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Anthropology
Course Code: Anth101
Credit Hours: 3
 Definition, Scope and Subject Matter
of Anthropology

Anthropology is the study of people their origins,

their development, and contemporary variations,
wherever and whenever they have been found. It
is a broad scientific discipline dedicated to the
comparative study of humans as a group, from its
first appearance on earth to its present stage of
development. Of all the disciplines that study
humans, anthropology is by far the broadest in
scope.
 CONT…
In more specific terms, anthropology is a science which:

Investigates the strategies for living that are learned and shared by
people as members of human social groups;

Examines the characteristics that human beings share as members of

one species (homo sapiens) and the diverse ways that people live in
different environments;

Analyses the products of social groups -material objects (material

cultures) and non-material creations (religion/beliefs, social values,
institutions, practices, etc).
 Cont…
 Anthropology is an intellectually challenging, theoretically
ambitious subject, which tries to achieve an understanding of
culture, society and humanity through detailed studies of
community life, supplemented by comparison. At the deepest
level, it raises philosophical questions, which it tries to respond
to by exploring human lives under different conditions. It seeks
to explain how and why people are both similar and different
through examination of our biological and cultural past and
comparative study of contemporary human societies. Its
ultimate goal is to develop an integrated picture of humankind
a goal that encompasses an almost infinite number of questions
about all aspects of our existence. We ask, for example, what
makes us human? Why do some groups of people tend to be
tall and lanky, while others tend to be short and stocky? Why
do some groups of people practice agriculture, while others
hunt for a living?
 Cont…
 As a matter of simplicity and brevity, anthropology primarily
offers two kinds of insight.
 First, the discipline produces knowledge about the actual
biological and cultural variations in the world;
 Second, anthropology offers methods and theoretical
perspectives enabling the practitioner to explore, compare,
understand and solve these varied expressions of the human
condition.
 Scope and subject matter of anthropology
The breadth and depth of anthropology is immense. There no time
and space left as far as man exists. In other words, the temporal
dimension covers the past, the present and even the future. In terms
of the spatial dimension, anthropology studies from Arctic to
Desert, from Megapolis to hunting gathering areas. The discipline
covers all aspects of human ways of life experiences and existence, as
humans live in a social group.

It touches all aspect of human conditions as far as there is a

relation between human beings and natural environment and man
and man. Anthropology not only tries to account for the social and
cultural variation in the world, but a crucial part of the
anthropological project also consists in conceptualizing and
understanding similarities between social systems and human
relationships.
Cont…
 As one of the foremost anthropologists of the twentieth
century, Claude Lévi-Strauss, has expressed it:
‘Anthropology has humanity as its object of research, but
unlike the other human sciences, it tries to grasp its object
through its most diverse manifestations’. In other words,
anthropology studies humanity with its all aspects of
existence, and in its all means of differences (diversity)
and similarities (commonality). Where every human
being lives, there is always anthropology.
 The discipline is also accounting for the interrelationships
between different aspects of human existence, and usually
anthropologists investigate these interrelationships taking
as their point of departure a detailed study of local life in a
particular society or a delineated social environment.
 Sub-fields of anthropology
 Physical/Biological Anthropology
 Deals with tracing the biological origins, evolutionary changes
and the genetic diversity of the human species.
anthropology is the branch of anthropology
most closely related to the natural sciences, particularly
biology; that is why it is often called biological
anthropology. Human biology affects or even explains
some aspects of behavior, society, and culture like
marriage patterns, sexual division of labor, gender
ideology etc. The features of culture in turn have
biological effects like the standards of attractiveness, food
preferences, and human sexuality.
 Cont…
 Physical anthropology is essentially concerned with two broad
areas of investigation: .
is the study of the gradual processes of simple
forms into more differentiated structures in hominid. It is interested
in reconstructing the evolutionary record of the human species
using fossils/bones. Human evolution is further divided into two
specialties: Paleoanthropology and Primatology.
 Palaeoanthropology (paleo meaning “old”) is the study of human
biological evolution through the analysis of fossil remains from
prehistoric times to determine the missing link that connect modern
human with its biological ancestors.
 Primatology studies about primates or recent human ancestors to
explain human evolution. Primatologists study the anatomy and
social behavior of such non-human primate species as gorillas and
chimpanzees in an effort to gain clues about our own evolution as a
species.
Cont…
concerns to investigate how and why
the physical traits of contemporary human populations
vary throughout the world. It focuses to examine the
genetic materials of an organism such as DNA and RNA.
In addition, genetic studies are crucial in understanding –
how evolution works and plays important role in
identifying the genetic source of some hereditary disease
like sickle cell anemia and cystic fibrosis.
 Archaeological Anthropology
 Archaeological anthropology or simply archaeology studies the ways
of lives of past peoples by excavating and analyzing the material
culture/physical remains ( they left
behind.
are material remains made and used by the past peoples and
that can be removed from the site and taken to the laboratory for
further analysis. Tools, ornaments, arrowheads, coins, and fragments
of pottery are examples of artifacts.
are like artifacts, are made or modified by past people, but
they cannot be readily carried away from the site. Archaeological
features include such things as house foundations, ancient buildings,
fireplaces, steles, and postholes.
are non-artifactual, organic and environmental remains such
as soil, animal bones, and plant remains that were not made or altered
by humans; but were used by them. Eco-facts provide archaeologists
with important data concerning the environment and how people used
natural resources in the past.
 Cont…
 Archaeology has also its own subfields or areas of specialties. The
most important ones are -Prehistoric Archaeology and Historical
Archaeology.
 Prehistoric archaeology investigates human prehistory and
prehistoric cultures. It focuses on entire period between 6,000
years ago and the time of the first stone tools (the first artifacts),
around 2.5 million years ago, is called prehistory.
 Historic archaeologists help to reconstruct the cultures of people
who used writing and about whom historical documents have
been written. Historic archaeology takes advantage of the fact that
about 6,000 years ago, some human groups invented language and
began to write down things that can tell about the past.
 We Ethiopian have very glorious past. Area logical findings in
North, south, east and western part of the country have shown our
county belonged to those countries which have old civilization.
 Linguistic Anthropology
 Linguistic anthropology or anthropological linguistics studies
human language as a cultural resource and speaking as a cultural
practice in its social and cultural context, across space and time.
is basically a system of information transmission and
reception. Humans communicate messages by sound (speech), by
gesture (body language), and in other visual ways such as
writing. Analogous to genes that carry and transmit genetic
materials to offspring, languages hand down cultural traits from
one generation to another. In fact, some would argue that
language is the most distinctive feature of being human.
Although animals could develop certain behaviors through
conditioning that mimic to humans, they do not have a capacity
to pass on their own offspring. This is the boundary between
human beings and other animals including higher primates.
 Cont…
 Linguistic anthropology, which studies contemporary human
languages as well as those of the past, is divided into four distinct
branches or areas of research: Structural or Descriptive Linguistics,
Historical Linguistics, Ethno-Linguistics, and Socio-linguistics.
 Structural /Descriptive Linguistics: -studies the structure of
linguistic patterns. It examines sound systems, grammatical systems,
and the meanings attached to words in specific languages to
understand the structure and set of rules of given language. Every
culture has a distinctive language with its own logical structure and set
of rules for putting words and sounds together for the purpose of
communicating. In its simplest form, the task of the descriptive
linguist is to compile dictionaries and grammar books for previously
unwritten languages. For structuralist linguist or structural linguistic
anthropologist, even if there are thousands of human languages, at
least structurally all of them are similar making it possible for
everyone of us to grasp and learn languages other than our so called
‘mother tongue’.
 Cont…
 Ethno-linguistics (cultural linguistics): examines the
relationship between language and culture. In any language,
certain cultural aspects that are emphasized (such as types of
snow among the Inuit, cows among the pastoral Maasai, or
automobiles in U.S. culture) are reflected in the vocabulary.
Moreover, cultural linguists explore how different linguistic
categories can affect how people categorize their experiences,
how they think, and how they perceive the world around them.
 Historical linguistics: - deals with the emergence of language
in general and how specific languages have diverged over
time. It focuses on the comparison and classifications of
different languages to differentiate the historical links between
them.
 Cont…
 Socio-linguistics: -investigates linguistic variation within
a given language. No language is a homogeneous system in
which everyone speaks just like everyone else. One reason
for variation is geography, as in regional dialects and
accents. Linguistic variation also is expressed in the
bilingualism of ethnic groups.
 Linguistic anthropology generally focuses on the evolution
of languages. It tries to understand languages variation in
their structures, units, and grammatical formations. It
gives special attention to the study of unwritten languages.
Language is a key to explore a culture.
Socio-Cultural Anthropology
 It is also often called or
Socio-cultural anthropology is the
largest sub-fields of anthropology. It deals with human
society and culture. Society is the group of people who
have similar ways of life, but culture is a way of life of a
group of people. Society and culture are two sides of
the same coin. Socio-cultural anthropology describes,
analyzes, interprets, and explains social, cultural and
material life of contemporary human societies. It
studies the social (human relations), symbolic or
nonmaterial (religious, language, and any other
symbols) and material (all man-made objects) lives of
living peoples.
 Cont…
 Socio-cultural anthropologists engage in two aspects of study:
Ethnography (based on field work) and Ethnology (based on cross-
cultural comparison).
provides a comprehensive account of a particular
community, society, or culture. It describes the features of specific
cultures in as much detail as possible including local behavior,
beliefs, customs, social life, economic activities, politics, and
religion. These detailed descriptions (ethnographies) are the result
of extensive field studies (usually a year or two, in duration) in
which the anthropologist observes, talks to, and lives with the
people he or she is studying. During ethnographic fieldwork, the
anthropologist (ethnographer) gathers data that he or she
organizes, describes, analyzes, and interprets to build and present
that account, which may be in the form of a book, article, or film.
Cont…
is the comparative study of contemporary cultures and
societies, wherever they may be found. It examines, interprets,
analyzes, and compares the results of ethnography the data
gathered in different societies. It uses such data to compare and
contrast and to make generalizations about society and culture. In
other words, Ethnologists seek to understand both why people
today and in the recent past differ in terms of ideas and behavior
patterns and what all cultures in the world have in common with
one another. Looking beyond the particular to the more general,
ethnologists attempt to identify and explain cultural differences and
similarities, to test hypotheses, and to build theory to enhance our
understanding of how social and cultural systems work. Indeed, the
primary objective of ethnology is to uncover general cultural
principles, the “rules” that govern human behavior.
 Unique (Basic) Features of Anthropology
 Anthropology is unique in its , , and

