is the author of a large number of journal pub-
lications in theoretical and computational dynamics. His first book, titled Computer-Aided
Analysis of Mechanical Systems, has been translated from English to several other languages
and is considered to be the first textbook on the subject of multibody dynamics.
Professor Nikravesh is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers and
the Society of Automotive Engineers. He has served on the editorial board of the jour-
nal Multibody System Dynamics since its conception. He has received many awards for his
­contributions to the field of computational dynamics including an honorary doctorate
degree.

xix
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1
Introduction

The major goal of the engineering profession is to design and manufacture marketable
products of high quality. Today’s industries are utilizing computers in every phase of the
design and manufacture of their products. The process of design and manufacture, begin-
ning with an idea and ending with a final product, is a closed-loop process. The design
process requires a thorough understanding and ability to analyze the product. Computer-
aided analysis allows an engineer to simulate and predict the behavior of a product. Based
on the analysis results, the product design can be optimized prior to actual production.
To simulate the behavior of a product, we must know the individual components that
make up the product. A product may contain mechanical, electrical, or other components.
If the mechanical components are allowed to move relative to one another, the product is
called a multibody system. The interconnection between various components, or bodies,
can be through kinematic joints, springs, dampers, impact, or other elements. Bodies of
a mechanical system are generally deformable. But in most cases, they can be assumed
nondeformable (rigid) due to their negligible deformation. The behavior (e.g., the motion)
of a multibody system can be analyzed by using pencil and paper (classical methods) only
if the system is extremely simple and simplifying assumptions are made. Even for simple
systems, it may not be feasible to perform an analysis without a computer. This is definitely
true for realistically complex multibody systems. Therefore, it is the objective of this text-
book to present computational analysis techniques that can be applied systematically to
systems composed of nondeformable bodies undergoing large planar motion regardless
of their complexity.

1.1 Multibody Mechanical Systems

Multibody mechanical systems range from the very simple to the very complex. A pen-
dulum and a slider–crank mechanism are examples of simple systems, whereas the sus-
pension and steering systems of an automobile, a walking robotic devise, and an exercise
machine are examples of more complex systems. The bodies of some multibody systems can
only move in parallel planes. Such systems are called planar or two-dimensional. Systems
whose bodies do not move in parallel planes are called spatial or three-dimensional, such
as a robotic device that is capable of operating in all three directions. The motion of some
spatial systems, if projected onto a plane, could be approximated as being planar.
Most common components in multibody systems are bodies (also referred to as links),
kinematic joints, and compliance elements. Examples of kinematic joints are pins, slid-
ers, gears, and cam-followers. Typical compliance elements are springs and dampers.
Kinematic joints and compliance elements provide the connectivity between the bodies of
a system. A multibody system may contain nonmechanical components such as an elec-
tronic controller. Analyzing the dynamics of such a system must also include an analytical

1
2 Planar Multibody Dynamics

model of the controller. The bodies of most multibody systems can be considered as non-
deformable. However, in some applications, deformation of a link may not be negligible
and should be considered in the analysis.
Studying a multibody system involves two fundamental steps: modeling and analysis.
Modeling or formulation is the process of constructing the necessary equations that, if
solved, would reveal the behavior of a system. In this textbook, we will consider several
methods of formulation, each having its own advantages and disadvantages. Depending
on the application of a multibody system, different types of analyses could be considered.

1.2 Types of Analyses
There are two different aspects to the study of a mechanical system: analysis and design.
When a mechanical system is acted upon by a given excitation, for example, an external
force, the system exhibits a certain response. The process that allows an engineer to study
the response of an already existing system to a known excitation is called analysis. This
requires a complete knowledge of the physical characteristics of the mechanical system,
such as material composition, shape, and arrangement of parts. Conversely, the process
of determining the physical characteristics that are necessary for a mechanical system
to perform a prescribed task is called design or synthesis. The design process requires the
application of scientific techniques along with the engineering judgment. The scientific
techniques in the design process, such as analysis and optimization, are merely tools to be
used by the engineer. Although these methodologies can be applied in a systematic man-
ner, the overall design process hinges on the judgment of the designer. Because the scien-
tific aspect of the design process requires analysis techniques as tools, it is important to
learn about the methods of analysis prior to design.
The branch of analysis that studies motion, time, and force is called mechanics. It con-
sists of two parts—statics and dynamics. In statics, we analyze stationary systems—systems
in which time is not a factor. Dynamics, on the other hand, deals with systems that are
nonstationary—systems that change their positions with respect to time. Dynamics is
divided into two disciplines—kinematics and kinetics. Kinematics is the study of motion
regardless of forces that produce the motion. More explicitly, kinematics is the study of
displacement, velocity, and acceleration. Kinetics, on the other hand, is the study of motion
and its relationship with the forces that produce that motion. It is, however, very common
to refer to kinetic analysis as dynamic analysis, because kinetic analysis must be based on
the knowledge of the kinematics of a system as well. Therefore, in this textbook, we will
use the term dynamic instead of kinetic. We will discuss several computational methods of
analyses—kinematic analysis, inverse dynamic analysis, forward dynamic analysis, static analysis,
and static equilibrium analysis.

1.3 Methods of Formulation
Classical methods of analysis in mechanics have relied upon graphical and often quite
complex techniques. These techniques are mostly based on geometrical interpretations
Introduction 3

