CHAPTER 9

MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY

ASPECTS OF CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Syllabus: Motivation and personality, motivation theories, motivation research
methods the concept of personality, personality theories, personality in consumer
behavior research.
Indices

Serial No. Topics Page

MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY 323

9.01 Introduction 323

9.02 Definitions of Motive 323

9.03 Definitions of Motivation 324

9.04 Definitions of Personality 325

MOTIVATION THEORIES 325

9.05 Hierarchy of Consumer’s Needs 325

9.06 Assumptions in Hierarchy of Needs Theory 326

9.07 Types / Level / Pyramid of Human Needs 327

9.08 Theories of Motivation 328

9.09 Motivational Theory and Marketing Strategies 331

322 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

MOTIVATION RESEARCH METHODS -CONCEPT OF 332

PERSONALITY

9.10 Motivation Research 332

9.11 Characteristics of Motivation Research 332

9.12 Need of Motivation Research 333

9.13 Motivation Research Technique 335

PERSONALITY THEORIES 337

9.14 Concept of Personality 337

9.15 The Nature / Properties of Personality 338

9.16 Foundations of Personality 338

9.17 The Theories of Personality 340

9.18 Five Key Dimensions of People’s Personalities 342

9.19 How to test consumers for their personality profile 343

PERSONALITY IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR RESEARCH 345

9.20 Personality in Consumer Behavior Research 345

9.21 Self-Concept 346

9.22 Major Aspects of Self Concept 347

Exercise 348

8.43 End of Chapter 9 350

 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 323

MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY

†cÖiYv Ges e¨w³Ë¡
9.01 Introduction
f‚wgKv
Needs are the core of the marketing concept. The study of Motivation refers to all the processes
that drives in a person to perceive a need and pursue a definite course of action to fulfill that need.
1. What are Needs (Afve wK) − Needs are the motivational elements behind purchase. Every
individual has needs that are required to be fulfilled. Primary needs are food, clothing, shelter
and secondary needs are society, culture etc.
2. What are Wants (Pvwn`v wK) − Needs are the necessities, but wants are something more in
addition to the needs. For example, food is a need and type of food is our want.
3. What are Goals (jÿ¨ wK) − Goals are the objectives that have to be fulfilled. Goals are generic
and product specific in nature. Generic goals are general in nature, whereas product specific
goals are the desires of a specific nature.
Needs and fulfilment are the basis of motivation. Change takes place due to both internal as well
as external factors. Sometimes needs are satisfied and sometimes they are not due to individual’s
personal, social, cultural or financial needs.

9.02 Definitions of Motive

D‡Ïk¨ msÁv
A motive is a specific need or desire that arouses the organism and directs its behavior towards
the goal. All motives are triggered by some kind of stimulus; a bodily condition, (like low levels
of blood sugar or dehydration), a cue in the environment, or a feeling (Such as loneliness, guilt or
anger). When a stimulus induces goal-directed behavior, it has motivated the person.
Motives push people to take some kind of action— from an act as drastic as murder to a habit as
mundane as drumming fingers on a table when one is nervous. Motivation occurs whether or not
we are aware of it. Like, people don’t need to think about feeling hungry to make a beeline for the
refrigerator or to focus on their need for achievement to study for an exam.
There are basically 3 types of motives:
324 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

1. Biological/ Primary/Basic motives- These are inborn in an individual and are necessary for
one’s survival. Such as- Hunger, thirst, rest, sleep, maintenance of temperature, oxygen, sex,
etc.
2. Social/ Secondary motives- These are learned while living in a society. Such as-
Gregariousness, affiliation motive, power motive, achievement, aggression, Possession,
pugnacity, etc.
3. Personal Motives- Habits, attitude, curiosity etc.

9.03 Definitions of Motivation

Aby‡c«iYvi msÁv
Motivation is the process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Some of
the important definitions of Motivations are given below:
1. According to Scott, “ Motivation means a process of stimulating people to action to
accomplish desired way .”
2. Koontz and O’ Donnell, “ Motivation refers to the way in which urges, drivers, desires,
aspiration, striving or needs direct, control or explain the behavior of human beings .”
3. Mr. Brech, “Motivation is a general term applying to the entire class of drives, needs, wishes
and similar forces.”
4. Beach defines, “ Motivation as a willingness to expand energy to achieve a goal or a reword.”
5. Shartle defines, “Motivation as a reported urge or tension to move in a given direction or to
achieve a certain goal.”
6. Owen defines, “ Motivation as an ordered way of explaining way a person elects to channel
his energies in one direction rather than in another.”
7. Eduir B. Flippo, “ Motivation is the process of attempting to influence others to do yours
will through the possibility of gain reward.”
8. Delton E. MC Farland, “ The concept of motivation is mainly psychological. It relates to
those forces operating within the individual employee or subordinate which impel him to act
or not to act in certain ways.”
9. Michael J . Jucious, “ Motivation is the act of stimulating someone or oneself to get a
desired course of action, to push the right button to get the desired action.”
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 325

9.04 Definitions of Personality

e¨w³‡Z¡i msÁv
The term ‘persona’ was used to indicate the actions of an individual. In the modern world and
psychology it has come to indicate the sum total of an individual’s characteristics and qualities.
Various thinkers, social psychologists and others have defined personality in various ways.
1. Harold H. Kassarjian defines personality in the next few words “since individuals do react
fairly consistently in a variety of environmental situations, these generalized patterns of
response or modes of coping with the world can be called personality.”
2. According to K. Young, “Personality is a patterned body of habits, traits, attitudes and ideas
of an individual’s”
3. As G.W. Allport has defined, “Personality is the dynamic organisation with the individual
of those psycho-physical system that determine his unique adjustment to his environment.”
4. By personality Ogburn means, “the integration of the socio-psychological behaviour of the
human being, represented by habits of action and feeling, attitudes and opinions.”
5. According to Lundberg and others, “The term personality refers to the habits, attitudes and
other social traits that are characteristic of a given individual’s behaviour”.
6. Lawrence A. Pewin said, “Personality represents those structural and dynamic properties of
an individual or individuals as they reflect themselves in characteristic responses to
situations”.