 Anthropology has a broad scope. It is interested in all human

beings, whether contemporary or past, ''primitive'' or '' civilized''
and that they are interested in many different aspects of humans,
including their phenotypic characteristics, family lives, marriages,
political systems, economic lives, technology, belief, health care
systems, personality types, and languages. No place or time is too
remote to escape the anthropologist's notice.
 In its approach anthropology is holistic, relativistic, and focused
one. Holistic in a sense that it looks any phenomena from different
vantage points. Accordingly, anthropology considers culture,
history, language and biology essential to a complete
understanding of society. Anthropology seeks to understand human
beings as whole organisms who adapt to their environments
through a complex interaction of biology and culture.
 Cont…
 Anthropology's comparative perspective helps to
understand differences and similarities across time and
place. Another important perspective is a way of looking
at people's ideas. It considers insiders' views as a primary
focus of any anthropological inquiry. Anthropological
studies give attention to how people perceive themselves
and understand their world; how a particular group of
people explain about their action, or give meaning to their
behavior or cultural practices.
 Cont…
 Another important unique feature is its research approach.
Anthropology is highly dependent on qualitative research
to understand the meaning behind any human activity.
Extended fieldwork, participant observation, in-depth and
key informant interviews and focus-group discussion are
qualitative research instruments to explore information
change and continuities in human societies. Ethnographic
fieldwork is an important strategy is normally required to
spend a year or more with research subjects and document
realities occurring across time. For most anthropologists,
fieldwork is a process requiring them to ‘tune-in; hangout;
and hang-on’ to the societies and cultures whom they are
interested to study.
 Misconceptions about anthropology
 Due to lack of appropriate awareness about the nature,
scope and subject matter of the discipline, different
misconceptions are held about anthropology.
 Area of its study
 Only study the rural people and rural areas.
 The study/analysis of fossil evidences of the proto-humans
 Purpose of anthropology is to study in order to keep and
preserve communities
The Contributions of anthropology
 Lead us to the conclusion that our culture is just one
way of life among many found in the world and that it
represents one way (among many possible ways) to
adapt to a particular set of environmental conditions.
 Helps us better understand ourselves or our own ways
of life.
 Helps to understand the logic and justification behind
group behavior and cultural practices.
 Used as a tool for development. Paying attention to
local conditions, is crucial to solve community
problems.
 “a complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art,
morals, law, custom, and any other capabilities and habits
acquired by man as a member of society” (Edward B.
Tylor )
 B. Malinowski has defined culture “as cumulative
creation of man". He regarded culture as the handiwork of
man and the medium through which he achieves his ends.
 Robert Bierstedt says, “Culture is the complex whole that
consists of everything we think and do and have as
members of society.”
 Culture therefore, is moral, intellectual and spiritual
discipline for advancement, in accordance with the
norms and values based on accumulated heritage.
Culture is a system of learned behavior shared by and
transmitted among the members of the group.
 Culture is a collective heritage learned by individuals
and passed from one generation to another. The
individual receives culture as part of social heritage
and in turn, may reshape the culture and introduce
changes which then become part of the heritage of
succeeding generations.
Culture Is Learned
 Culture is not transmitted genetically rather; it is acquired through the process
of learning or interacting with one’s environment. More than any other species
human relies for their survival on behavior patterns that are learned. Human
have no instinct, which genetically programmed to direct to behave in a
particular way. This process of acquiring culture after we born is called
enculturation.
 Enculturation is specifically defined as the process by which an individual
learns the rules and values of one’s culture.
Culture Is Dynamic:
 There are no cultures that remain completely static year after year. Culture is
changing constantly as new ideas and new techniques are added as time passes
modifying or changing the old ways. This is the characteristics of culture that
stems from the culture’s cumulative quality.
 Culture Is Shared:
 For a thing, idea, or behavior pattern to qualify as being “cultural” it must have a
shared meaning by at least two people within a society. In order for a society to
operate effectively, the guidelines must be shared by its members. Without shared
culture members of a society would be unable to communicate and cooperates and
confusion and disorder world result.
 Culture Is Symbolic:
 Symbolic thought is unique and crucial to humans and to cultural learning. A
symbol is something verbal or nonverbal, within a particular language or culture
that comes to stand for something else. There need be no obvious, natural, or
necessary connection between the symbol and what it symbolizes.
 Culture Is All-Encompassing
 Culture encompasses all aspects, which affect people in their everyday lives.
Culture comprises countless material and non-material aspects of human lives.
Thus, when we talk about a particular people’s culture, we are referring to all of its
man- made objects, ideas, activities whether those of traditional, old time things of
the past or those created lately. Culture is the sum total of human creation:
intellectual, technical, artistic, physical, and moral; it is the complex pattern of
living that directs human social life, and which each new generation must learn
and to which they eventually add with the dynamics of the social world and the
changing environmental conditions.
Culture Is Integrated:
 Cultures are not haphazard collections of customs and beliefs. Instead, culture
should be thought as of integrated wholes, the parts of which, to some degree, are
interconnected with one another. When we view cultures as integrated systems, we
can begin to see how particular culture traits fit into the whole system and,
consequently, how they tend to make sense within that context.
 A culture is a system, change in one aspect will likely generate changes in other
aspects. A good way of describing this integrated nature of culture is by using the
analogy between a culture and a living organism. The physical human body
comprises a number of systems, all functioning to maintain the overall health of
the organisms, including among others, such system as the respiratory system, the
digestive system, the skeletal system, excretory system, the reproductive system,
and lymphatic system.
Culture Can Be Adaptive and Maladaptive:
 Humans have both biological and cultural ways of coping with environmental
stresses. Besides our biological means of adaptation, we also use "cultural adaptive
kits," which contain customary activities and tools that aid us.
 People adapt themselves to the environment using culture. The ability to adapt
themselves to practically any ecological condition, unlike other animals, makes
humans unique.
Material culture
 Material culture consist of man-made objects such as tools, implements,
furniture, automobiles, buildings, dams, roads, bridges, and in fact, the
physical substance which has been changed and used by man. It is
concerned with the external, mechanical and utilitarian objects. It
includes technical and material equipment. It is referred to as civilization.
Non – Material culture
 The term ‘culture’ when used in the ordinary sense, means ‘non-material
culture’. It is something internal and intrinsically valuable, reflects the
inward nature of man. Non-material culture consists of the words the
people use or the language they speak, the beliefs they hold, values and
virtues they cherish, habits they follow, rituals and practices that they do
and the ceremonies they observe. It also includes our customs and tastes,
attitudes and outlook, in brief, our ways of acting, feeling and thinking.
Some of the aspects of non-material culture listed as follows:
Values:
 Values are the standards by which member of a society define what is good or
bad, beautiful or ugly. Every society develops both values and expectations
regarding the right way to reflect them.
 Values are a central aspect of the nonmaterial culture of a society and are
important because they influence the behavior of the members of a society.
Beliefs
 Beliefs are cultural conventions that concern true or false assumptions, specific
descriptions of the nature of the universe and humanity’s place in it. Values are
generalized notions of what is good and bad; beliefs are more specific and, in
form at least, have more content. “Education is good” is a fundamental value in
American society, whereas “Grading is the best way to evaluate students” is a
belief that reflects assumptions about the most appropriate way to determine
educational achievement.
Norms
 Norms are another aspect of nonmaterial culture. Norms are shared rules or
guidelines that define how people “ought” to behave under certain
circumstances. Norms are generally connected to the values, beliefs, and
ideologies of a society.
Norms vary in terms of their importance to a culture, these are:
a) Folkway: Norms guiding ordinary usages and conventions of
everyday life are known as folkways. Folkways are norms that
are not strictly enforced, such as not leaving your seat for an
elderly people inside a bus/taxi. They may result in a person
getting a bad look.
b) Mores: Mores are much stronger norms than are folkways.
Mores are norms that are believed to be essential to core values
and we insist on conformity. A person who steals, rapes, and
kills has violated some of society’s most important mores.
People who violate mores are usually severely punished, although
punishment for the violation of mores varies from society to
society. It may take the form of ostracism, vicious gossip, public
ridicule, exile, loss of one’s job, physical beating, imprisonment,
commitment to a mental asylum, or even execution
Ethnocentrism: refers to the tendency to see the behaviors,
beliefs, values, and norms of one's own group as the only
right way of living and to judge others by those standards.
Cultural relativism: states that cultures differ, so that a
cultural trait, act, or idea has no meaning but its meaning
only within its cultural setting. Cultural relativism suspends
judgment and views about the behavior of people from the
perspective of their own culture.
Cultural relativism describes a situation where there is an
attitude of respect for cultural differences rather than
condemning other people's culture as uncivilized or
backward.
Respect for cultural differences involves:
❖ Appreciating cultural diversity;
❖ Accepting and respecting other cultures;
❖ Trying to understand every culture and its elements in
terms of its own context and logic;
❖ Accepting that each body of custom has inherent dignity
and meaning as the way of life of one group which has
worked out to its environment, to the biological needs of its
members, and to the group relationships;
❖ Knowing that a person's own culture is only one among
many; and
❖ Recognizing that what is immoral, ethical, acceptable,
etc, in one culture may not be so in another culture.
 Human rights: rights based on justice and morality beyond and
superior to particular countries, cultures, and religions. The idea of
human rights challenges cultural relativism by invoking a realm of
justice and morality beyond and superior to the laws and customs of
particular countries, cultures, and religions.