of the system under consideration. Furthermore, these techniques have been developed
for hand derivation and solution of the equations. Some of these techniques can be imple-
mented in computer programs. However, more modern solution techniques can take full
advantage of the capabilities of computational methods. In this section, we provide an
overview of some of the formulation methods that are discussed in this textbook through
several simple examples. In this overview, we do not discuss the details of each method or
how a set of equations has been derived. Our objective is to realize that there is more than
one way to formulate a problem for a particular form of analysis.
As the first example, we consider the slider–crank mechanism shown in Figure 1.1. The
lengths of the crank and connecting rod are L1 = 0.2 m and L2 = 0.4 m, respectively. The
crank, link OA, rotates with a constant angular velocity of ω1 = 1.5 rad/s in the counter-
clockwise direction. Let us assume that our objective is to determine the position, velocity,
and acceleration of the connecting rod, link (2), and the slider at the configuration where
the crank makes a 30° angle with the horizontal axis.
For our analysis, we define the angles of links (1) and (2) with respect to the horizontal
axis as θ 1 and θ 2, respectively. The position of the slider with respect to point O is defined
as d. Since we are not interested in the forces that cause or are the result of this motion,
the process is purely a kinematic analysis. In the following discussion on different forms of
solution, we present each method in a general form without explaining the details of the
implementation.
The first method of kinematic analysis that we consider is the classical graphical tech-
nique. For position analysis, the triangle OAB, depicted in Figure 1.2a, is drawn as accu-
rately as possible since the lengths OA and AB and the angle of the crank are given. This
process reveals that there are two solutions for the given data—the constructed triangle
could be either OAB or OABʹ. Although both solutions are feasible, based on the original
diagram, we choose point B to represent the position of the slider. From the constructed
triangle, by measurements, we determine d = 0.53 m and θ 1 = 165°. This completes the
graphical position analysis for this mechanism in the specified configuration.
To perform a velocity analysis, for the given orientation of the slider–crank, a velocity
vector polygon is constructed as shown in Figure 1.2b. This polygon is constructed based
on the results from the position analysis (orientation of the links) and the given angular
velocity of the crank as ω1 = 1.5 rad/s counterclockwise. The polygon shows the velocity of
  
point A, v A; the velocity of the slider, v B; and the velocity of point A relative to point B, v A , B .
B
We measure the magnitude of v to be 0.21 m/s with a direction to the left. Based on the

measured magnitude of v A , B and the length of link AB, we determine the angular velocity
of the connecting rod to be ω 2 = 0.6 rad/s clockwise.
Similar to the velocity analysis, an acceleration polygon can be drawn for acceleration
analysis as shown in Figure 1.2c. This polygon is constructed based on the results of the
position and velocity analyses, and the given angular acceleration of the crank, α1 = 0

y A
(2)
L1 L2
(1) θ2
θ1 (3)
O B
x
d

FIGURE 1.1
A slider–crank mechanism.
4 Planar Multibody Dynamics

(a) (b) (c)

0.1 m/s
0.1 m
A
0.1 m/s 2
A v A,B vA
B’ 30° B B aB
O O
O B
vB a A,B
aA
A

FIGURE 1.2
Graphical methods for (a) position, (b) velocity, and (c) acceleration analyses.


(constant angular velocity). The polygon shows the acceleration of point A, a A; the accelera-
B  A, B
tion of the slider, a ; and the acceleration of point A relative to point B, a . Direct measure-

ments reveal the magnitude of a B to be 0.51 m/s2 with a direction to the left. Based on the

measured magnitude of the so-called tangential component of a A , B and the length of link
AB, we determine the angular acceleration of the connecting rod to be α 2 = 1.4 rad/s CCW.
The graphical process provides a visual understanding of the kinematics of a system.
However, the process is not accurate, and it could become impractical if we need to repeat
the process for many different configurations. The accuracy of the results from a position
analysis depends on how accurately we draw the lines and circles, and on the accuracy
of the measurements for the lengths and angles. Obviously, the measurement errors from
the position analysis will be included in the measurement errors from the corresponding
velocity polygon and will further be magnified in the results from the acceleration poly-
gon. Therefore, the overall results from a graphical analysis cannot be very accurate.
A classical analytical formulation for kinematics of planar mechanisms is known as the
vector-loop method. For the slider–crank mechanism of Figure 1.1, this method requires
constructing algebraic relationships between the defining variables θ 1, θ 2, and d. A vector
loop for the closed triangle OABO yields the following equations:

0.2 cos θ 1 − 0.4cosθ 2 − d = 0

(1.1)
0.2 sin θ 1 − 0.4sin θ 2 = 0

For the crank angle θ 1 = 30°, these two equations can be solved for the two unknown
variables, θ 2 and d. The method of solution for such nonlinear algebraic equations will be
discussed later in this textbook. At this point we are only interested in the concept and not
in the details. Such a solution provides θ 2 = 165.5247° and d = 5.6057 m.
For velocity analysis, the time derivative of Eq. (1.1) provides the velocity equations as
follows:

−0.2 sin θ 1ω1 + 0.4sin θ 2ω2 − d = 0

(1.2)
0.2 cos θ 1ω1 − 0.4cosθ 2ω 2 = 0

Knowing the values of θ 1, θ 2, and ω1 = 1.5, the velocity equations can be solved for ω 2 and
the linear velocity of the slider, d . The solution to these equations yields θ2 = −0.6708 rad/s
and d = −2.1707 m/s. The negative value of d indicates that the slider is moving to the left.
Introduction 5

For acceleration analysis, the time derivative of Eq. (1.1) provides the acceleration equa-
tions as follows:

−0.2 sin θ 1α 1 − 0.2 cos θ 1ω12 + 0.4sin θ 2α 2 + 0.4cosθ 2ω22 − d = 0

(1.3)
0.2 cos θ 1α 1 − 0.2 sin θ 1ω12 − 0.4cosθ 2α 2 + 0.4sin θ 2ω 22 = 0

Knowing the values of θ1, θ 2, ω1, ω 2, and α1 = 0, the acceleration equations are solved to
determine the two unknowns as α 2 = 0.4648 rad/s2 and d = −0.5175 m/s 2.

This classical method of kinematic analysis of planar mechanical systems is reviewed

in detail in Chapter 5.

Although, in the vector-loop method, it is possible to solve the position, velocity, and accel-
eration equations of simple systems by using pencil and paper, the equations are more
suitable for development into a computer program. The computed values, obviously, are
much more accurate than those obtained graphically. Furthermore, the computational pro-
cess could easily be repeated for different values of the crank angle. In this textbook, in
addition to the vector-loop method, several other methods of analytical formulation for the
kinematics of multibody systems are also discussed.
So far, our discussion has concentrated on kinematic analysis of multibody systems.
To discuss the methods of formulation for dynamic analysis of multibody systems, we
consider a simpler example than a slider–crank mechanism. The example is a double pen-
dulum shown in Figure 1.3a. The pendulum is composed of two slender rods: OA, link (1),
that is pinned to the ground at O, and AB, link (2), that is pinned to link (1) at A. The link
lengths are L1 = 2.0 m and L2 = 1.5 m. The mass and moment of inertia for each link are
given as m1 = 3.0 kg, J1 = 1.0 kg m2, and m2 = 1.6 kg, J2 = 0.8 kg m2. Gravity is the only force
that acts on the system (g = 9.81 m/s2). The mass centers, G1 and G2, are at the geometric
center of the links. It is assumed that in the configuration shown in Figure 1.3a, the links
are oriented by angles θ 1 = 30° and θ 2 = 45° from the vertical axis, and that the links have