MOTIVATION THEORIES
†cÖiYv ZË¡

9.05 Hierarchy of Consumer’s Needs

†fv³vi Pvwn`vi Abyµg
We have taken Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs and applied its principles to Customer
Experience. According to Maslow, the most basic physiological needs (food, water, air, clothing,
and shelter) were foundational and had to be met before the individual could elevate to the highest
of 5 levels: self-actualization or the desire to be the most one can be. Customer needs are easy to
prioritize using his hierarchy as a framework.
326 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

Abraham Maslow (1954) developed the hierarchy of needs model which can help us understand
the basis of human motivation. The hierarchy can be divided into basic (or deficiency) needs (e.g.
physiological, safety, love, and end growth needs (cognitive, aesthetics and self-actualization).

9.06 Assumptions in Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Pvwn`v Z‡Ë¡i †kÖwYweb¨v‡m Abygvb mgyn
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs approach is based on four assumptions. They are:

People’s behaviour is based on their needs

Assumptions in of
Needs Theory

A satisfied need does not motivate

A satisfied need can no longer motivate a person

As one need is satisfied, another replaces it

1. People’s behaviour is based on their needs (gvby‡li AvPiY cÖqR‡bi Dci wbf©ikxj): Satisfaction
of such needs influences their behaviour. Maslow believed that human behaviour is based on
their needs. Man is a wanting being, i.e. his wants are growing continuously even when some
wants are satisfied. Satisfaction of such needs influences their behaviour. When one need is
satisfied, they will move to strive for other needs. Human needs are of a varied and diversified
nature.
2. A satisfied need does not motivate (cwiZ…ß cÖ‡qvRb Abyc«vwYZ K‡i bv): People’s needs are in
hierarchical order, starting from basic needs to other higher level needs. Needs have a definite
hierarchy of importance. A satisfied need can no longer motivate a person to work; only next-
higher level need can motivate him. As soon as needs on a lower level are fulfilled, those on
the next level will emerge and demand satisfaction. This suggests that bread (food) is essential
and is a primary need of every individual. According to Maslow, “Man does not live by bread
alone”. This conclusion of Maslow is a practical reality and needs to be given adequate
attention while motivating employees.
3. A satisfied need can no longer motivate a person (cÖqR‡bi mš‘wó GKRb e¨w³‡K `xN© mgq AbycªvwYZ
Ki‡Z cv‡i bv): only next higher level need can motivate him. A satisfied need does not act as
a motivator. A person moves to the next higher level of the hierarchy only when the lower
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 327

need is satisfied. The needs network for most people is complex, with several affecting the
behaviour of each person at any one time.

4. As one need is satisfied, another replaces it (GKwU cª‡qvR‡bi mš‘wó, Ab¨‡K cªwZ¯’vcb K‡ibv): A
person moves to the next higher level of the hierarchy only when the lower need is satisfied.
When one need is satisfied another need emerges to take its place, so people are always
striving to satisfy some need. In general, lower level needs must be satisfied before higher
level needs are activated sufficiently to drive behaviour.

9.07 Types / Level / Pyramid of Human Needs

gvby‡li Pvwn`vi cªKvi / ¯Íi/ wcivwgW
Based on the notion of a universal hierarchy of human needs Dr Abraham Maslow, a clinical
psychologist formulated a widely accepted theory of human motivation. This identifies five basic
levels of human need which rank in order of importance from lower level needs to higher level
needs.
This theory signifies the importance of satisfying the lower level needs before higher level needs
arise. According to this theory, dissatisfaction motivates the consumer.
Following are the levels of human needs –

Self

Esteem

Social

Safety or Security

Physiological

1. Physiological Needs (ˆRweK cª‡qvRb) − Physiological needs are the basic needs for sustaining
human life. Food, clothing, air, and shelter are the first level needs. They are known as the
basic necessities or primary needs.
328 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

2. Safety or Security Needs (wbivcËv cª‡qvRb) − These are the needs connected with the
psychological fear of loss of job, property, natural calamities or hazards, etc. Once the first
level needs are satisfied, consumers move to the next level. Physical safety, security, stability
and protection are the security needs.
3. Social Needs (mvgvwRK cª‡qvRb) − After the safety needs are satisfied, consumers expect
friendship, belonging, attachment. They need to maintain themselves in a society and try to
be accepted.
4. Esteem Needs (m¤§v‡bi cª‡qvRb) − Then comes esteem needs such as self-esteem, status,
prestige. Individuals here in this stage want to rise above the general level as compared to
others to achieve mental satisfaction.
5. Self-Actualization (¯^-ev¯Íevqb) − This is the highest among the needs in the hierarchy of needs
advocated by Maslow. Self-actualisation is the desire to become what one is capable of
becoming. It is a 'growth' need. This is the highest stage of the hierarchy. People here, try to
excel in their field and improve their level of achievement. They are known as self-
actualizers.
Maslow also came up with two types of cognitive needs that aren't definitely in the need hierarchy,
but are thought to exist, maybe as a result of intelligence and gratification. These needs are on the
higher end of the lower-order needs scale. These are:
1. The Need to Know and Understand (Rvbv Ges †evSvi cª‡qvRb): These needs have to do with
trying to figure out what things around us mean. They are thought to be necessary steps before
basic needs can be met. Most people think of food, clothes, and a place to live as "basic
needs." This is the most important need.
2. The aesthetic needs (bv›`wbK cª‡qvRb): Many people may not seem to have these because they
can't meet their more basic needs, but some people have a strong need for beauty.

9.08 Theories of Motivation

†cÖiYvi ZË¡
There are a multitude of ideas that explain human motivation. A comprehensive examination of
all theories of motivation is not possible within the confines of our book. We will focus on three
of the most influential consumer motivation theories. They are:

Theories of Motivation

Psychoanalytic theory Gestalt theory Cognitive theory

Let us now consider each in turn:

 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 329

1. Psychoanalytic theory (gb¯ÍvwË¡K ZË¡): Psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud developed the

psychoanalytic theory of motivation. According to the theory, people’s choices are largely
based on their unconscious behaviour. This means that people may seek motivation for
buying certain goods through their unconscious channel of thinking.
Individuals may not always fully understand why they make certain choices, since these are
driven by their unconscious behaviour and not necessarily by wants or needs. This theory is
frequently used in understanding consumer behaviour and in analysing the purchasing
patterns of individuals.