 Human rights include the right to speak freely, to hold religious
beliefs without persecution, and to not be murdered, injured, or
enslaved or imprisoned without charge. Such rights are seen as
inalienable (nations cannot abridge or terminate them) and
international (larger than and superior to individual nations and
cultures). A doctrine of universal human rights, which emphasizes
the rights of the individual over those of the community, would
condemn such killings.
 Anthropologists respect human diversity. Most ethnographers try to
be objective, accurate, and sensitive in their accounts of other
cultures. However, their objectivity, sensitivity and a cross-cultural
perspective got nothing to do with ignoring international standards of
justice and morality.
 Culture change can occur as a result of the following Mechanisms:
: The source of new cultural elements in a society may also be
another society. The process by which cultural elements are borrowed from
another society and incorporated into the culture of the recipient group is
called diffusion.
Diffusion is when two cultures trade with, intermarry among, or wage
war on one another.
Diffusion is when one culture subjugates another and imposes its
customs on the dominated group.
Diffusion is when items or traits move from group A to group C via
group B without any firsthand contact between A and C. In this case, group
B might consist of traders or merchants who take products from a variety of
places to new markets. Or group B might be geographically situated between
A and C, so that what it gets from A eventually winds up in C, and vice
versa. In today's world, much international diffusion is indirect-culture
spread by the mass media and advanced information technology.
 : Is the exchange of cultural features that
results when groups have continuous firsthand contact.
The cultures of either or both groups may be changed by
this contact. This usually happens in situations of trade or
colonialism. In situations of continuous contact, cultures
have also exchanged and blended foods, recipes, music,
dances, clothing, tools, and technologies.
is the process by which humans innovate,
creatively finding solutions to problems is a third
mechanism of cultural change. Faced with comparable
problems and challenges, people in different societies have
innovated and changed in similar ways, which is one reason
cultural generalities exist.
 The term globalization encompasses a series of processes,
including diffusion and acculturation, working to promote
change in a world in which nations and people are increasingly
interlinked and mutually dependent. Promoting such linkages
are economic and political forces, as well as modem systems
of transportation and communication. Due to globalization,
long-distance communication is easier, faster, and cheaper than
ever, and extends to remote areas. The mass media help propel
a globally spreading culture of consumption. Within nations
and across their borders, the media spread information about
products, services, rights, institutions, lifestyles, and the
perceived costs and benefits of globalization. Emigrants
transmit information and resources transnational, as they
maintain their ties with home (phoning, faxing, e-mailing,
making visits, and sending money). In a sense such people live
multilocally-in different places and cultures at once. They
learn to play various social roles and to change behavior and
identity depending on the situation.
 Marriage is a social process that creates new relationships by
transforming the status of the participants, stipulates the degree of
sexual access the married partners may have to each other, positions
children, and creates relationships between the kin of the partners.
 Sociologist define marriage as a socially support union involving two or
more individuals in what is regarded as a stable, enduring arrangement
typically based at least in part on a sexual bond of some kind.
 Marriage is a permanent legal union between a man and a woman. It is
an important institution without which the society could never be
sustained.
 Marriage may be defined as a socially acknowledged and approved
sexual union between two adult individuals. When two people marry,
they become kin one another; the marriage bond also, however, connects
together a wider range of kins people. Parents, sisters, brothers and other
blood relatives become relatives of the partner through marriage.
 Cultural expectations define appropriate potential marriage partners.
 People are sometimes expected to marry within religious communities, to
marry someone who is ethnically or racially similar or who comes from a
similar economic or educational background.
 Cultural norms, and often laws, identify people as suitable or unsuitable
marriage partners.
 Some of these forms of mate selection include:
 Endogamy: This is a marriage practice of selecting mates only from
within one’s own social group, especially from one’s own ethnic group.
 Exogamy: This is mate selection outside one’s social group or ethnic
group.
 Hypergamy: A marriage between a high class man and a low class
woman in society.
 Hypogamy: Marriage between a high class woman and a low class man.
 Homogamy: Mate selection based on similar characteristics between
couple such as; educational, religious and race affiliation.
 This is the rule by which a man is not allowed
to marry someone from his own social group.
 Such prohibited union is designated as incest. Incest is often
considered as sin.
 In rural areas of India, for example, people are expected to
marry someone of the same caste (endogamy) but from a
different village (exogamy). On the one hand, the logic of
endogamy is that people of similar position pass along their
standing to their offspring, thereby maintaining the traditional
social hierarchy. Exogamy, on the other, builds alliances and
encourages cultural diffusion.
There are some definite reasons for which practice of exogamy got
approval. They are:
 A conception of blood relation prevails among the members of a
group. Therefore, marriage within the group-members is
considered a marriage between a brother and sister
 Attraction between a male and female gets lost due to close
relationship in a small group.
 There is a popular idea that a great increase of energy and vigor is
possible in the progeny if marriage binds two extremely distant
persons who possess no kin relation among them.
 Kottak claimed also that exogamy has adaptive value, because it
links people into a wider social network that nurtures, helps, and
protects them in times of need pushing social organization
outward, establishing and preserving alliances among groups.
 : A rule of endogamy requires individuals to
marry within their own group and forbids them to marry
outside it.
Endogamy limits marriage prospects to others of the same age,
race, religion, or social class. Religious groups such as the
Amish, Mormons, Catholics, and Jews have rules of endogamy,
though these are often violated when marriage take place
outside the group. Castes in India and Nepal are also
endogamous. “Indeed, most cultures are endogamous units,
although they usually do not need a formal rule requiring
people to marry someone from their own society”.
A common form of preferred marriage is called preferential cousin
marriage and is practiced in one form or another in most of the
major regions of the world. Kinship systems based on lineages
distinguish between two different types of first cousins, these are:
Cross Cousins: are children of siblings of the opposite sex- that is
one’s mother’s brothers’ children and one’s father’s sisters’
children.
Parallel Cousins: When marriage takes place between the children
of the siblings of the same sex, it is called parallel cousin marriage.
are children of siblings of the same sex, namely the children of
one’s mother’s sister and one’s father brother. The mate may come
either from one’s father’s brother’s children or mother's sister’s
children.
 The levirate- is the custom whereby a widow is expected to marry
the brother (or some close male relative) of her dead husband.
Usually any children fathered by the woman’s new husband are
considered to belong legally to the dead brother rather than to the
actual genitor. Such a custom both serves as a form of social
security for the widow and her children and preserved the rights of
her husband’s family to her sexuality and future children.
 The sororate, which comes into play when a wife dies, is the
practice of a widower’s marrying the sister (or some close female
relative) of his deceased wife. In the event that the deceased
spouse has no sibling, the family of the deceased is under a general
obligation to supply some equivalent relative as a substitute. For
example, in a society that practice sororate, a widower may be
given as a substitute wife the daughter of his deceased wife’s
brother.
 In this kind of marriage, parents give out one of their
young daughters as a gift to their friends or patrons
without any consideration as a demonstration of
friendship, honor and total loyalty. In some African
societies, the chiefs or kings enjoyed this honor and
prerogative among subjects.
 Societies have rules regulating whom one may/may not marry;
they have rules specifying how many mates a person
may/should have.
 Monogamy: the marriage of one man to one woman at a time.
 Polygamy i.e. marriage of a man or woman with two or more
mates. Polygamy can be of two types:
 Polygyny: the marriage of a man to two or more women at a
time.
 Polyandy: the marriage of a woman to two or more men at a
time
 Sororal polygyny: Marriage of a man with two or more sisters
at a time. When the co-wives are not sisters, the marriage is
termed as non-sororal polygyny.
 Having two/more wives is often seen as a sign of
prestige.
 Having multiple wives means wealth, power, & status
both for the polygnous husband, wives and children.
 It produces more children, who are considered valuable
for future economic and political assets.
 Economic advantage: It encourages to work hard (more
cows, goats..) for more wives
 The Drawbacks of Polygyny: Jealousy among the co-
wives who frequently compete for the husband’s
attention.
Most societies view as a binding contract between at least the
husband and wife and, in many cases, between their respective
families as well. Such a contract includes the transfer of certain rights
between the parties involved: rights of sexual access, legal rights to
children, and rights of the spouses to each other’s economic goods
and services. Often the transfer of rights is accompanied by the
transfer of some type of economic consideration. These transactions,
which may take place either before or after the marriage can be
divided into three categories:
It is also known as bride wealth, is the compensation given upon
marriage by the family of the groom to the family of the bride.
When the groom works for his wife’s family, this is known as
bride service.
A dowry involves a transfer of goods or money in the opposite direction,
from the bride's family to the groom’s family.
 Where the newly married couple lives after the marriage ritual is
governed by cultural rules, which are referred to as post-marital
residence rule.
 Patrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the relatives
of the husband’s father.
 Matrilocal Residence: the married couple lives with or near the relatives
of the wife.
 Avunculocal Residence: The married couple lives with or near the
husband’s mother’s brother.
 Ambilocal/Bilocal Residence: The married couple has a choice of living
with relatives of the wife or relatives of the husband
 Neolocal Residence: The Married couple forms an independent place
of residence away from the relatives of either spouse.
 Duolocal or Natolocal: In this marital residence pattern, couples are
required to reside separately. This means that both husband and wife
stay in their families of orientation or in their different apartments and
only visit each other.
Family can be defined as the smallest group of individuals who see themselves as connected
to one another.