(a) (b)
y

O
x 2
O 1
G1
1 = 30° 4
a A 3
A G1
c G2
w1
G2 a 4
w2
3
A
2 = 45°
b b d

FIGURE 1.3
(a) A double pendulum and (b) its FBD representation.
6 Planar Multibody Dynamics

initial angular velocities θ1 = 0.5 rad/s and θ2 = −0.4 rad/s . We construct the equations of
motion for this system in several forms for comparison.
The first method of formulating the equations of motion for the double pendulum is
based on the classical free-body diagram (FBD) of the system, as shown in Figure 1.3b. The
weights of the links are shown as w1 and w2. The x and y components of reaction forces at
the pin joints are shown as λ1,…, λ 4. Some of the distances that are needed in the equations
of motion are computed as follows:

L1
a= cos θ 1 = 0.87 m
2

L1
b= sin θ 1 = 0.50 m
2

L2
c= cos θ 2 = 0.53 m
2

L2
d= sin θ 2 = 0.53 m
2

Considering the two mass centers having coordinates x1, y1 and x2, y2, based on the FBDs
of the two links, the following six equations can be constructed:

m1x1 = λ1 − λ3

m1y1 = −w1 + λ2 − λ4

J1θ1 = −aλ1 − bλ2 − aλ3 − bλ4

(1.4)
m2 x2 = λ3

m2 y2 = −w2 + λ4

J 2θ2 = −cλ3 − dλ4

The two links having constant lengths yield four more equations as follows:

x1 − aθ1 = −bθ12

y1 − bθ1 = aθ12

(1.5)
−x1 − aθ1 + x2 − cθ2 = −bθ12 − dθ22

−y1 − bθ1 + y2 − dθ2 = aθ12 + cθ22

In these ten equations, since the positions and velocities are known, there are ten
unknowns: six accelerations and four components of reaction forces. The ten equations
can be solved for the ten unknowns yielding the following results for the linear accelera-
tions of the mass centers (m/s2), the rotational accelerations (rad/s2) of the links, and the
components of reaction forces (N):
Introduction 7

x1 = −2.16, y1 = −0.96, θ1 = −2.35, x2 = −5.75, y2 = −3.17, θ2 = −2.52 (1.6)

λ1 = −15.68, λ2 = 37.17, λ3 = −9.19, λ4 = 10.62

The use of FBD for constructing the equations of motion for dynamic analysis of pla-
nar mechanical systems is reviewed in detail in Chapter 6. The process is extended
for systematic generation of the equations of motion in Chapter 7. A general-purpose
MATLAB® program based on this formulation is discussed in Chapter 8.

In the formulation of Eqs. (1.4) and (1.5), we constructed ten equations to determine the
accelerations of the two links. As a by-product, we also determined the reaction forces that
act between the links at the pin joints. However, since this system has only two degrees of
freedom, it is also possible to construct only two equations representing the equations of
motion for this double pendulum:

 1  2   1
 J1 +  4 m1 + m2  L1  θ 1 + 2 m2 L1L2 cos (θ 2 − θ 1 )θ 2


1 1
= m2 L1L2 sin (θ 2 − θ 1 )θ22 − ( w1 + 2 w2 ) L1 sin θ 1
2 2
(1.7)
1  1 
m2 L1L2 cos (θ 2 − θ 1 )θ1 +  J 2 + m2 L22  θ2
2  4 

1 1
= − m2 L1L2 sin (θ 2 − θ 1 )θ12 − w2 L2 sin θ 2
2 2

Substituting all the known quantities in these equations, including the initial conditions,
the two equations can be solved for the rotational accelerations as follows:

θ1 = −2.35 rad s 2 , θ2 = −2.52 rad s 2 (1.8)

Knowing the rotational accelerations of the links, we can determine the linear accelera-
tions of the mass centers, if needed. Furthermore, we note that the reaction forces do not
appear in Eq. (1.7). If we are interested in knowing the values of these forces, they can be
computed after the accelerations have been determined.

The method of formulation that resulted in Eq. (1.7) is discussed in detail in

Chapter 9. A MATLAB program based on this formulation is provided for down-
load, which is briefly discussed at the end of the chapter.

In another formulation, the double pendulum is viewed as a system of two particles A

and B shown in Figure 1.4a, where the distances between particle A and point O, and par-
ticles A and B are known constants. This representation of the double pendulum requires
8 Planar Multibody Dynamics

(a) (b)
y y

O O
x x
1

L1
1
A A
A 2
L2 w
2
B B
B
w

FIGURE 1.4
(a) The double pendulum represented as a system of two particles and (b) the FBD representation of the two
particles.

the masses, moment of inertias, and applied forces (weights, in this example) to be prop-
erly distributed to the particles. The FBD representation of the two particles is shown in
Figure 1.4b, where λ1 and λ2 are the reaction forces acting on the particles along the axes of
the links. The FBD provides the following set of equations:

1 1
( m1 + m2 ) xA + m2 xB = − sin θ1λ1 + sin θ 2 λ2
3 6
1 1 1
( m1 + m2 ) yA + m2 yB = − ( w1 + w2 ) + cosθ1λ1 − cosθ 2 λ2
3 6 2
1 1
m2 xA + m2 xB = − sin θ 2 λ2
6 3 (1.9)
1 1 1
m2 yA + m2 yB = − w2 + cos θ 2 λ2
6 3 2

( ) − ( y )
2 A 2
x A xA + y A yA = − x A

(x )( ) ( )( ) ( ) − ( y )
2 2
B
− x A xB − xA + y B − y A yB − yA = − x B − x A B
− y A

For these equations, the coordinates and velocities are determined as follows:

x A = L1 sin θ 1 = 1.0, y A = −L1 cosθ 1 = −1.73 m

x B = x A + L2 sin θ 2 = 2.06, y B = y A − L2 cosθ 2 = −3.93 m

x A = L1 cos θ 1θ1 = 0.87, y A = L1 sin θ 1θ1 = 0.50 m s

x B = x A + L2 cos θ 2θ 2 = 0.44, y B = y A + L2 sin θ 2θ2 = 0.08 m s

Substituting these values in Eq. (1.9) and then solving the equations for the unknown
accelerations and reaction forces yields
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 "I am. I am engaged to Will Paca for the next dances." Lucy Lucy was
stumbling now, fear at her daring sweeping suddenly over her.