 Components (Dcv`vb): According to Freud, the human psyche has two different parts: the
conscious mind and the unconscious mind. Both these include three components in total:
id, ego and superego.
 Id: According to Sigmund Freud, the id is the biological component of every
individual’s thought process. Id includes instinctive senses that everyone holds since
birth. It is the unconscious mind.
 Ego: Ego represents the conscious mind, and it is made up of thoughts, memories,
feelings that individuals may base their decisions on. The ego gives a sense of
personality to an individual.
 Superego: This includes society’s perceptions regarding ethics, values, taboos, etc.
It is the moral branch that can influence how humans make decisions. This
component shows that humans may not always act on impulse and is the “inner-
voice” or conscience of humans.
In some people id may be stronger; however, in others superego may be stronger. The
relative strength of id, ego and superego determines how a human being takes decisions.

 Importance (¸iæZ¡): Freudian motivation theory can be applied in the fields of sales and
marketing. The theory suggests that individuals may decide which products to buy based
on their emotions and feelings, without consciously knowing it.

 Application (e¨envi): Corporations may reach out to motivation researchers who collect
data from potential customers. The data is collected through interviews to understand the
deeper motives behind buying a particular product.
These researchers may use various techniques like word association, picture
interpretation, sentence completion, role-playing, etc to understand how individuals make
decisions. This information can enable marketing researchers to decide how these
330 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

unconscious motivations can be best exploited to make the product lucrative to

individuals.

 Parameters (civwgwZ): Freudian motivation theory states that the sale process has three
parameters:
 Consumer satisfaction
 Functional needs satisfaction
 Unconscious needs

 The Role of Subconscious Motivation in Consumer Behaviour (†fv³v AvPi‡Y Ae‡PZb

Aby‡cªiYvi cÖfve): Freud felt that the interaction between the three forces takes place mostly
at the subconscious level of the mind. In his subconscious mind, he employs defence
mechanisms to settle disputes between his id and superego, so safeguarding his self-
image. There are four available defensive strategies. They're:
a. Identification (kbv³KiY): Using identification, he attempts to excuse his disagreeable
behaviour by identifying or comparing himself to a prominent member of society who
is well-known for his image or personality.
b. Suppression (`gb): By employing suppression, he redirects the unwelcome emotions
generated by his id to the unconscious region of his mind.

c. Displacement (¯’vbP¨ywZ): Displacement is a strategy that permits one to swap a socially

or morally acceptable object for one that is socially or morally unsuitable for the sake
of finding pleasure or reducing stress.
d. Projection (Awf‡¶c): By projecting, a person essentially transfers his own
unfavourable qualities on others.

 Modifications to Freud's Theory (d«‡q‡Wi Z‡Ë¡i cwieZ©b): Three of Freud's disciples later
challenged his hypothesis. Alfred Adler, Erich Fromm, and Karen Horney are their names.
According to Adler, the fundamental human motivation is the desire for excellence. He
believed that inferiority complexes arise in children as early as childhood. Thus, the latter
portion of his life is shaped by his goal to attain superiority. Fromm believed that people
have desires for love, affection, and intimacy. According to him, this desire is the most
powerful human motive. Horney believed that individuals develop anxieties from infancy,
and that the remainder of their lives are determined by their efforts to overcome these
fears.
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 331

2. Gestalt Theory (†M÷vë ZË¡): According to Gestalt psychologists, an individual's motivation

is determined by all the forces simultaneously present in his mind or psyche. They believe
that a person's motivation and behaviour are a result of all of his or her mental powers. They
think that an individual's actions and behaviours are the result of his experiences, past, and
objectives, as well as his surroundings. Thus, it is the simultaneous operation of all forces
within the individual. To them, it is possible to comprehend a person's purpose by considering
all of the circumstances that influence his or her life. They consist of his goals, fears, and
limitations. When a desire is unfulfilled, an individual has tension, which he attempts to
alleviate by considering the combining force or valence of the act. It comprises both positive
and negative outcomes associated with the fulfilment of the unmet demand. He calculates the
positive and negative repercussions in his head. His eventual actions depend on the outcome
of his mental calculation. A person will be driven to purchase an item, for instance, if the
positive valence outweighs the negative valence.

3. Cognitive theory (Ávbxq ZË¡): The cognitive theory is known as the modern or contemporary
theory of motivation. According to cognitivists, motivation is an integral aspect of the mental
structure of an individual. They believe that an individual's motivation is the consequence of
his mental frame's processing of information and evaluation of problem-related features.
Beliefs, values, ullages, experiences, attitudes, and perceptions comprise a person's mental or
cognitive frame or framework. Consequently, cognitivists view human behaviour as problem-
solving in nature. According to cognitive theorists, consumer motivation should be
researched in terms of all aspects of their behaviour. In addition, they believe that the
acquisition of an item may be motivated by more than one factor, as opposed to the single
factor we have previously identified.
This has resulted in motivation research, which has been valuable for studying customer
behaviour. In turn, this has offered some important insights to the realms of advertising and
packaging.

9.09 Motivational Theory and Marketing Strategies

†cªiYvg~jK ZË¡ Ges wecYb ‡KŠkj
Marketers have to understand the motives of their potential customers to enjoy good sales. A buyer
has several motives and each change with various elements. In such cases the marketers can readily
help their customers by changing their marketing strategy so that the conflict is resolved.
Following are the major conflicts that may arise −
332 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

1. Approach Conflict (`…wófw½i Ø›Ø): This conflict arises when a consumer has two different
choices of similar products or services. He gives equal importance to them, but is unable to
choose one over the other.
2. Approach Avoidance Conflict (`…wófw½ cwinv‡ii Ø›Ø): This type of conflict happens when the
consumer decides in favor of a product, but is unhappy with a particular feature of the product
and wants to avoid it. Under such circumstances, the marketer may come up with few
modifications in the existing product and make it suitable for the consumer.