Family is a group of people related by ancestry, marriage or other committed sexual

relationship, or adopted and live together, form an economic unit, and rear their children.

Family is a social group whose members are related either through common ancestry or
marriage and are bound by moral and economic rights and duties.

Family is the basis of human society. It is the most important primary group in society. The
family, as an institution, is universal. It is the most permanent and most pervasive of all
social institutions.

•The family is a group of people related or connected by bloodline, marriage rite or adoption
•They share common residency. They live together.
•They share sentiments of oneness. They view themselves as a unit.
•They share values and responsibilities. Perform caretaking services for others especially the
very young.
 Types of family
Cultural anthropologists have identified two fundamentally different
types of family structure-the nuclear family and the extended family.
The Nuclear Family:
Consisting of husband and wife and their children, the nuclear family is
a two-generation family formed around the conjugal or marital union.
Even though the unclear family to some degree is part of a larger
family structure, it remains relatively autonomous and independent
unity.
The Extended Family
In societies based on extended families, blood ties are more important
than ties of marriage. Extended families consist of two or more families
that are linked by blood ties. Most commonly, this takes the form of a
married couple living with one or more of their married children in a
single household or homestead and under the authority of a family
head.
 Patriarchal Family: In this kind of family structure, decision
making authority and power lies in the hands of the man whether
be it a nuclear family, single family or an extended family. Male
headed households are obtainable in most societies; and in
absence of the man, the eldest son becomes the leader of the
household.
 Matriarchal Family: This is a female headed family. Here
authority is vested on the woman, resulting especially where the
man or husband of a woman has died, or when the men desert
their wives.
 Egalitarian Family: This describes an arrangement in the family
where power and decision-making authority are equally
distributed between the husband and wife. Due to education,
skills, paid employment for women, women emancipation
programmes in recent times, women now share equal authorities
with men in the family as they jointly contribute to the family
welfare etc.
 Family performs certain specific functions which can be
mentioned as follows:
 Biological Function: The institution of marriage and family
serves biological (sexual and reproductive) function.
 Economic Function: Marriage brings economic co-operation
between men and women and ensure survival of individuals in a
society.
 Social Function the institution of marriage brings with it the
creation and perpetuation of the family, the form of person to
person relations and linking once kin group to another kin
group.
 Educational and Socialization Function: The burden of
socialization (via processes of enculturation and education) of
new born infants fall primarily upon the family. In addition,
children learn an immense amount of knowledge, culture,
values prescribed by society, before they assume their place as
adult members of a society.
 kinship is a network of relations expressed in ties of obligations, claims
to resources, statutes, property rights, duties, power, privileges, authority
and obedience, social security, mutual assistance and sexual behavior
 Kinship ties are connections between individuals, established either
through marriage or through the lines of descent that connect blood
relatives (mothers, fathers, siblings, offspring, etc.).
 Kinship includes the terms, or social statuses, used to define family
members and the roles or expected behaviors family associated with
these statuses. Kinship encompasses relationships formed through
blood connections (consanguineal), such as those created between
parents and children, as well as relationships created through marriage
ties (affinal), such as in-laws. Kinship can also include “chosen kin,”
who have no formal blood or marriage ties, but consider themselves to
be family. Adoptive parents, for instance, are culturally recognized as
parents to the children they raise even though they are not related by
blood.
 Kinship is the method of reckoning relationship. In any
society every adult individual belongs to two different
nuclear families. The family in which he was born and reared
is called ‘family of orientation’. The other family to which
he establishes relation through marriage is called ‘family of
procreation’. A kinship system is neither a social group nor
does it correspond to organized aggregation of individuals. It
is a structured system of relationships where individuals are
bound together by complex interlocking and ramifying ties.
 kinship could be derived from four principles;
 Blood or consanguinity
 Marriage or affinity
 Adoption and
 Ritual or fiction
 Descent refers to the social recognition of the biological relationship that exists
between the individuals. The rule of descent refers to a set of principles by which an
individual traces his descent. In almost all societies kinship connections are very
significant. An individual always possesses certain obligations towards his kinsmen and
he also expects the same from his kinsmen. Succession and inheritance is related to this
rule of descent. There are three important rules of decent are follows;
Patrilineal descent When descent is traced solely through the male line, it is called
patrilineal descent. A man’s sons and daughters all belong to the same descent group by
birth, but it only the sons who continue the affiliation. Succession and inheritance pass
through the male line.
Matrilineal descent When the descent is traced solely through the female line. It is
called matrilineal descent. At birth, children of both sexes belong to mother’s descent
group, but later only females acquire the succession and inheritance. Therefore,
daughters carry the tradition, generation after generation.
Cognatic Descent In some society’s individuals are free to show their genealogical
links either through men or women. Some people of such society are therefore
connected with the kin-group of father and others with the kin group of mothers. There
is no fixed rule to trace the succession and inheritance; any combination of lineal link is
possible in such societies.
 UNIT FOUR
MARGINALIZED, MINORITIES, AND
VULNERABLE GROUPS
 Definition of concepts
 What is marginalization? Marginalization is defined as a
treatment of a person or social group as minor, insignificant or
peripheral. Marginalization involves exclusion of certain
groups from social interactions, marriage relations, sharing
food and drinks, and working and living together.
 Who are mostly marginalized? There are marginalized social
groups in every society and culture. Women, children, older
people, and people with disabilities are among marginalized
groups across the world. The nature and level of
marginalization varies from society to society as a result of
cultural diversity. Religious, ethnic, and racial minorities are
also among social groups marginalized in different societies
and cultures. Crafts workers such as tanners, potters, and
ironsmiths are marginalized in many parts of Ethiopia.
 What is vulnerability? Vulnerability refers to the state of being
exposed to physical or emotional injuries. Vulnerable groups are
people exposed to possibilities of attack, harms or mistreatment. As a
result, vulnerable persons/groups need special attention, protection
and support. For example, children and people with disabilities need
special support and protection as they are exposed to risks and
neglect because of their age and disabilities. Universities have
introduced special needs education for students with disabilities to
give them special support.
 Minority groups: The phrase ‘minority group’ refers to a small
group of people within a community, region, or country. In most
cases, minority groups are different from the majority population in
terms of race, religion, ethnicity, and language. For example, black
Americans are minorities in the United States of America. Christians
could be minorities in a Muslim majority country. Muslims can be
minorities in a predominantly Hindu society. Hence, minority groups
can be ethnic minorities, religious minorities, or racial minorities
in a given community, region of country.
 Gender-based marginalization
 Gender inequality involves discrimination on a group of people based on
their gender. Gender inequality mainly arises from socio-cultural norms.
The manifestations of gender inequality varies from culture to culture.
Girls and women face negative discrimination in societies across the
world. Women are exposed to social and economic inequalities involving
unfair distribution of wealth, income and job opportunities.
 Gender-based marginalization is a global problem. It involves exclusion
of girls and women from a wide range of opportunities and social
services. Gender disparities in education is a good example. Girls in
developing countries, especially those who live in remote and rural areas,
are excluded from formal education. The enrollment of girls in higher
education is much lower than that of boys. Women do not enjoy equal
employment opportunities. They do not have equal rights in terms of
property ownership and inheritance. Women and girls are also vulnerable
to gender-based violence such as rape, early/child marriage,
abduction/forced marriage, domestic violence and female genital
cutting/mutilation.
 There are some customary practices that affect the health and wellbeing
of girls and women. These practices collectively are called harmful
traditional practices (HTPs).
 Female genital mutilation (FGM) includes all procedures that
involve the partial or total removal of external genitalia or
other injury to the female genital organs (such as stitching of
the labia majora or pricking of the clitoris) for non-medical
reasons . In addition to having no health benefits, FGM
interferes with normal body functions and can have a negative
effect on several aspects of a girl’s or woman’s life, including
her physical, mental and sexual health and her relationship
with her husband or partner and other close family members.
 WHERE AND AT WHAT AGE IS
FGM PERFORMED?
 FGM is a global concern. To date, the practice is reported in 30
countries in Africa and in a few countries in Asia and the
Middle East. Some forms of FGM are also reported to occur
among certain ethnic groups in Central and South America, and
Eastern Europe. The rise in international migration has also
increased the number of girls and women living in the various
diasporas populations, including in Australia, Europe, New
Zealand and North America, and who have undergone or may
undergo the practice.
 The age at which girls experience FGM varies across countries
and cultural groups. In some communities, FGM is performed
before girls turn five years old, but in others, girls are cut when
they are between the ages of five and 14 years, or prior to
marriage.
 FGM is often seen as part of the history and cultural tradition of the community.
Community members, including the women, often support and continue the
practice because they see it as a sign of respect towards the elder members of the
community.