Mr. King, in the midst of his laughter, found breath to say: "Will Paca for
the dances, but who for the wedding, little Lucy—who's for that?"

Once more Lucy Trevor caught her brother's gaze, and she clung to it,
unheeding Madam Trevor's angry face and Rockwell's mortified one.

"I shall wed John Whitney—the Puritan. Let me go, Mr. King! Mr.
Chase is waiting!"

And Lucy, frightened, triumphant, proud of her faith in the man she
loved, more proud of her certainty of his love for her, tore herself from Mr.
King's loosened grasp, and, giving her hand to Jerry Chase, fairly ran away.

The group that she left behind was silent. Madam Trevor, utterly
overcome, had not a word left at her command. Rockwell was in much the
same state. Vincent, not a little astonished at his gentle sister's boldness, and
deciding that the feeling which prompted it must be strong, was making a
decision that was rather remarkable in, and exceedingly creditable to, a man
of those narrow times. Mistress Harwood planned a morning's gossip on the
morrow with a neighbor, at Antoinette Trevor's expense, and Mr. King
decided that, were he a young blade again, it would be a girl of such spirit
that he would have for his wife. And then, as the strains of the first reel
sounded from the ballroom, the little group broke up.

Sir Charles, with cool forethought, had engaged no partner for these next
two dances, but bent his steps upstairs through the house on an exploring
expedition. He wandered through ladies' cloak-rooms, round halls and
narrow corridors, finally discovering and descending a steep flight of stairs
that took him down to the first floor, through a small passage, and out of the
house into the yard at the back. This was what he had sought. The little door
was open, for slaves and servants had been passing in and out of it through
the whole evening; and so, satisfied in this direction, he returned to the front
of the house at the close of the third dance.
 Deborah, just finishing a round of laughter with Carleton Jennings,
received Sir Charles with admirable self-possession, and they took their
place silently in the set, which was a minuet. It was now that Fairfield had
determined to set before the girl his arrangements for the evening's reckless
finale. Under cover of the first slow strains of music and the first careful
steps, he began:

"Have you any partners after the ninth dance?"

"No," said Deborah, steadily, understanding him at once.

"Do you—know of anything to come after the ninth dance?"

"No," she replied again, in a lower tone.

"Deborah—have you courage for an adventure?"

They saluted each other and gravely crossed over.

"I have courage, Sir Charles, if I have the will."

"Ah, Deborah—I entreat you to gain the will to-night!"

"For what?" she asked, softly.

"You know."

"Say it."

"To become—my wife."

Deborah flushed scarlet, and then the color fled, leaving her deathly
white. There was a necessary silence between them, owing to the dance.
When they came together again her partner went on:

"Would you fear, Debby, to walk from here to Mistress Vawse's house
alone at midnight?"

Deborah looked at him quickly: "Why must I do that?"

 "Listen." Again the courtesy and bow, and he continued: "After the
seventh dance—you are engaged to me for the eighth and ninth—you must
go up-stairs, put on your cloak and hood, and leave the dressing-room by the
door that leads into the hall at the back. There I will meet you and conduct
you down the servants' stairs, and you can escape the house by the little door
into the yard. You know your way round the garden and out upon Church
Street. From there 'tis easy to Miriam's."

"Ah!"

Fairfield went on, without heeding the faint exclamation: "Mistress

Vawse expects you. I have seen her. She will make you comfortable till I
come. I will give your excuses to Vincent, telling him that Carroll's black has
taken you home since you have—a headache, or a torn ruffle, or a megrim—
anything. I fancy he'll not follow you. As soon as I can, I will go after you
with Rockwell. At the tavern he will marry us by book, Debby, and after—
after I'll take you to the doctor's, and all will be well. 'Tis not difficult,
Debby. Come—you will make me live among the gods to-night?"

He pressed to her side for the answer; but the dance presently separated
them and she had not given it. Deborah's blood was running fast; her head
was hot, her eyes brilliant, her cheeks flushed, none of which things would
have been had she had no thought of considering this wild proposition.
Nevertheless, she hesitated. Become Lady Fairfield, and, some day,
something higher? She had dreamed of it, it must be confessed, before she
ever suspected that such a thing could actually be. She had even fancied,
long ago, that she wanted nothing more than Sir Charles; for, as men went,
he was, to her, perfection. But this idea had undergone a change, some time
since. How long since? Did she care to reckon the days? Perhaps they
needed no reckoning. Perhaps Deborah knew very well that since the hour
when her eyes had first met those of Claude de Mailly, Charles Fairfield had
changed for her forever. But Deborah had been hurt by Claude. She would
think of him no more, after that day when, in the midst of the thunder-storm,
they had sat alone in Miriam's tavern, and he had laid bare before her his life
at the Court of France. Claude de Mailly belonged, heart and soul, to another
life. Here was Sir Charles, who could give one to her. Lady Fairfield—
Deborah Fairfield—the name pleased her.
 "Debby, will you not answer?" came a tremulous whisper from beside
her. Sir Charles was becoming anxious.

All at once she flung debate, prudence, the conventions, and—the other
man, alike away from her in a jumbled heap, and made reply, clear, firm,
unhesitating, to his question:

"Yes, Sir Charles. I grant your wish. Shall we walk a little?"

A curious tone in which to decide one's destiny, and a curious choice of

words to express such decision. But they were within possible hearing now,
and, besides, Deborah was peculiar. The dance had ended before she spoke,
and now they proceeded slowly down the room, side by side, silent, save
when they stopped to answer some remark from others. Neither of them was
ever after very clear as to how the ensuing hour passed. Both were with
other partners, surrounded with other forms, moving, passing, talking,
laughing, as though each present moment were supreme. Only when, out of
the kaleidoscopic mass, one caught an instant's glimpse of the other's figure,
distant or near at hand, a sudden heart-thrill would reclaim them from
insensibility, and thrust them once more under the warm shadow of that
near-approaching, veiled Future, that seemed to portend so much to both.

In the interval between the eighth and ninth dances Sir Charles again
sought Deborah, and his manner banished a lingering partner from her side.
She did not once look up as Fairfield led the way out into the hall by the
open card-rooms, and then up the distant, deserted staircase.

"You are not afraid?" he asked once.