MOTIVATION RESEARCH METHODS THE CONCEPT

OF PERSONALITY (Aby‡cªiYv M‡elYv c×wZ- e¨w³‡Z¡i aviYv)
9.10 Motivation Research
Aby‡cªiYv M‡elYv
Motivation is the driving force within individuals that impels them to action. This driving force is
produced by a state of uncomfortable tension, which exists as a result of an unfulfilled need. All
individuals have needs, wants, and desires. Thus, motives have a role in consumer behavior.
There are several ways motivation research helps marketers. It allows them to understand why
people may or may not buy their product, allowing them to tailor marketing. In addition, it can
help in identifying a target audience for different products and services. Last, this form of research
can help in branding as it allows marketers to see what will catch the attention and loyalty of their
ideal customers.
Motivation research is becoming increasingly important, especially in marketing and branding.
There is no need to guess what will make a market happy; researchers instead can develop a more
scientific and likely more successful approach. While human behavior was once a mystery,
motivation research is deconstructing it by approaching the subject in a scientific and logical
manner.

9.11 Characteristics of Motivation Research

Aby‡cªiYv M‡elYvi ˆewkó
Although marketing research plays its important role for business firms to solve their marketing
problems, it is confined to only the ‘what’ aspect of the problem and does not provide the answer
to the ‘why’ aspect of the problem. This answer is found in motivation research.
The following main features of motivation research:
1. Motivation research is concerned with human motives.
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 333

2. It is qualitative research, so it is very difficult to generalize the findings.

3. It operates on the premise that consumers are not always aware of the reasons for their
actions.
4. Motivation research attempts to discover, underlying feelings, attitudes, and emotions
concerning product, service, or brand use.
5. It is designed to uncover consumers of the subconscious or hidden motivation.
6. Marketing research is focused on what consumers do, but the focus of motivation research
is on why they do it.
7. Motivation research is an interdisciplinary science, psychologists, sociologists, and
anthropologist have made valuable contributions to the understanding of why people act
as they do in the Marketplace.

9.12 Need of Motivation Research

Aby‡cªiYv M‡elYvi cÖqRbxqZv
Limitations of marketing research have led to the development of motivation research. It may
provide quantitative data and information concerning various aspects of marketing operations but
cannot furnish qualitative data concerned with its consumers. The needs for motivation research
may be discussed under the following points:
1. To Understand Human Motives (gvby‡li D‡Ïk¨ †evSvi Rb¨): From the point of view of motives,
human behavior may be grouped into three categories.
a) At the first level, consumers recognize and are quite willing to talk about their motives
for buying a specific product.
b) At a second level, they are aware of their reasons for buying, but will not admit them to
others.
c) At the three Third Level, there are consumers who themselves do not know the real
factors motivating their buying actions.
It is easier to identify the motives falling in the first and second category, but the most difficult
motives to uncover are those of the third category.
Consumers in the first category reveal their feelings, views, and opinions openly.
The motives at the second and third levels may be identified only with the help of
suitable techniques of motivation research.
334 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

2. Psychoanalytical Understanding of Consumers Personality (†fv³v e¨w³‡Z¡i gb¯ÍvwË¡K

†evSvcov): In the psychoanalytic school of thought, there are three parts of the mind – the Id,
Ego, and Superego.
The ID houses the basic instinctive drives, many of them may be similar to animals.
The superego is our conscience, accepting moral standards and directing the instinctive
motives into acceptable channels, to avoid feelings of guilt and shame.
The id and superego sometimes may conflict. The ego is the conscience, rational control
center which maintains a balance between the uninhibited motives of the id and the socially
oriented constraining superego.
The study of ego is very important for marketing companies because it represents the practical
side of human behavior.
Also, there is Important to study consumer behavior.
Techniques of motivation research may provide great assistance in this regard.
3. Study of the Unconscious Mind of Consumers (†fv³vi A‡PZb g‡bi Aa¨qb): Studies have
shown that the unconscious mind may understand and respond to meaning and form of
emotional responses and guide most actions largely independent of conscious awareness.
The findings imply that despite the subjective belief of being in conscious control of their
feelings, thoughts, decisions, and actions, people are directed for more than they realize by
their subconscious and unconscious mind.
With the help of motivation research, marketing companies may study the unconscious mind
of consumers and anticipate prospective behavior up to some extent.
4. Development of New Products (bZyb cY¨ Dbœqb): Motivation research may provide a basic
orientation for new product categories.
With the help of motivation research, hidden needs of consumers may be identified, and the
marketing company may develop suitable products for this purpose.
5. Effective Promotional Campaign (Kvh©Ki cªPvig~jK cªPviYv): Based on the findings of
motivation research, the marketing company may design a good copy of the
advertisement consistent with appropriate appeals to motivate the consumers to purchase
products.
Motivation research enables the marketing company to explore and identify the ideas, opinions,
reactions of consumers regarding advertising copy and costly errors may be avoided at an early
stage.
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 335

9.13 Motivation Research Technique

Aby‡cªiYv M‡elYvi c×wZ
There are four techniques of conducting motivation research:
(a) Non-disguised Structured Techniques.
(b) Non-disguised, Non-structured Techniques.
(c) Disguised Non-structured Techniques.
(d) Disguised structured Techniques.
(a) Non-disguised Structured Techniques (A-QÙ‡ekx KvVv‡gvMZ †KŠkj): This approach employs a
standardized questionnaire to collect data on beliefs, feelings, and attitude from the
respondent.

 Single Question Method (GKK cªkœ c×wZ): It is a poor product.

 Multiple Questions Method (GKvwaK cªkœ c×wZ): (Numbers of questionnaires asked about
the attitude) and Physiological Tests (laboratory tests such as galvanic skin response,
eye movement etc. measure attitudes of people towards products) are carried out under
this approval.
(b) Non-disguised, Non-structured Techniques (A-QÙ‡ekx, A-KvVv‡gvMZ †KŠkj): These techniques
use a non standardized questionnaire. The techniques are also called depth interview,
qualitative interviews, unstructured interviews, or focussed interviews. All these techniques
are designed to gather information on various aspects of human behaviour including the
“why” component.
(c) Disguised, Non-structured Techniques (QÙ‡ekx A-KvVv‡gvMZ †KŠkj): In this approach, the
purpose of study is not discussed to respondents unlike above two cases. A list of unstructured
questions is used to collect data on consumer’s attitudes. This art of using disguised and
unstructured method is referred to as “Projective Techniques”.
The projective techniques include several tests given to the respondents. They may be asked
to give their comments on cartoons, pictures, stories etc. The stimuli used for this purpose are
capable of answering the respondent to a variety of reactions. A number of Projective
Techniques, are available to the market researchers for the purpose of analysing “why” part
of consumer behaviour.
Qualitative Techniques: The main Projective Techniques are:
336 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