 In many cultures, FGM constitutes an important rite of passage into adulthood for
girls. Often the event is marked with a ceremony and/or celebration. It may be
considered a necessary step towards being viewed as a respectable adult woman.

 Where FGM is widely practiced, it is considered a social convention. Those who

adhere to the practice may be better accepted in their communities, while those
who do not may face condemnation, harassment and exclusion.

 In some practicing communities, women and men believe that if a woman is not
cut she will not be able to become pregnant or she may face difficulties during
labor.
 …
 There is often an expectation that men will marry only women who have undergone FGM.
The desire and pressure to be married, and the economic and social security that may come
with marriage, can perpetuate the practice in some settings.
,
 FGM is believed to safeguard a girl’s or woman’s virginity prior to marriage and ensure
fidelity after marriage. Therefore, families may believe that FGM protects a girl’s and her
family’s honor.

 In some communities, FGM is performed in order to make girls “clean” and beautiful.
Cleanliness may refer to the body; female genitals that are cut or closed are sometimes
seen as more hygienic and beautiful, but it may also refer to spiritual purity.

 The removal of genital parts that are considered masculine (i.e. the clitoris) is considered to
make girls more feminine, respectable and beautiful.

 Some communities believe that FGM is a religious requirement, and some religious leaders
may promote the practice, even though it is not mentioned in any major religious texts.
CLASSIFICATION OF FGM
 TYPE I
 Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans ( the external and visible
part of the clitoris, which is a sensitive part of the female genitals,
which is a sensitive part of the female genitals, with the function of
providing sexual pleasure to the woman), and/or the prepuce/clitoral
hood ( the fold of skin surrounding the clitoral glans).
 Type IA: removal of the prepuce/clitoral hood only.
 Type IB . Removal of the clitoral glans with the prepuce/clitoral hood.
 TYPE II
 Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia minora (the
inner folds of the vulva), with or without removal of the labia majora
(the outer folds of skin of the vulva).
 Type IIA. Removal of the labia minora only.
 Type IIB. Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans and the labia
minora (prepuce/clitoral hood may be affected).
 Type IIC. Partial or total removal of the clitoral glans, the labia minora
and the labia majora (prepuce/clitoral hood may be affected).
 Type III. (Often referred to as infibulations).
 Narrowing of the vaginal opening with the creation of a
covering seal. The seal is formed by cutting and
repositioning the labia minora, or labia majora. The
covering of the vaginal opening is done with or without
removal of the clitoral prepuce/clitoral hood and glans
(Type I FGM).
 Type IIIA. Removal and repositioning of the labia
minora.
 Type IIIB. Removal and repositioning of the labia majora.
 Type IV. All other harmful procedures to the female
genitalia for non-medical purposes, for example pricking,
piercing, incising, scraping and cauterization.
 Marginalized occupational groups

According to anthropological findings, there are occupational marginalized

groups in many parts of Ethiopia. The following are marginalized occupational
groups in our country: tanners, potters, weavers and ironsmiths. These craft-
workers have different names in different parts of the country. Craft-workers
such as potters and tanners are considered as impure and excluded from social
interactions, ownership of economic resources (e.g., land), and participation
in associations and celebrations.

Marginalized occupation groups are people engaged in craftworks such as pottery, tannery,
and iron works. Craft-workers in Ethiopia produce several articles such as traditional hand-
woven clothes, household utensils, and farm tools. Crafts workers lead a life of paradoxes.
They have important contributions to their communities; however, they are marginalized by
the dominant and majority groups. For examples, weavers produce cultural clothes highly
demanded by thousands and millions of people. Many people use cultural clothes during
annual celebrations, religious holidays, weddings, culture days, and mourning. The demand of
cultural dresses has been increasing in the last three decades. People dress cultural clothes in
different occasions such as cultural festivals, days of nations and nationalities, and religious
celebrations. Despite their contributions, weavers are marginalized from the wider society.
 Major types of marginalization in Ethiopia
Spatial marginalization
Craft-workers settle/live on the outskirts of villages, near to forests, on poor land, around steep
slopes.
They are segregated at market places (they sell their goods at the outskirts of markets).
When they walk along the road, they are expected to give way for others and walk on the lower side
of the road.
Economic marginalization
Craft-workers are excluded from certain economic activities including production and exchanges. In
some cultures they are not allowed to cultivate crops.
They have a limited access to land and land ownership.
Social marginalization
Craft-workers are excluded from intermarriage, they do not share burial places with others; they are
excluded from membership of associations such as iddirs.
When marginalized groups are allowed to participate in social events, they must sit on the floor
separately-sometimes outside the house or near the door.
Cultural marginalization
Occupational minorities are labeled as impure and polluting; they are accused of eating animals that
have died without being slaughtered;
Occupational minorities are also considered unreliable, lacking morality, respect and shame.
 Age-based vulnerability
 What is age-based vulnerability? Age-based vulnerability
is susceptibility of people, especially children and older
people, to different forms of attack, physical injuries and
emotional harms. For example, children and older people
(people aged 60 and above) are exposed to possibilities of
attack, harm and mistreatment because of their age. As a
result, vulnerable persons/groups need special attention,
protection and support.
 Children: Discrimination/vulnerability
 Children are among vulnerable groups exposed to harm because of their age. Both
boys and girls are exposed to some harm and abuse in the hands of older people.
However, girls are exposed to double marginalization and discrimination because of the
gender. Child girls are exposed to various kinds of harm before they reach at the age of
maturity.
Early/child marriage: Early marriage refers to marriage which involves girls below
the age of 18. The prevalence of early marriage is declining in Ethiopia and other
African countries. However, it is still widely practiced in different regions of Ethiopia.
According to international human rights conventions, early marriage is regarded as
violation of the rights of the child. Early marriage has the following major harmful
consequences:
 Young girls enter into marital relation when they are too young to give their consent
to get married.
 inhibits girls' personal development; it hinders girls’ chance to education and future
professional development.
 exposes young girls to sexual abuse by their older husbands.
 leads to early pregnancies, which increases risks of diseases and complications
during delivery, fistula, and death of the mother or child.
 Factors encouraging early marriage
 : Social norms contribute a lot for the
continuation of early marriage in many parts of the world.
Chastity of girls is one of the social norms that influence
parents and relatives to protecting girls from pre-marital sex.
The value attached to virginity is another driver of early
marriage. Girl’s reputation and family social status are
associated with sexual purity of girls. Parents incline to marry
off their daughter before the girl reach at the stage of poverty
to avoid the possibility of pre-marital sex and love affair.
 are among the major factors that drive child
marriage. In many areas of Ethiopia marriage provides
economic security for young girls. Hence, parents, in some
cases girls, support early marriage for economic benefits such
as access to land and other resources. Parents’ desire to get a
good husband for their daughter is also another reason.
 Marginalization of older persons
 The phrase ‘older people’ refers to adults with the age of 60 and above. The
number of older people is increasing globally. According to the estimation of the
United Nations (2009), the number of older people will increase to 2 billion by
2050. Eighty percent of the 2 billion older persons would live in low and middle-
income countries. This means Africa would have a large number of older adults
after 30 years. Ethiopia, the second populous country in Africa, would also have
millions of older persons after three decades.
 Ageism is a widely observed social problem in the world. Ageism refer to
stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination against people based on their age.
Older women and men enjoyed a certain level of support and respected in the
past. This was true in many cultures of Ethiopia in the past. Things have been
changing in recent times. Older people are facing various problems as a result of
modernization, globalization, and urbanization. Older people are exposed to
social exclusion because of their lower social and economic status. In most cases,
older people are excluded from social, cultural, political and economic
interactions in their communities. Older persons are marginalized because they
are considered as social burden rather than social assets. Communities do not
provide older persons with opportunities to contribute to their communities.
 Religious and ethnic minorities
 Religious and ethnic minorities groups also face different forms of
marginalization. There are several examples of marginalization and
discrimination targeting religious and ethnic minorities in the world. Let
us mention two examples.
 The Jewish people suffered from discrimination and persecution in
different parts of the world. They were targets of extermination in
Germany and other Western European countries because of their identity.
 Muslim Rohingyas are among the most marginalized and persecuted
people in the world. According to Abdu Hasnat Milton et al (2017), the
Rohingya are ‘one of the most ill-treated and persecuted refugee groups in
the world’. In recent years, more than half-a-million Rohingyas fled from
their homes in Nyanmar to neighboring countries such as Bangladesh.As
people living in refugee camps, the Rohingyas are vulnerable to problems
such as malnutrition and physical and sexual abuse.
 These are among the widely known examples of discrimination against
religious and ethnic minorities. The problem is not limited to specific
areas, regions or countries. Although the level of the problem varies in
different contexts, religious and ethnic minorities face different forms of
discrimination in many parts of the world.
 Human right approaches and inclusiveness:
Anthropological perspectives
 All forms of marginalization and discrimination against
vulnerable and minority groups contradict the principles
of human rights. The major human rights conventions
denounce discrimination against women, children, people
with disability, older people and other minority and
vulnerable groups. People with disabilities have the right
to inclusive services and equal opportunities. The human
rights of women and girls include right to be free from
harmful traditional practices such as forced marriage,
early marriage, and female genital cutting. Any form of
discrimination, exclusion, and gender-based violence also
violate the human rights girls and women.
 Unit Five
Identity, Inter-Ethnic
Relations and
Multiculturalism in
Ethiopia
 IDENTITY, ETHNICITY AND RACE:
IDENTIFICATION AND SOCIAL
CATEGORIZATION

What is Ethnicity?