 "DEBORAH PERMITTED HIM TO LEAD HER FROM THE BALL-
ROOM"

She shook her head with a faint smile; but her hands were cold.

He put her light cloth cape about her, saw her tie a small hood over her
powdered hair, and then he led the way into the empty hall back of the room.
Down the steep flight of stairs she glided before him, stopping at last before
the closed door, she less nervous than he. "You know the way? Are you not
afraid?"

"The moon is up. Why should I fear?"

Without reply, he softly opened the little door, and his face was very pale
as he bent over her: "You'll not fail me, Debby? I love you, dear."

She let him take her hand. Then he bent farther and kissed her swiftly on
the lips, for the first time. Her eyes had looked into his for one startled
instant. Afterwards—she went forth into the night.

Fairfield's heart was on fire as he watched her disappear down the garden
path. Then he closed the door, breathed long and painfully, and made his
way back again to the ballroom, with its throng of dancers, the candles
dripping wax, the musicians mopping their brows, and Vincent Trevor and
George Rockwell side by side in the doorway, looking on together. These Sir
Charles approached upon his errand.

"Ah, Vincent—" with a very fair assumption of carelessness—"Deborah

is gone home—that is, to Dr. Carroll's."

Vincent turned. He had been watching Mary Chase. "Deborah! Why,

what for, Charlie? Surely you've not been quarrelling? She's not—"

Sir Charles laughed nervously. '"Tis nothing but a most vile headache,
got from the heat of the room and too much dancing. She wouldn't have me
as escort, so I—I sent one of the house-servants with her. She took no chair,
saying that the walk in the fresh air would benefit her. She begs that you'll
not disturb Madam Trevor till the cards are over."

"Oh, very well. I'm sorry, of course. Er—I'm engaged for the next dance.
I leave Rockwell to you." And Vincent darted off abstractedly, after a lively
young woman in blue satin, who seemed in no particular need of his
attentions, being much absorbed in Will Paca.

"Come, Rockwell, come; we must hurry—she's gone!" whispered

Fairfield agitatedly, pulling his companion's sleeve.

The rector stood still. "What the—oh! Your young one, eh? Must I come
now?"

"Of course. She's waiting, I say."

Rockwell, who had not yet moved, turned on him suddenly: "Listen, Sir
Charles; if you marry Deborah Travis, I marry her cousin, Lucy Trevor—you
understand?"
 "Deuce take it, man, marry whom you please—except Deborah. Why
should I care?"

"You'll promise to take my part to-morrow against that Puritan, John

Whitney?"

"Whatever you like, man. Come!"

And so the two men, one still muttering Lucy Trevor's name, the other
feverishly anxious for the coming scene, passed up-stairs, and down again
presently at the back, where they left the Governor's palace and the ball
behind them, to follow in the footsteps of Deborah Travis, towards the
ordinary of Miriam Vawse.

CHAPTER IX

The Rector, the Count, and Sir Charles

The day of the Governor's ball had been a dismal one for Claude. The
few people whom he knew in the town were all agog over the prospect of the
evening; and, since Governor Bladen had not heard of the residence of the
Count de Mailly within his territory, the Count had very naturally received
no invitation to the festivities. The hot day did not tempt Claude from his
lodging. He stayed alone in his room, and in the evening, after a solitary
walk, returned to it again, turning over an idea which had been growing on
him for a week—that of leaving Annapolis. After all, its people were nothing
to him. He would move on, as he should have done long before; and the girl,
Deborah Travis, should occupy his thoughts no more. So thinking, with half
his mind across the world, and his heart, did he but know it, all here, Claude
sat, watching the hours, dreaming, as Fate had him do, from dusk into
midnight with her moon and stars.
 Down-stairs, in the common room of the peaceful ordinary, Miriam
Vawse also kept a troubled watch, for the part that she was to play in the
approaching scene began to appear to her as very doubtful in wisdom. As
she sat alone in the warm night, beside her flickering candles, with the hours
running relentlessly along, fear began to take possession of her. Half-past
eleven struck from the steeple of St. Anne's. The moon was making the
whole night luminous. Up Charles Street, presently, a flying shadow came, a
dark, wavering thing, in round hood, flapping cape, and long, light, ruffled
petticoats held up for running about two slender ankles. To the threshold of
the tavern door the shadow passed, and there it halted. Claude, in his
window above, saw and wondered, but did not stir.

There was a half inaudible tap upon her door. Miriam started and
hearkened, half believing it her own nerves. Again the tap, more faintly than
before; but now good Miriam ran to open the door.

"Good lack! Thou'rt come then, Debby!"

The hooded figure glided in and moved to the table, panting with the
effects of the long run.

"Sit down—I will fetch some cordial."

Deborah sank into a chair, threw off hood and cape, and lifted a flushed
face. When Miriam came to her with a cup of strong waters, she drank
gratefully, and presently her expression softened to a smile.

"I'm here! I'm here! Think of it, Miriam!"

"And you'll leave my door again Lady Fairfield! Oh, Debby, Debby, is it
right? Art sure I've done no wrong?"

"Oh, if there's any wrong, Miriam, 'tis mine." She was still for a moment,
and then remarked: "Cousin Virginia was to marry him."

"I know. Madam told me long since."

"But he only asked for her two days ago—that is, madam and Vincent
made him. And then—and then—"
 "Then he told you," put in Miriam, glowing with romance.

"But where can he be? He was to come directly. He vowed he'd be here
at once with George Rockwell. Oh, Miriam! If he shouldn't come!"

"Lord! How can you think of such things!" cried Mistress Vawse,
hurrying to the window. Deborah followed her nervously.

"I'm sure he'll not come!" she cried, in sudden despair.

"He'll come. He'll come. Now sit down again quietly. There. That's
comfortable. And so you love him dearly. How long has it been? All the
summer? D'ye know, Debby, once I thought 'twasn't Sir Charles. I didn't
know. I thought 'twas him."

Mistress Vawse swept her thumb mysteriously upward towards the stairs.
Suddenly into Deborah's cheeks rose two vivid spots of color. She made no
answer to the woman's questions. But, indeed, there was not time now.
Footsteps were halting at the threshold, and there came a light, masculine tap
at the door. Miriam flew to open it. Deborah rose unsteadily. Fairfield and
Rockwell together entered the room.

Sir Charles went quickly to the girl's side, while the rector stayed behind
to say a few words to Mistress Vawse, who was an ardent parishioner of his.
Deborah remained passive as her lover caressingly lifted her hand to his lips,
and looked at her with deep-seated feeling.