1. Word Association Test (kã mwgwZKiY cix¶v) (W.A.I): The interviewer calls a series of
listed words one by one and the respondents quickly replies the first word that enters his
mind. The underlying assumption is that by “free associating” with certain stimuli
(words) the responses are timed so that those answers which the respondent “response
out” are identified.
2. Sentence Completion (evK¨ †kl Kiv): Sentence completion test is similar to word
association test except that the respondent is required to complete an unfinished
sentence.
For example, “I do not use shampoos because……..”
“Coffee that is quickly made…………. ”
3. Story Completion (Mí †kl Kiv): In this technique the respondent is asked to complete a
story, end of which is missing. This enables a researcher to find out the almost exact
version of images and feelings of people towards a company’s product. This helps in
finalising the advertising and promotional themes for the product in question.
4. Research Tests (M‡elYv cix¶v): Motivation Research employs this famous test. These
tests are not in much use in marketing research. The research test expresses in a classic
way the rationale behind all projective tests, that is, in filling the missing parts of a vague
and incomplete stimulus, the respondent projects himself and his personality into the
picture.
A lot of ink is put on the piece of paper and reference is made of company, product, and
the respondent is asked to give his view points after interpreting what he sees in the blot
before him. The respondent say, “ugly packaging of the product”, or “excellent
performance of the product”. This response will help the seller to finalise his marketing
strategies.
5. Psychographic Technique (g‡bvweÁvwbK †KŠkj): This includes galvanic skin response,
eye movement and eye blink test etc. which uses various Instruments with the
physiological responses.
6. Espionage Technique (¸ßPie…wË †KŠkj): There are two methods in this technique:

(i) Use of Hidden Recorders (†Mvcb bw_ e¨envi): Such as hidden tape recorders, cameras
used to watch consumers as they make purchases or consume items.
(ii) Rubbish Research (AveR©bv M‡elYv): This is another method of espionage activity.
Here, the researcher shifts through the garbage of individuals or groups and record
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 337

pattern of consumption, waste, and brand preference. It gives most required

estimates of consumption of cigarettes, medicines, liquor, and magazines etc.
(d) Disguised Structured Techniques (QÙ‡ekx KvVv‡gvMZ †KŠkj): When we are to measure those
attitudes which respondents might not readily and accurately express, we can use disguised
structured techniques. The disguised structured questionnaire are easy to administer and code.
Respondents are given questions which they are not likely to be able to answer accurately. In
such circumstances they are compelled to ‘guess at’ the answers. The respondent’s attitude
on the subject is assumed to be revealed to the extent and direction in which these guessing
errors are committed.

PERSONALITY THEORIES
e¨w³‡Z¡i ZË¡

9.14 Concept of Personality

e¨w³‡Z¡i aviYv
The personality implies psychological and social character that an individual acquires by
hereditary biological endowment which provides him the basis for development and social growth
of environment within which he springs forth.
The continuing process whereby the child is influenced by others (especially the parents) is called
socialisation. It is a course of learning whereby the child comes to act in accordance with the
special demands that membership in a certain society imposes upon him.
The term personality is used in various senses. Generally, it is used to indicate the external outlook
of an individual. In philosophy it means the internal quality. But in social psychology the term
personality indicates neither the external or outward pattern nor does it indicate the internal
quality. It means an integrated whole.
Though personality is static, it can change due to major events such as death, birth or marriage
and can also change gradually with time. By connecting with the personality characteristics of an
individual, a marketer can conveniently formulate marketing strategies.
1. Personality is defined as those inner psychological characteristics that both determine and
reflect how a person responds to his or her environment.
2. The emphasis in this definition is on inner characteristics—those specific qualities, attributes,
traits, factors, and mannerisms that distinguish one individual from other individuals.
3. The identification of specific personality characteristics associated with consumer behavior
has proven to be highly useful in the development of a firm’s market segmentation strategies.
338 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

9.15 The Nature / Properties of Personality

e¨w³‡Z¡i c«K…wZ / ‰ewkó¨
In the study of personality, three distinct properties are of central importance:
a) Personality reflects individual differences.
b) Personality is consistent and enduring.
c) Personality can change.
a) Personality Reflects Individual Differences (e¨w³Ë¡ e¨w³ cv_©K¨ c«wZdwjZ K‡i):

1. An individual’s personality is a unique combination of factors; no two individuals are

exactly alike.
2. Personality is a useful concept because it enables us to categorize consumers into
different groups on the basis of a single trait or a few traits.
b) Personality is Consistent and Enduring (e¨w³Z¡ mvgÄm¨c~Y© Ges ¯’vqx):

1. Marketers learn which personality characteristics influence specific consumer responses

and attempt to appeal to relevant traits inherent in their target group of consumers.
2. Even though an individual’s personality may be consistent, consumption behavior often
varies considerably because of psychological, sociocultural, and environmental factors
that affect behavior.
c) Personality can Change (e¨w³Z¡ e`jv‡Z cv‡i):

1. An individual’s personality may be altered by major life events, such as the birth of a
child, the death of a loved one, a divorce, or a major career change.
2. An individual’s personality also changes as part of a gradual maturing process.

 Personality stereotypes may also change over time.

 There is a prediction, for example, that a personality convergence is occurring
between men and women.