Boundary/Ascription
as a Defining Feature Culture as a Basic Defining
Feature of Ethnicity
of Ethnicity
 CULTURE AS A BASIC DEFINING FEATURE
OF ETHNICITY

The criteria which constitute ethnicity vary. For a long time it was
common to equate ethnic groups with cultural groups; any category of
people who had a shared culture was considered as an ethnic group.
However, this position has become difficult to justify. This is because;
the sharing of cultural traits frequently crosses group boundaries
and, moreover, people do not always share all their ‘cultural traits’
with the same people. One may have the same language as some
people, the same religion as some of those as well as of some others,
and the same economic strategy as an altogether different category of
people. In other words, cultural boundaries are not clear-cut, nor do
they necessarily correspond with ethnic boundaries.
. If a setting
is wholly mono-ethnic, there is effectively no ethnicity, since there is
nobody there to communicate cultural difference to.
 The Ethiopian constitutional triplet of "Nations, Nationalities, and
Peoples" (the Amharic behieroch, behiereseboch, ena hezboch) are
defined in Article 39 of the Federal Constitution defines as: "a
group of people who have or share a large measure of a common
culture, or similar customs, mutual intelligibility of language, belief
in a common or related identity, and who predominantly inhabit an
identifiable, contiguous territory.“
 There are three main kinds of ethnic community in the historical
record. These are: ethno linguistic communities, in which language
is the most salient and vital element in the definition of ethnicity
and the mobilization of ethnic sentiments; ethno-religious
communities, which have been defined and have defined
themselves, primarily in terms of religious beliefs, practices, and
symbols; and ethno-political communities, that have defined
themselves, and been defined, by historical memories and political
traditions
 BOUNDARY/ASCRIPTION AS A
DEFINING FEATURE OF ETHNICITY

Ethnic group is a group of people who identify with one another, or are so identified by
others, on the basis of a boundary that distinguishes them from other groups. Fredrik
Barth (1969a) argues that: the focus ought to be the boundaries which delimit the group and
not the ‘cultural stuffs’ it encloses. Cultural variation may be an effect and not a cause of
boundaries. If the mutual dichotomization between two groups (that were formerly same
group) continues and the national borders between their states become permanent, it is
likely that languages as well as other aspects of culture of the two will gradually become
more distinctive.

In other words, an ethnic group is defined through its relationships to others,

highlighted through the boundary. Ethnicity refers to aspects of relationships between
groups whose members consider themselves, and are regarded by others, as being culturally
distinctive. When cultural differences regularly make a difference in interaction between
members of groups, the social relationship has an ethnic element. There is no ethnicity
unless groups have a minimum of contact with each other and entertain ideas of each other
as being culturally different from themselves. Ethnicity is categorical as ascriptions between
‘Us’ and ‘Them’.
 CONT…
 All approaches agree that ethnicity has something to do with the
classification of people and group relationships. Ethnicity is the
application of systematic distinctions between insiders and
outsiders; between and . Dichotomization between
insiders and outsiders; the process of self-ascription/attribution and
ascription by others shapes the process of interaction among groups.
If no such principle (social contact) exists there can be no ethnicity.
However, ethnic boundary may change through time; it may shrink or
expand, blurred or glared depending on situations and contexts. The
compass of the ‘We’ category may expand and contract according to
the situation. Depending on situations, different levels of group
membership could be activated. There are different Us and Them
groups. In some cases, ethnic identities are imposed from outside, by
dominant groups, on those who do not themselves want membership
in the group to which they are assigned.
 In spite of the difference in scholarly views of ethnicity among
anthropologists, the 'basic social anthropological model of
ethnicity' can be summarized as follows:
 Ethnicity is a matter of cultural differentiation - although, to
reiterate the main theme of social identity (Jenkins 2004),
identification always involves a dialectical interplay between
similarity and difference.
 Ethnicity is centrally a matter of shared meanings - what we
conventionally call 'culture' - but is also produced and reproduced
during interaction.
 Ethnicity is no more fixed or unchanging than the way of life of
which it is an aspect, or the situations in which it is produced and
reproduced.
 Ethnicity, as an identification, is collective and individual,
externalized in social interaction and the categorization of others,
and internalized in personal self-identification.
ETHNIC GROUPS AND ETHNIC IDENTITY
 Some social anthropologists use to define ethnic groups basically
based on , others mainly depend on
, and still some others use a and
ethnic elements.
 Smith (1986) defined ethnic groups as a named human
population (a collective name) with myths of common
ancestry/descent, shared historical memories, elements of
common/shared culture, a link with a homeland (specific
territory) and a sense of solidarity among at least some of its
members.
 Max Weber (1968 ) defined ethnic groups as human groups that
entertain a subjective belief in their common descent because of
similarities of physical types or customs or both, or because of
memories of colonization and migration (Weber 1968). Some
ethnic groups may be marked by shared culture; some others
may be defined by shared religion, language, and/or customs.
Nonetheless every ethnic group tends to have notions of common
ancestry justifying their unity.
 For Isajiw (1992), ethnic group refers to either a community-type
group of people who share the same culture or to descendants of
such people who may not share this culture but who identify
themselves with this ancestral group.
By considering the various definitions of ethnicity, Hutchinson and Smith (1996)
identified six main features that are predominantly constituted in the definition of
an ethnic group:

1. A common proper name, to identify and express the “essence” of the community;

2. A myth of common ancestry that includes the idea of common origin in time and place and
that gives an ethnic group a sense of fictive kinship;

3. Shared historical memories, or better, shared memories of a common past or pasts,

including heroes, events, and their commemoration;

4. One or more elements of common culture, which need not be specified but normally,
include religion, customs, and language;

5. A link with a homeland, not necessarily its physical occupation by the ethnic group, only
its symbolic attachment to the ancestral land, as with Diaspora peoples;