"Miss Travis, permit me to salute you for the second time this evening,
and to congratulate you upon such a prospect of romantic happiness as is
now opening to your vision," remarked Rockwell, with his most Johnsonian
air, as he came forward.

"Since it is in your power alone to bestow that happiness, George, let us,
for God's sake, be about it!" exclaimed Fairfield, in a passionately low voice.

Three members, at least, of the little party were growing extremely

nervous. Deborah's courage, which had borne her in perfect quiet so far, was
beginning to falter. Sir Charles was unreasonably fearful of some
interruption. Miriam Vawse was in the same plight, her eyes being fixed
continually on the fast-barred door. Rockwell alone was quite at his ease.

"Now then, Mistress Vawse, another candle or two. Charles will stand
the expense; for I vow I must have light enough to tell the lady from her
husband."

Deborah quivered at the last word, which, indeed, Rockwell had thrown
at her.

There was a dead silence as Miriam placed three more candles on the
table, and lit them at the flame of the first. Then the clergyman took from
one of the pockets of his coat the prayer-book, and motioned the two to
move back a little towards the empty fireplace. Deborah's heart had almost
stopped beating, and her throat was so strained that she could not have
spoken a word. Sir Charles, taking her arm, gently drew her to his side, and
looked to Rockwell, who stood in front of them. He began to speak softly,
omitting not a word of the service, even the address to the people assembled,
now solely represented by Mistress Vawse, who was supporting herself
against the table.

"'Dearly beloved, we are gathered here together in the sight of God—'"

"Oh!" cried Sir Charles, with a sudden start, "we were to have had
another fellow—a witness—that de Mailly—don't you know, George?"

"I am here," came in a low tone from the stairs.

"Lord!" cried Mistress Vawse, on the verge of collapse. Four pairs of

startled eyes were lifted to where Claude, who had heard the sound of voices
in his room and started to come down to learn more of the midnight arrivals,
had halted in his descent, Rockwell's words in his ears.

After the sharp pause, the rector was first to speak: "Well, now that he's
here, we'll go on. Come down, sir, and be witness to this marriage."

Claude was very white as he replied, with his slight accent: "I will
remain here. I can see and hear quite perfectly, if I am necessary."
 "Go on, then! Go on!" cried Sir Charles, wiping his brow.

"'—and in the face of this company to join together this man and—'"

"No—no—stop!"

In amazement, Rockwell obeyed the huskily whispered command. It was

from Deborah, and Deborah now, her cheeks feverishly flushed, eyes
brilliant, lips parted, and breath quickened, moved, as if drawn by
magnetism, from Fairfield's side to the stairs. After a moment of confused
silence, Fairfield said, with unnatural calm:

"What is it, Deborah? Come back."

"No."

"Come back."

"No."

"Don't you understand? What is the matter? What are you doing?"

"I—I'll not marry you."

"Deborah!"

After that cry from Fairfield there was silence. The rector, Sir Charles,
and Miriam Vawse stood as if petrified, staring at the girl, who faced them
with quiet, dogged resolution written in her face. Claude, from the stairs,
looked down upon her, scarcely surprised, perhaps, but with a very gentle
light in his eyes. His deliberate descent into the room was the first move
made by any one. Going over to Rockwell's side, he laid a finger on the
clergyman's arm:

"This wedding—it is—what you call—legal?"

"Perfectly!" snapped Rockwell, in anger.

"There's no license," remarked Deborah, slowly.

 "Indeed, Miss Travis, I protest—it isn't necessary. This is perfectly legal.
It is customary—quite customary. You will have the oaths of two witnesses;
though, indeed, with Sir Charles's honor, those are not needed. Let us go on
at once."

"Sure you must go on now, Miss Debby. Think of the time o' night!"

"Come—come, child," and Fairfield started towards her, with a little

gleam of anger in his eyes.

Deborah shrank back against the stairs; but, lo! with an adroit movement,
Claude was at her side, with evident intention of interposing.

"You shall not use force," he remarked, quietly.

"— — you! You French hound! Out of my way! I'll have you know your
place!"

"I am aware of my place, Sir Charles Fairfield." He stepped quickly in

front of Deborah. "If this lady is forced into any action contrary to her
desire, it shall be because my sword is broken."

There was barely a second's pause, then came a little whipping sound as
two blades were drawn. Claude sprang on guard as Fairfield lunged. There
was a flash of steel. The Frenchman made the riposte, and his sword just
pierced the white ruffled shirt of his opponent, breaking the skin. The
lieutenant paid no attention to it. De Mailly returned into tierce, and parried
the second attack with immaculate grace. Rockwell, his eyes wide with
interest, dropped his book and came over to watch the duel. It did not
endure, however. After Sir Charles' third unsuccessful attempt to break the
French guard, he felt his sword-blade seized, lifted, and himself pushed
back. Claude's blade dropped. Deborah had taken command of the situation.
Drawing Sir Charles' sword out of his passive hand, she gave it to Miriam
Vawse, who had sunk into a chair, on the verge of hysteria. In helpless
amazement she received the rapier, finding strength nevertheless to rise and
go with it towards the stairs as Deborah spoke to her in whispered
imperative. Presently, then, Deborah was alone with the rector, the Count,
and Sir Charles. All three paid tribute to her supremacy with expectant
silence. Fairfield was sunk in desperate dejection, Rockwell merely amazed,
Claude mentally reeling, for the horizon of his life was changed. It was a
blank no longer. Many things were taking shape upon it. He was prepared,
when Deborah took two or three hesitating steps towards him, and said, in a
half-whisper:

"I must go back—to Dr. Carroll's. Will you—take me?"

With a glad light in his face, he came at once to her side. "I thank you,
mademoiselle, for the honor you offer me. My life is yours."

"Let us go, then," she said, her voice low and trembling dangerously.

Suddenly Charles Fairfield rushed forward and, seizing both her hands,
fell upon his knees. "Deborah! Deborah! Deborah! I love you! In the name
of God Almighty, give me some hope! I meant everything honestly—
honorably—do you hear? The marriage would have been legal. Rockwell
will swear that to you. What right have you—Debby! Debby, you promised!
Is it true that you don't care?"