9.16 Foundations of Personality

e¨w³‡Z¡i wfwË
On the basis of various definitions it can be said that personality is founded on certain structures.
These are
1. Physiological structure of Personality,
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 339

2. Psychic structure of Personality and

3. Social and cultural structure of Personality .
These structures shape personality.
Physical and psychological qualities are innate. Social and cultural factors affect physiological
and psychological qualities. Personality is fabricated. Various structures that form the personality
are discussed below.
1. Physiological structure of Personality (e¨w³‡Z¡i MVwbK KvVv‡gv): Personality is heavily
influenced by physiology. The basis of this structure is established in the mother’s womb.
Internal and environmental factors impact the physiology. Heredity as well as social
environment influence the development of the physiological structure.
Heredity adds to IQ and mental qualities. These factors do influence the development of
personality, because they have a place in the society.
Heredity imposes several limitations and restrictions on the personality of an individual.
Culture is very much a gift of the heredity. This culture helps people adapt to different
situations.
Besides biological inheritance, in social heredity there is a transmission of personality
characteristics from one generation to another through pattern of relationship. Parental
psychogenetic influence, not germ plasm, is the transmission vehicle. Heredity may prove the
raw material, out of which experience moulds the personality.
2. Psychic Structure of the Personality (e¨w³‡Z¡i gvbwmK KvVv‡gv): The Psychic structure consists
of (a) attitudes (b) traits, (c) sentiments (d) feelings and emotions (e) values and ideals.
The attitudes influence the psychic structure and latter on, physiological structures.
Traits are inherent as well as the acquired qualities of an individual.
Sentiments and emotions play a very vital role in the development of the personality.
Emotions strongly influence human behaviour. Emotions are short – lived while sentiments
are permanent. Sentiments may be termed as permanent emotions. Feeling is again more
short-lived. Feelings become emotions. Feeling and emotion play a key part in the formation
of the personality of an individual.
Values and ideals also influence the development of personality to a large extent. Almost all
our behaviours are more or less guided by values and ideas.
3. Social and Cultural Structure (mvgvwRK I mvs¯‹…wZK KvVv‡gv): Every civilization has a culture of
its own and in the environment of such socio cultural backdrop, the personality of individual
340 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

develops in its own manner. The opinions of a person are significantly impacted by cultural
order. We find difference in the behaviour of individuals due to sociocultural environment.
Culture is important for personality development.
Experience is also important in personality formation. Experience makes man. The
experience are of two forms, one that the newborn receives in his group, for example family.
The parents being very intimate to the child make a deep impact of him. The youngster is
fashioned in his house like his parents. He picks up their patterns, manners and poise. Social
norms learned from parents and other socializers shape him.
Another set of experience he goes through, is the result of his interaction with others in the
context of a social situation. Children brought up in the same family may not have similar
experience. The change of social environment in family, variation attitude of parents towards
the children, the temper of playmates, school environment create the differing experience.
The personality that one have acquired also play a part in determining the impact of new
experience.

9.17 The Theories of Personality

e¨w³‡Z¡i ZË¡
There are three major theories of personality discussed in the chapter. They are:
A. Freudian theory.
B. Neo-Freudian personality theory.
C. Trait theory.
A. Freudian Theory (d«‡qWxq ZË¡):
1. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality is the cornerstone of modern
psychology.
2. This theory was built on the premise that unconscious needs or drives, especially biological
and sexual drives, are at the heart of human motivation and personality.
 Key Term psychoanalytic theory of personality (e¨w³‡Z¡i g~j kã g‡bvwe‡kølY ZË¡):

1. The Id is the “warehouse” of primitive and impulsive drives, such as: thirst, hunger, and
sex, for which the individual seeks immediate satisfaction without concern for the
specific means of that satisfaction.
2. Superego is the individual’s internal expression of society’s moral and ethical codes of
conduct.
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 341

a) The superego’s role is to see that the individual satisfies needs in a socially
acceptable fashion.
b) The superego is a kind of “brake” that restrains or inhibits the impulsive forces of
the id.
3. Ego is the individual’s conscious control which functions as an internal monitor that
attempts to balance the impulsive demands of the id and the sociocultural constraints of
the superego.
4. Freud emphasized that an individual’s personality is formed as he or she passes through
a number of distinct stages of infant and childhood development.
5. These distinct stages of infant and childhood development are: oral, anal, phallic, latent,
and genital stages.
6. An adult’s personality is determined by how well he or she deals with the crises that are
experienced while passing through each of these stages.
 Freudian Theory and Product Personality (d«‡qWxq cY¨-e¨w³Z ZË¡)

1. Those stressing Freud’s theories see that human drives are largely unconscious, and that
consumers are primarily unaware of their true reasons for buying what they buy.
2. These researchers focus on consumer purchases and/or consumption situations, treating
them as an extension of the consumer’s personality.

B. Neo-Freudian Personality Theory (wbq-d«‡qWxq e¨w³Z ZË¡¡):

1. Several of Freud’s colleagues disagreed with his contention that personality is primarily
instinctual and sexual in nature.
a) They argued that social relations are fundamental to personality development.
2. Alfred Adler viewed human beings as seeking to attain various rational goals, which he called
style of life, placing emphasis on the individual’s efforts to overcome feelings of inferiority.
3. Harry Stack Sullivan stressed that people continuously attempt to establish significant and
rewarding relationships with others, placing emphasis on efforts to reduce tensions.
4. Karen Horney focused on the impact of child-parent relationships, especially the individual’s
desire to conquer feelings of anxiety. She proposed three personality groups: compliant,
aggressive, and detached.
a) Compliant individuals are those who move toward others—they desire to be loved,
wanted, and appreciated.
342 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

b) Aggressive individuals move against others—they desire to excel and win admiration.
c) Detached individuals move away from others—they desire independence, selfsufficiency,
and freedom from obligations.
5. A personality test based on the above (the CAD) has been developed and tested.
a) It reveals a number of tentative relationships between scores and product and brand usage
patterns.
6. It is likely that many marketers have used some of these neo-Freudian theories intuitively.

C. Trait Theory (‰ewkó¨ ZË¡):

1. Trait theory is a significant departure from the earlier qualitative measures that are typical of
Freudian and neo-Freudian theory.
2. It is primarily quantitative or empirical, focusing on the measurement of personality in terms
of specific psychological characteristics called traits.
a) A trait is defined as any distinguishing, relatively enduring way in which one individual
differs from another.
3. Selected single-trait personality tests increasingly are being developed specifically for use in
consumer behavior studies. Types of traits measured include:
a) Consumer innovativeness—how receptive a person is to new experiences.
b) Consumer materialism—the degree of the consumer’s attachment to “worldly
possessions.”
c) Consumer ethnocentrism—the consumer’s likelihood to accept or reject foreign-made
products.
4. Researchers have learned to expect personality to be linked to how consumers make their
choices, and to the purchase or consumption of a broad product category rather than a specific
brand.