Deborah drew away from him as far as she could. Her face was drawn
and weary, and no light in her eyes answered his entreaties. Claude, who had
watched her narrowly, now interposed. Grasping the other's hands, he forced
them, with a single twist, from Deborah's helpless ones, and then, with that
kind of brute strength that comes to all men at times, he lifted the
Englishman bodily to his feet, thrust him back, took Deborah gently about
the waist, and carried her to the door. Opening it, he turned around. Miriam
Vawse, from the stairway, saw his face as she had never beheld it before,
white, set, triumphant, his greenish eyes blazing like jewels as he cried out to
Fairfield, who was stiff with fury:

"We will meet—where you like, when you like, how you like, but not in
the presence of ladies, monsieur."

The door closed, and Claude and Deborah were alone together in the
still, white moonlight. She walked herself, now, only clinging fast to his arm,
and trembling with the strain of the long evening. They were half-way to the
doctor's before either spoke. Then Deborah whispered, just audibly:
 "You must not fight—for me. I am not worthy."

"I have fought for far slighter things than this. But do not be alarmed.
There will not be much blood shed."

Deborah shuddered, but was silent. She longed unutterably to try to

justify herself to this man, to explain the reason for her behavior; and, as if
divining her thought, he presently asked, quietly:

"How, mademoiselle, did you come to do this thing? Do you love this Sir
Charles? Did you think of the imprudence?"

Suddenly all thoughts but one fled from her. This one she voiced with
quick eagerness: "I do not love Sir Charles! Indeed—indeed—believe me—I
do not love him."

Instinctively Claude's arm tightened upon hers, but he said no more. He

was too chivalrous a man to take any advantage of the time, the place, and
their solitude. Deborah waited vainly for a word from him. When at last they
stood at the doctor's gate, she whispered:

"I'll go in alone. I—can't thank you to-night. Good-bye."

One hand of hers he took, and the moonlight and the woodbine kissed
each other as he touched it to his lips.

"Good-night," he said. And then, without more, he let her go, saw her
pass up to the door, in her pale dress and light cloak, with hooded head bent
low. He heard her knock, and presently saw the door opened by a sleepy
servant. Then he turned away, back towards the tavern of Miriam Vawse.

Deborah felt no nervousness on entering the doctor's house. It had not

occurred to her to dread lest the family had returned from the ball. In point
of fact, the last reel was, at this moment, just beginning at the palace. The
doctor's slave, therefore, received the young lady in dull surprise.

"I had a headache, Jeremiah," she explained, faintly. "I came home—
with one of the Governor's house-blacks. Where's the candle?"
 "Heah, Miss Travis. Yo' want su'th'n t' eat, p'haps?"

"Oh yes, yes, Jerry. Send Leah up with a cup of posset and some bread.
That's all."

"Yes'm. Lor! Yo' done got headache fo' shuah!" he muttered, watching
the candle that she held shake so that the flame was endangered, as she
passed up the stairs to bed.

CHAPTER X

Puritan and Courtier

"What time was it when you reached home last night, Deborah?" asked
Madam Trevor.

The doctor, his sisters, and their guests were seated at a very late
breakfast, of which extremely little was being eaten.

Deborah looked uncomfortable at the bald directness of the question.

Being under no suspicious eye, however, she dropped an hour, and was able
to reply, with some nonchalance: "About twelve, I believe, madam. Really—
my head—I'm not quite certain about the time."

Lucy nodded sympathetically: "Indeed, Debby, if your head then was

like mine now—"

"You will not complain of your health in this manner, before us all. It is
most unladylike!" said Madam Trevor, sharply.

Lucy quivered and shrank into silence. She was in the highest disfavor
with her mother this morning, and only too well did she know why. Aching
head or not, there was an ordeal ahead of her for the afternoon, to endure
which she was inwardly praying for strength, but over which she was in
reality desperate. If Rockwell appeared at the plantation, as he had vowed to
do, with Madam Trevor still in this morning's mood, poor Lucy knew that
John Whitney's fate and hers hung in a hopeless balance. And there was no
one to whom she could look for help. Virginia and Deborah would be very
kind, but neither of them could bring any opposition to her mother's
intention. Of Vincent she did not think at all. Had she done so, it would have
been merely to add a new despair; for to consider Vincent as her ally against
his mother was impossible on the face of it. So little Lucy reasoned,
dolefully, through the meal, till her attention was caught by Vincent's
question:

"Where's Charles, doctor—Fairfield, I mean? I haven't seen him since we

were dancing last night."

"Sir Charles is not in the house," replied the doctor, with a quick glance
at Virginia, whose face was perfectly passive.

"Not in the house! Why—what has happened?"

"Oh, very little, I fancy. Last night, as we came up Church Street, I saw
him with Rockwell at the door of the 'Three Blue Balls.' He was probably
about to celebrate his happiness. Young men, you know."

Vincent's face grew dark. "Pretty ways for Rockwell," he muttered; and
St. Quentin, whose eye was upon him, nodded slightly.

Lucy took sudden heart, but was wise enough not to look up till her
mother, much displeased, rose from the table, and so ended the meal.

"Mistress Lettice, we will not trespass longer on your hospitality, for

which we are vastly indebted. I have ordered the coach for eleven. You,
Vincent, at least, will ride with us?"

Her son bowed courteously, and presently disappeared into the doctor's
study, where he took the liberty of making use of his host's desk for a few
moments. Upon finishing his note he carried it out to the deserted dining-
room, where Jeremiah was clearing the table.
 "Jerry, can you do an errand for me this morning—no, at once?"

"Fo' shuah, Mist' Trev', if Doc' Ca'l 'll let me go."

"I'll explain that I sent you off. Here's a note to be taken round to the
cottage that Mr. John Whitney lives in. He's a Puritan parson. His house is
just on the other side of the Gloucester Street bridge. Give him this note,
Jerry, and here's a shilling for some extra tobacco, if you get it to him by
eleven o'clock. Understand?"

"Ye-ah! He'll get it 's mo'n fo' shuah. Thanks, Mist' Trev'."

Showing all his glistening teeth, the negro pocketed the coin, which no
slave was supposed to possess, and, leaving his work unfinished, departed at
once on the very welcome errand which served to let him out of the house
for an hour into the August sunshine.

Vincent found the doctor in the hall, and lightly touched his arm: "I have
sent your black, Jerry, on an errand, Carroll. It was important, or I shouldn't
have presumed. You'll pardon me?"

"My dear Vincent, while you are with me my house is yours. Don't speak
of it. So soon, madam? This is a niggardly visit, I vow!"

Carroll hurried forward as Madam Trevor entered the hall. She had just
come down, the three young women behind her, each carrying a package
containing her party finery and night garments. The coach and Vincent's
riding-horse were already at the door. After a chorus of farewells and
acknowledgments of hospitality, the ladies were finally settled in the roomy
vehicle, which set off in a whirl of dust down Gloucester Street. On their
way through the town they passed the door of the "Blue Balls" tavern, and
madam bit her lip.

"Virginia, be assured that I shall speak to Charles when he returns. It is

disgraceful, it is abominable, this behavior on the very night of his
engagement to you. You may be certain that it shall not go unnoticed."

For an instant Virginia's lip curled scornfully. Then all the former
indifference came back again to her face. She made no reply to her mother's
words, but, as they continued on their way, some other train of thought
brought a new expression to her fine features—an expression of resigned
sorrow, of hidden suffering, of strong repression, that her mother did not see,
and could not have read even had she noticed it. The rest of the drive was
silent. Madam Trevor, seated beside Virginia, was very firm of lip, very
straight of shoulder, very immovable as to hands. Lucy and Deborah, on the
opposite side of the coach, had no desire to indulge in the usual ball
reminiscences common to young girls. One of them was anxious-eyed and
pale with foreboding; the other sat motionless, eyes closed, face unreadable,
but enduring such inward tumult as none, seeing her, could have conceived.

At three o'clock in the afternoon of that same Thursday a man on foot

crossed the narrow bridge over the inlet at the end of Prince George Street,
and started up the country road that led along the left bank of the Severn.
The day was intensely hot, the white dust inches deep, and what wind blew
at all was from the west, a mere breath of parching grass and thirsting prairie
lands. The man, however, was not thinking of heat. His face showed very
plainly that his mind was some distance away, and that it was fixed on a
subject of deep import to him. His prim black suit grew gray with sand, his
immaculate queue flopped limply on his shoulder, his face was damp with
perspiration, his very eyebrows were ruffled by the vigorous mopping which
he now and then gave his forehead. Nevertheless, oblivious of discomfort,
John Whitney plodded on his way towards the Trevor plantation, his eyes on
the road, his hope in the clouds. For the first time he was treading this well-
known path with an untroubled conscience. He was going to Lucy openly,
not even of his own planning, but at the request of Lucy's brother, whose
courteous note of invitation lay hot under his vest, next to the homespun
linen shirt which it was his pleasure to wear.

Whitney was within five minutes of his destination, already visible

above the trees round the little bend in the shore, when the sound of wheels
rapidly approaching from behind him caused him hastily to mount the bank
at the side of the road. A calèche, drawn by two horses and containing a man
garbed in shining pink satin, flashed by in a whirl of dust, and presently
turned in at the road leading to the Trevor house. Whitney pursed his lips,
stared a little, and moved on again.
 Claude, in his court costume and hired vehicle, stopping at the door of
Deborah's home, found Jim, the stable-boy, white-eyed and open-mouthed
with amazement at his dress, waiting to receive him and to fetch water for
the horses.

"I am seeking Mr. Trevor—and—madame," said Claude, on the step of

the portico.

"Yes, sah; ef you'll walk right in, sah—dey's right—"

"M. de Mailly! You honor us, sir!" Vincent, who had witnessed the
arrival, appeared from the hall and came hastily out to meet his guest. His
astonishment at such a costume as he had never before, even in England,
beheld, was, perhaps, visible in his face; but if Claude perceived it he said
nothing.

"Come inside, will you not? The heat is great to-day. We—Rockwell is
here," explained the host, in a slightly disconcerted tone. He was expecting
another visitor, and de Mailly's arrival was ill-timed.

"Thank you," responded Claude, still suavely oblivious, and flicking

some dust from his sleeve with an enormous lace-bordered handkerchief.

Side by side they entered the hall, wherein, all very stiff as to
appearance, and even more uncomfortable in expression, sat Madam Trevor,
Lucy, Virginia, and George Rockwell. There was the usual series of
salutations, followed by a pause so heavy, so unbreakable, that Claude
flushed. He glanced at the rector, to find that gentleman glaring at him with a
mixture of intense apprehension and extreme anger. Madam Trevor looked
infinitely annoyed, and her lips were firmly set. Lucy, dull, mute,
motionless, was pathetically hopeless. Finally, Virginia, with a kind of dry
humor, set herself to save the situation.

"Perhaps, M. de Mailly," she said, "you come as suitor for my sister

Lucy's hand?"

Claude turned to her quickly: "I have not that honor, Miss Trevor. I had,
indeed, understood that your sister was already—um—bespoken. I came to
ask of Mr. Trevor that I may pay my addresses to Miss Travis."
 "Deborah!" cried both Lucy and her mother.

Rockwell breathed, a sweat broke gently upon his brow, and all danger
of spontaneous combustion was happily at an end.

"Deborah, madame," repeated Claude, quietly.

At the same moment a dusty figure ascended the portico steps and came
presently into the hall. At sight of him Lucy grew pink, Rockwell purple,
and Virginia Trevor very white. Madam bridled as she saw her son grasp the
"Puritan" cordially by the hand, and Claude glanced rapidly over the face
and figure, which were not unlike his own.

John Whitney looked measuredly round the circle, greeted his rival with
perfect imperturbability, sent a long glance into Lucy's eyes, and profoundly
saluted Madam Trevor, who returned the bow with the barest inclination of
her head. Then Vincent spoke:

"M. de Mailly, let me make you known to the Reverend Mr. Whitney, of
Boston. Gentlemen, you are here on like errands. 'Tis a curious thing.
Perhaps—it were as well to settle all, here, at once."

"I protest, sir!" cried Rockwell, jumping up. "The present matter lies
between Mistress Lucy, Master Whitney, and myself. I vow no stranger shall
be in it!"

"The Count de Mailly is no stranger, sir!" returned Vincent. "He has

announced his intention, without hesitancy, before you. I see no objection to
his learning that you and that gentleman are rivals for the hand of my sister
Lucy, and that you are here to-day in order that the affair be decided once for
all."

"I cannot see any necessity for discussion, Vincent. Lucy is promised to
Mr. Rockwell. Mr.—Whitney has nothing to do with the affair," observed
Madam Trevor, rather insolently.

The controversy being now open, Claude was, for the moment, forgotten.
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