9.18 Five Key Dimensions of People’s Personalities

gvby‡li e¨w³‡Z¡i cvuPwU g~j gvÎv
The five key dimensions of people’s personalities, as explored by the Big Five Personality Traits
Model describes what makes different types of people tick and what essentially brings out the
worst in them (so to speak). Let’s explore the big 5 personality traits.
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 343

1. Openness (†Lvjv‡gjv): The Openess dimension refers to a person’s intellect or imagination.

This dimension is meant to assess a person’s creativity and desire to adapt to explore new
things. The dimension is meant to assess one’s openness to experience, such as; aesthetic
sensitivity, intellect, curiosity, etc. For example, if you’re looking to hire someone for a
creative job such as; a graphic designer, photographer or videographer, you might want
someone who prefers openness to new experiences. However, someone with a low score
might be considered as pragmatic and driven by conventional methods. There is some
argument regarding how to measure openness and its implications for this very reason.
2. Conscientiousness (m‡PZbZv): This implies the desire of an individual to do the task correctly.
Conscientiousness is the dimension for assessing one’s diligence, efficiency and the ability
to be organized. A high score for conscientiousness implies self-discipline. Whereas, a low
score implies spontaneous behavior and even a lack of reliability.
3. Extraversion (ewng©yLx): The Extraversion dimension measures if an individual is more open
to external interactions or prefer being low-key. Extroverts are perceived as people with high
energy levels, whereas introverts prefer more time alone and less stimulation.
4. Agreeableness: This trait reflects social harmony or the lack of it. Agreeable people are
considered as benevolent, trusting, helpful and willing to compromise for the greater good.
Whereas, disagreeable individuals are seen as selfish, skeptic and unfriendly.
5. Neuroticism: This is a measure of a person’s ability to feel negative emotions like anxiety,
and anger. In other words, Neuroticism measures a person’s emotional stability.

9.19 How to test consumers for their personality profile

†fv³vi e¨w³‡Z¡i †c«vdvBj Kxfv‡e cix¶v Ki‡e
Beyond understanding the concept of personality science, there are a few simple steps you should
consider when applying it to real consumers, such as:

1. Use the personality model (e¨w³Z¡ g‡Wj e¨envi): The personality model is a five-factor model
that encompasses five key characteristics of a person's personality. It ranks people high or
low on these five personality traits:

 Openness (Db¥y³Zv): Openness is correlated with characteristics such as creativity,

imagination curiosity and adventurousness. It can reveal how open someone is to new
experiences.
344 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

 Contentiousness (weZwK©ZZv): Contentiousness corresponds with traits like organization,

work ethic, dependability and self-discipline.

 Extraversion (ewng©yLx): Extraversion relates to qualities like friendliness, sociability and

activity level. It can reveal how outgoing someone is.
 Agreeableness (m¤§wZ): Agreeableness reveals how cooperative and compassionate
someone is and how well they're able to get along with others. It corresponds with traits
like being group-oriented, good-natured and helpful.

 Neuroticism (mœvqweKZv): Neuroticism relates to how reactive and emotional someone is.
It's associated with emotional stability, anxiety, depression and vulnerability.
This framework can be used to analyze and interpret various data collections.
2. Use web analytics (I‡qe we‡kølY e¨envi Kiæb): Web analytics is the measurement and analysis
of data on the behavior of visitors to a website. This data provides key information, including
where a person lives, their age, interests and overall consumer behavior. Web analytics can
yield an abundance of data, so it's important to recognize what information is most relevant
to your business objectives and effectively use it to guide decision making. Integrating web
analytics in your research can provide actionable insights that can help to clearly identify the
various personality segments that make up your consumer base.

3. Analyze digital footprint (wWwRUvj c`wPý we‡kølY Kiæb): Digital footprint refers to the available
information about a person as a result of their online activity. A person's digital footprint
includes:
 Browsing history
 Purchasing history
 Preferred social media platforms
 The type of content they engage with
 How they engage with content, including commenting, sharing and liking posts
Analyzing digital footprints can reveal behavioral tendencies and thinking patterns that
correspond with certain personality traits. They can provide detailed insight into the
psychology and personality of your target audience.

4. Use market segmentation (evRvi wefvRb e¨envi Kiæb): Market segmentation aims to divide an
entire consumer base into smaller groups, or segments, based on different criteria. Some
criteria researchers use are demographics, geography, psychology and behavior. Dividing
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 345

consumer bases into segments provides businesses with a more detailed look at the
personality traits that make up their target audience and helps them to avoid drawing
inferences based on generalizations.

5. Conduct surveys (mgx¶v cwiPvjbv Kiæb): Conducting surveys is one way to get to know your
customers better. It's important to formulate targeted questions that will provide you with
information that corresponds to your marketing needs. Surveys don't have to be extensive or
elaborate, and they can be delivered in many forms. Creating polls containing one or two
questions on social media platforms, for example, can provide you with valuable information
about specific personality traits and overall consumer behavior.

PERSONALITY IN CONSUMER BEHAVIOR RESEARCH

†fv³v AvPiY M‡elYvq e¨w³Z¡
9.20 Personality in Consumer Behavior Research
†fv³v AvPiY M‡elYvq e¨w³Z¡
Businesses and marketers can analyze and draw conclusions about their target audience by
applying personality science frameworks and theories to their data collections and research. The
detailed information derived from their data can be used to inform marketing strategies and drive
action accordingly. Here are ways you can integrate personality science into Consumer Behavior
Research:

1. Create customer profiles (MªvnK †cªvdvBj ˆZwi Kiæb): A customer or consumer profile is a
comprehensive document that provides a detailed and unique description of a company's ideal
customer based on gathered and analyzed data. It's typically presented as an in-depth
description of an actual person and goes into detail about various aspects of a potential
customer's lifestyle, including:
 Education level
 Occupation
 Values
 Goals
 Habits
 Hobbies
 Interests
346 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

 Pets
The specifications provided by customer profiles can provide direct insight on what a
consumer wants and how they want to attain it. With this information, you can improve the
performance of targeted messaging.

2. Deliver targeted communication (j¶¨hy³ †hvMv‡hvM cÖ`vb Kiæb): Understanding a person's

psychological patterns can reveal the preferred style and mode of your consumers.
Traditionally, business-to-consumer communication delivered one generalized message that
didn't take personality traits and their corresponding communication preferences into
consideration. One way to target communication is by creating variations of your messaging
that are tailored to the specific segments of your ideal customer. Consider the tone of any
language used, word choice and the means used for communicating.

3. Customize visual content (`„k¨gvb welqe¯‘ cÖ`vb Kiæb): Leverage the information derived from
your data to deliver compelling visual content most likely to resonate with your target
audience. Certain personality traits can reveal preferences with visual components such as
font styles, color schemes and the overall layout of content. It can also reveal which medium
they prefer to engage with, including images, videos or infographics.
4. Launch targeted campaigns (j¶¨hy³ cªPvivwfhvb Pvjy Kiæb): Targeted campaigns that are
representative of your consumer base can dictate every phase of their buying journey. A
detailed look into your target audience is essential in understanding the complete buying
process, starting from initial brand awareness to their decision to purchase your product or
service. Carefully curating strategies based on research is key in optimizing your marketing
efforts.

9.21 Self Concept

¯^-aviYv
Self-concept is defined as the way, in which we think, our preferences, our beliefs, our attitudes,
our opinions arranged in a systematic manner and also how we should behave and react in various
roles of life. Self-concept is a complex subject as we know the understanding of someone’s
psychology, traits, abilities sometimes are really difficult. Consumers buy and use products and
services and patronize retailers whose personalities or images relate in some way or other to their
own self-images
Traditionally, individuals are considered to be having a single self-image which they normally
exhibit. Such type of consumers are interested in those products and services which match or
 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 347

satisfy these single selves. However, as the world became more and more complex, it has become
more appropriate to think of consumers as having multiple selves.

9.22 Major Aspects of Self Concept

¯^ aviYvi cªavb w`K
The below are some of the major aspects of Self-concept

1. Self-Concept is Organized (¯^-aviYv msMwVZ nq): We all have various views about ourselves.
We all may think we are kind, calm, patient, selfish, rude and what not. It doesn’t matter what
perception you have about yourself, but the one perception that facilitates all these insights is
organized self concept. When a person believes in something that matches his self concept
he sticks to his view and does not agree to change the same and even if does, it takes a lot of
time.

2. Self Concept is Learned (¯^-aviYv †kLv nq): It is believed that self concept is learned and no
person is born with a self concept. It develops as and when we grow old. Our self concept is
built when we meet people socially and interact with them. We are the ones who shape or
alter our self concept and its quite natural that we may have a self concept different for
ourselves as compared to what people think about us.

For example − If an individual thinks, he is very generous and helpful, it may not necessarily
be the case with others. Others may see him as a selfish person.

3. Self Concept is Dynamic (¯^ aviYv MwZkxj): Our self concept in life is not constant and it may
change with instances that take place in our lives. When we face different situations and new
challenges in life, our insight towards things may change. We see and behave according to
the things and situations.

Thus, it is observed that self concept is a continuous development where we let go things that
don’t match our self concept and hold on those things that we think are helpful in building our
favorable perception.

Self concept is the composite of ideas, feelings, emotions and attitudes that a person has about
their identity and capabilities.
348 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

EXERCISE
1. Define Motive. (Point 9.02, Page 323)

2. Define Motivation. (Point 9.03, Page 324)

3. Define motive and motivation.

(Point 9.02, Page 323 and Point 9.03, Page 324) BBA 2013, 2014

4. What do you mean by consumer motivation? (Point 9.03, Page 324) BBA 2016, 2015

5. Define Personality. (Point 9.04, Page 325) BBA 2010

6. What is personality? (Point 9.04, Page 325) BBA 2014, 2012

7. What is hierarchy of consumer’s needs? (Point 9.05, Page 325)

8. What are the assumptions in hierarchy of needs theory? (Point 9.06, Page 326)

9. Explain different types / level of human needs. (Point 9.07, Page 327)

10. What is theories of motivation? (Point 9.08, Page 328)

11. Explain motivational theory and their marketing strategies. (Point 9.09, Page 331)

12. Show the application of motivation theory in preparing marketing strategy.

(Point 9.09, Page 331) BBA 2016

13. What is motivation research? (Point 9.10, Page 332)

 CHAPTER 9: MOTIVATION AND PERSONALITY ASPECTS OF CB 349

14. What are the characteristics of motivation research? (Point 9.11, Page 332)

15. Explain the importance or needs of motivation research. (Point 9.12, Page 333)

16. Show the application of motivation theory in preparing marketing strategy.

(Point 9.12, Page 333) BBA 2015

17. Why motivational research is needed? (Point 9.12, Page 333) BBA 2017

18. Explain the role of subconscious motivation in consumer behaviour.

(Point 9.12, Page 333) 2009

19. Explain different technique of motivation research. (Point 9.13, Page 335) BBA 2017, 2015

20. Discuss different techniques of motivational research. (Point 9.13, Page 335) BBA 2013

21. Describe different techniques of motivational research. (Point 9.13, Page 335) BBA 2012

22. Describe about different techniques of motivational research.

(Point 9.13, Page 335) BBA 2016

23. Explain the nature / properties of personality. (Point 9.15, Page 338)

24. Describe different properties of personality. (Point 9.15, Page 338) BBA 2012

25. Explain the foundations of personality. (Point 9.16, Page 338)

26. Explain the theories of personality. (Point 9.17, Page 340)

27. Explain the Personality trait theory. (Point 9.17, Page 340) BBA 2014
350 CONSUMER BEHAVIOR

28. Briefly explain any single theory of motivation with contemporary example.

(Point 9.17, Page 340) BBA 2014

29. Describe personality trait theory. (Point 9.17, Page 340) BBA 2010

30. What are the five key dimensions of people’s personalities? (Point 9.18, Page 342)

31. Give five examples of how personality traits can be used in consumer research.

(Point 9.18, Page 342) BBA 2014, 2010

32. How to test consumers for their personality profile? (Point 9.19, Page 343)

33. Explain the importance of personality in consumer behavior research.

(Point 9.20, Page 345)

34. What do you mean by self-concept? (Point 9.21, Page 346)

35. Discuss major aspects of self-concept. (Point 9.22, Page 347)