6. A sense of solidarity on the part of at least some sections of the ethnic’s population.
 ETHNIC IDENTITY
Ethnic identity is an affiliative construct, where an individual is
viewed by themselves and by others as belonging to a particular
ethnic or cultural group. An individual can choose to associate with a
group especially if other choices are available (i.e., the person is of
mixed ethnic or racial heritage). Affiliation can be influenced by
racial, natal, symbolic, and cultural factors (Cheung, 1993).
Racial factors involve the use of physiognomic and physical
characteristics, natal factors refer to "homeland" (ancestral home) or
origins of individuals, their parents and kin, and symbolic factors
include those factors that typify or exemplify an ethnic group (e.g.,
holidays, foods, clothing, artifacts, etc.). Symbolic ethnic identity
usually implies that individuals choose their identity, however, to
some extent the cultural elements of the ethnic or racial group have a
modest influence on their behavior.
 CONT…
 Ethnic identity can be defined as a manner in which persons, on
account of their ethnic origin, locate themselves psychologically
in relation to one or more social systems, and in which they
perceive others as locating them in relation to those systems. By
ethnic origin is meant either that a person has been socialized in an
ethnic group or that his or her ancestors, real or symbolic, have
been members of the group. The social systems may be one's
ethnic community or society at large, or other ethnic communities
and other societies or groups, or a combination of all these
 External aspects refer to , both cultural and
social, such as (1), speaking an ethnic language, practicing ethnic
traditions, (2), participation in ethnic personal networks, such as
family and friendships, (3), participation in ethnic institutional
organizations, such as churches, schools, enterprises, media (4),
participation in ethnic voluntary associations, such as clubs,
'societies,' youth organizations and (5) participation in functions
sponsored by ethnic organizations such as picnics, concerts, public
lectures, rallies, dances.
 The internal aspects of
We can distinguish at least three types of
internal aspects of identity: (1) cognitive, (2) moral, and (3)
affective.
 The of EI include the self image of the people
towards their own ethnic group; and the knowledge of ethnic members
about their heritage and historical past.
 The of EI is basically associated with the feeling of
group obligation in the form of the importance a person attaches to
his/her group. Eg., of teaching the ethnic language to one’s children, of
helping members of the group in times of difficulty.
 The of EI constitutes the feeling of attachment to
one’s group which can be manifested in the associative preference for
members of one’s group & the feeling of security and comfort with the
cultural patterns of the group.
 Le (2009) also identified two forms of ethnic identity. The first is
“resurgent ethnic identity” in which the traditional or ancestral
identities reemerge through historical events and particular
circumstances.
 The other is “emergent ethnic identity” which involves the creation of
new forms of group identity due to the convergence of particular
circumstances. “More specifically, because of demographic changes or
competition and conflict with other groups, a new ethnic identity based
on group solidarity and similarity of experiences might form”.
 RACE –THE SOCIAL CONSTRUCTION OF RACIAL
IDENTITY
 Race is an elusive concept like ethnicity –used in a variety of
contexts and meanings; sometimes interchangeably with ethnicity,
where the relationship between the two concept remain complex.
When first appeared, ethnicity/ethnic identity was used in synonym
with race or racial identity, which complicated their relation.
Moreover, the boundary between the two concepts is historically
variable; what was 'racial' before 1945 may be more publicly
acceptable as 'ethnic' today. Race/racial identity as a social
construction of group categorization and identification, and come up
with the significant distinctions among the races and the major
difference between race/racial identity and ethnicity/ethnic identity.
 Race is the idea that the human species is divided into distinct
groups on the basis of inherited physical and behavioral difference.
 Race generally refers to a group of people who have common some
visible physical trait, such as skin colors, hair texture, facial features
and eye formation.
 RACIAL CLASSIFICATION: A SHORT HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
 For some time, it was common to divide humanity into four main
races, which recognized both on the scientific and folk notions of
the concept. In this regard, race was used both as a system of
human classification and social stratification as follows:
 Europeaeus: White; muscular; hair – long, flowing; eyes blue –
Acute, inventive, gentle, and governed by laws.
 Americanus: Reddish; erect; hair – black, straight, thick; wide
nostrils – Obstinate, merry, free, and regulated by custom.
 Asiaticus: Sallow (yellow); hair black; eyes dark – Haughty,
avaricious, severe, and ruled by opinions.
 Africanus: Black; hair –black, frizzled; skin silky; nose flat; lips
tumid – Crafty, indolent, negligent, and governed by caprice or the
will of their masters.
 ‘Race’ is human groups defined by itself or others as distinct by
virtue of perceived common physical characteristics that are held to
be inherent. In this sense of the concept, race is a group of human
beings socially defined on the basis of physical traits. At this level,
concept of race would be important to the extent that it will inform
people's actions; where it exists as a cultural construct, whether it
has a "biological" reality or not.
 Racism, obviously, builds on the assumption that personality is
somehow linked with hereditary characteristics, which differ
systematically between "races", and in this way race may assume
sociological importance even if it has no "objective" existence.
Social scientists who study race relations need not themselves
believe in the existence of race, since their object of study is the
social and cultural relevance of the notion that race exists. Hence, in
societies, where they are important, ideas of race may therefore, be
studied as part of local discourses on ethnicity.
 ‘Racial group’ is a group of people, defined by itself or others as
distinct by virtue of perceived common physical characteristics that
are held to be inherent.
 Many scholars argued that while there is much overlap between
race and ethnicity, they are distinct concepts that need to be
distinguished. For example,
 a) Max Weber (1922): proposed that a blood relationship was
necessary for racial identification but not for ethnic identification.
 b) John Rex (1973): explained that ethnicity is a wider
classificatory or organizational principle than 'race'. In the case of
ethnic groups, a far wider set of situations are based upon cultural
differentiation of groups than those which are commonly called
racial. But, few of ethnic groups have anything like the same
conflictual consequences like racial situations do. That means, few
ethnic conflicts are as bloody as 'racial' ones.
 C) Gerald Berreman (1972, 1981): viewed ethnicity as something
linked in a dichotic relationship with race:
 racial stratification/ categorizations is associated with birth-ascribed
status based on physical and cultural characteristics defined by outside
groups.
 ethnicity is also ascribed at birth, but the ethnic group normally defines
its cultural characteristics itself.
 Thus, racial categorizations are normally laced with inaccuracies and
stereotypes, while ethnic classification is normally more accurate of a
cultural group because it is defined by the group itself. Yet, ethnic
classifications can also be defined and used by outside groups to
stereotype an ethnic community in ways that are often oversimplified and
that view ethnicity as a static cultural group. Some scholars claim that the
external ethnic boundaries [i.e. the boundaries that are defined from the
outside] are the source of racial distinctions and of race as a group
phenomenon. That means, race is a response to external categorization
and exclusion and whatever internal dynamics race generates, it is always
a response to external exclusion rather than to internal identity generating
forces.
 THEORIES OF ETHNICITY: PRIMORDIALISM,
INSTRUMENTALISM AND SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM

Perspective Description

Primordialist Ethnicity is fixed at birth. Ethnic identification is

approach based on deep, ‘primordial’ attachments to a group
or culture.
Instrumentalist Ethnicity, based on people’s “historical” and
approach “symbolic” memory, is something created and
used and exploited by leaders and others in the
pragmatic pursuit of their own interests.
Constructivist Ethnic identity is not something people “possess”
approach but something they “construct” in specific social
and historical contexts to further their own
interests. It is therefore fluid and subjective.
 THE PRIMORDIALIST PERSPECTIVE ON ETHNICITY &
ETHNIC IDENTITY
 Primordialism is the idea that nations or ethnic
identities are fixed, natural and ancient. They argued
that individuals have a single ethnic identity which is
not subject to change and which is exogenous to
historical process.
 In the extreme case, ethnicity is treated as an extension
of a pre modern social bond, an innate aspect of human
identity, something that people are born with where
attachment among ethnic members and its persistence
is attributed to the ties of blood.
 CONT…
 Another version of the primordial perspective primarily equates
ethnicity with culture. An enduring character of ethnicity is
viewed as the outcome of cultural and linguistic features.
Ethnicity is treated as something we are socialized into through
which the cultural meanings related to ethnicity (e.g. language,
history, and values) develops into durable tendencies and become
self-evident frame of reference. This latter version of
primordialism views cultural ties as indefinable with a deeper
psychological effect on members of the group. In general, the
primordial theory argues that there is something fundamental
about the nature of ethnicity that ties individuals together and
provides a sense of communal anchorage and protection lacking in
other forms of organization.
 Clifford Geertz (1973): who systematized the primordial
model articulated ethnicity as a natural phenomenon with its
foundations in primordial ties deriving mainly from kinship,
locality and culture. He recognizes the role of culture in
defining the primordial 'givens' that strength of such
primordial bonds, and the types of them [i.e. primordial
bonds] that are important differ from person to person, from
society to society, and from time to time. What matters
analytically is that ties of blood, language and culture are seen
by actors to be indefinable and obligatory; that they are seen
as natural. Geertz argues that in some respects these putative
'primordial attachments' are actually likely to be stimulated
and quickened by the political modernization of nation-
building. In its general sense then, it can be said that ethnicity
is something given, ascribed at birth, deriving from the kin-
and-clan-structure of human society, and hence something
more or less fixed and permanent
 Anthony D. Smith (1986) also theorized the defining elements of
ethnic identification as psychological and emotional, emerging from
a person’s historical and cultural backgrounds. He illustrated that
the ‘core’ of ethnicity resides in the myths, memories, values,
symbols and the characteristic styles of particular historic
configurations, i.e., what he calls ‘a myth symbol complex’. The
durability of the ethnie (ethnic group) resides in the forms and
content of the myth-symbol complex. Of pivotal importance for the
survival of the ethnie is the diffusion and transmission of the myth-
symbol complex to its unit of population and its future generations.
He emphasizes the “extraordinary persistence and resilience of
ethnic ties and sentiments, once formed” and argues that they
[ethnic ties and sentiments] are essentially primordial since they are
received through ethnic socialization into one’s ethnie and are more
or less fixed. Smith (1986) regards primordial ties as the basic
organizing principles and bonds of human association throughout
history. He concluded that, ‘primordialism’ makes two distinct
claims: firstly, ethnicity and ethnic attachment is “natural and
innate”, which would never change over time, and secondly, it is
“ancient and perennial”.
 The primordialist theory has been criticized for presenting a view
of ethnicity and ethnic identity alternatively characterized as static,
fixed, involuntary, compelling, essentialized and naturalistic.
Although cultural traditions are shared, transmitted and
internalized by people and are sources of internal cohesion and
belongingness; they are not like “natural species” but dynamic and
changing. The primordialist perspective is also inadequate to
explain observed geographical variations in the expression of
cultural identity by sub groups of people from the same ethnic
origin. The primordial view is unable to adequately account for the
observed flux in ethnic solidarity. It cannot account for ethnic
change and dissolution, and the dynamics of ethno-genesis. The
theory of primordialism also misses the fact that individuals’
attachments vary across situations, and identity shifts do occur. It is
observed that in several cases where no “primordial ties” can be
shown to have existed historically, ethnic mobilization has actually
taken place as a result of socioeconomic and political factors.
 THE INSTRUMENTALIST THEORY OF ETHNICITY &
ETHNIC IDENTITY
 The instrumentalist theory views ethnicity as an
intentional or conscious strategy, an adaptive response
to the conditions governing the contest for acquisition of
desired resources and a strategy to defend or seize
resources. The reasons for a group asserting and
maintaining an ethnic identity are said to be economic and
political rather than psychological. Ethnic identification is
encouraged by the pursuit of collective interests. The
persistence of ethnicity is attributed to the functions it
fulfills in terms of interest aggregation and group
mobilization in pursuit of economic or political gain. When
people can see no net usefulness in such group
memberships, they will tend to attempt to disassociate
themselves from it. The change in ethnic identity is
explained in line with the cost-benefit calculations of
individuals.
CONT..
 Banks (1996) explained the instrumentalist
understandings of ethnicity as an instrument of group
mobilization for political and economic ends.
Ethnicity is something that can be hanged,
constructed or even manipulated to gain specific
political and/or economic ends. Proponents of
instrumentalism advocate that bin the contexts of
modern states, leaders (political elites) use and
manipulate perceptions of ethnic identity to further
their own ends and stay in power. Ethnicity is created
in the dynamics of elite competition within the
boundaries determined by political and economic
realities” and ethnic groups are seen as a product of
political myths, created and manipulated by culture
elites in their pursuit of advantages and power.
 Abner Cohen (1974), emphasizes on the ethnic group as a
collectively organized strategy for the protection of economic and
political interests. Ethnic groups share common interests, and in
pursuit of these interests they develop “basic organizational
functions such as: distinctiveness or boundaries (ethnic identity);
communication; authority structure; decision making procedure;
ideology; and socialization” .
 Abner Cohen’s perspective on ethnicity defines ethnic organization
essentially as a kind of political organization. Ethnic ideology
offers answers to the questions of
However, Cohen argues that ethnicity must
also have a practical function in order to be viable. He argued that
ethnicity is an instrument for competition over scarce resources,
which is nevertheless circumscribed by ideologies of shared
culture, shared origins and metaphoric kinship. This may or may
not be acknowledged by the agents themselves. Only by focusing
on this aspect is it possible to explain why some ethnic groups
thrive while others vanishes, and why only some ethnic
identification assumes great social importance.
 Daniel Bell (1975) and Jeffrey Ross (1982) also emphasize the
political advantage of ethnic membership choice. Ethnicity is "a
group option in which resources are mobilized for the purpose of
pressuring the political system to allocate public goods for the
benefit of the members of a self-differentiating collectivity" (Ross,
1982).
 Rational choice and elite theories are examples of the instrumental
perspective. Predicated on the ‘theoretical primacy’ of the
individual, not the group, rational choice theory holds that
individual actors act rationally and in their own best interests. It
sees any action as determined by a rational motive and as the basis
for the pursuit of scarce resources.
CONT…
 The instrumentalist theory underplays the emotional
power and affective dimension of ethnic bonds. In its
tendency to reduce ethnic phenomena to purely material
motives the instrumentalist approach lack an adequate
account of the emotive strength, and often apparently
irrational power or pull associated with ethnic identities.
The subjective import of ethnic group membership does
not lie just simply in one’s pursuit of practical interest,
but also in one’s feelings and a complex conception of
identity. It has been shown that a number of ethnic
categories reproduce their identity even if it actually
reduces their chances of attaining prosperity and political
power.
 THE CONSTRUCTIVIST THEORY OF ETHNICITY AND
ETHNIC IDENTITY
 The constructivist theory is an intermediate perspective. It recognizes that
ethnicity cannot be simply taken as a given or conceptualized as an
independent variable without also acknowledging its dependent status.
Constructivism holds that ethnicity is constructed and that ethnic identities
are not singular, nor are they fixed; they may change over time and differ in
their relative significance. Ethnicity is subject to fluctuation depending upon
a group’s solidarity and position in society. It is the circumstances that locate
groups in particular situations and encourages them to define themselves in
such a way that their interests are met. Therefore, ethnic identity has to be
conceived of as a process, affected by history as well as contemporary
circumstances, and by local as well as global dynamics. Ethnic identities are
(re)constructed as narratives from the political–economic–cultural facts and
fictions of history told in contemporary settings.
 The central idea of constructivism is that ethnic groups are artificial and
constructed rather than natural and eternal and they cab created, they can
also destroyed.
CONT…
 Because the emphasis is on construction, this theory
borrows a great deal from the instrumentalists’ focus on
specific contexts and circumstances whether they are
economic or political, immediate, or structural. It
explains ethnic group solidarity and the maintenance of
ethnic group bonds underlining historical, structural and
cultural contingencies and circumstantial aspects in
ethnic relations. Ethnicity is viewed not as something
that people possess as a property of a group but as
aspects of relationships between groups and is
constructed in certain situations.
➢ Customary law is the set a set of custom, practices and beliefs
that are accepted as obligatory rules of conduct by indigenous
peoples and local community. it is the mechanism of resolving
dispute. There is a procedure to resolve disputes without the
assistance of the institutionalized justice system. Customary law is
unwritten law and kept in the memory of people or elders.
Therefore, when a case or dispute arises, the interested party have
to ask these people for a solution. Custom is defines as a tradition
or a usual way to behave. Custom is to society what law is to the
state.
➢ A legal system is defined as a synergy of legal rules, legal
principles, legal standards, legal policies, legal structures, legal
tradition, legal actors, legal extension and legal penetration
operating in a given geographical area.
➢ Governance is about the processes by which public policy
decisions are made and implemented. It is the result of
interactions, relationships and networks between the different
sectors (government, public sector, private sector and civil
society) and involves decisions, negotiation, and different power
relations between stakeholders to determine who gets what, when
and how. The relationships between government and different
sectors of society determine how things are done, and how
services are provided. Governance is therefore much more than
government or ‘good government’ and shapes the way a service
or set of services are planned, managed and regulated within a set
of political, social and economic systems.
➢ Local government is the essential institutional building block for
local governance, the wider governance sphere comprises a set of
state and non-state institutions, mechanisms and processes, through
which public goods and services are delivered to citizens and
through which citizens can articulate their interests and needs,
mediate their differences and exercise their rights and obligations.
➢ The concepts of local governance and decentralization, at times
used interchangeably, are related but different concepts.
is primarily a national political, legislative,
institutional and fiscal process. While can be
affected by decentralization processes for example, if local
governments are expected to provide services formerly offered
through national organizations - it may or may not be accompanied
by decentralization, representative or participatory democratic
processes, transparency, accountability or other defining
characteristics of ‘good’ local governance.
The Gada system is a time-honored age and generation-set
system practiced among the Oromo people who regarded
the system as their common heritage and as one of their
major identity makers. The gada is crucial organizing
structure among the Oromo people and its social, political,
ritual and legal aspects provides the framework for order
and meaning of life. Gada organizes society via councils
(yaa’aa), laws and injunctions, outlining rights and duties
of its members. The Oromo recognized the Gada System as
part of their cultural heritage and as a contemporary system
of governance that functions in concert with the modern
state system.
➢ In the Gadaa system, political power is transferred from one
generation set (Luuba) to another every eight years. Gaada officials
such as the Abba Gaada and Abba Seera(father of law) serve for eight
years and leave their position to the new generation of Gadaa
officials. The Gaada system involves a continuous process of law
making and revision. The law making process has rooms for wider
participation of the people. Gumi gaayo, a law making assembly of
the Borana Oromo, is a good example. Gumi gaayo is held every eight
years to revising, adapting, making and publicizing the customary law
(seera) and custom (aadaa) of the Oromo. The Waliso Oromo have a
law making assembly known as yaa’ii haraa, an equivalent of gumi
gaayo, held every eight years.
➢ The Gaada is an indigenous system of governance, conflict resolution,
and peacemaking. The indigenous system of governance among the
Oromo also include institutions of conflict resolution such as the
Jaarsa Biyyaa (literally: elders of the soil/land) institution.
Grade 1: Daballe from age 1-8 Dabale is the first of all grades
and it is always occupied by a class of people sharing a
common identity by virtue of the fact that they are all the sons
of the gadaa class who are in power as leaders of Borana
society as a whole. The dabballe stand out in Borana society
because of their striking hairstyle, known as “guduru”.

Grade 2: Junior gamme (gamme didiko) from age 8-16 The

transition ceremony by which the sons pass from the dabballe
into gamme grade. The dabballes’ shave their hair and given
names. In the gamme hairstyle, the hair is shaved in the middle,
and the rest is allowed to grow long and cure with a regular
treatment with better.
Grade 3: Kuusaa, junior warriors age16-24 The gamme to kusa transition
rites takes place at the shrine of Dhaddacha Dhera in the vicinity of Arero. At
this place the father will shave the hair of his son/s. The transition rite thus
came to an end and the “Kusa” proceeded with the Lallaba ceremony, the grand
event in which the “election results” were announced to the assembled
representatives of all Borana clans.

Grade 4: Raabaa age 25-32 At this stage the raba’s tend to learn art of
governance and this time is When they gate marry. The raba grade has mostly
defense responsibility.

Grade 5: Doorii age 33-40 This Dori Grade is where males expected to have
sons and could start procreating so as too soon acquire the aspired and
respected status of fatherhood; with crucial responsible household-head .The
Doroma; when they were planning to take power in the next Gada period. The
remarkable stage where the Dori’s gained arts of leadership and philosophy.
Grade 6: Gada age 41-48. Gada Grade is the stage of
full political maturity and became the ruling party for
the following eight years. This is the peak of social and
political career of Gada and the optimum age of having
maturity skill and capacity of holding and practically
showing societal responsibilities.

Grade 7: Yuba age 49 and above. The Gada retires

and becomes a Yuba elders ; the most important
responsibility of retired Gada class (Yuubaa) is to
oversee the ceremonial activities of the luba in power.
The Yuba still takes over advisory functions and act as
mediator, ritual experts and peacemakers.
 The Gedeo of southern Ethiopia have an indigenous system of
governance called . The Baalle and the Gaada system of the Oromo
have some similarities. For example, both have grading system and
exercise periodic transfer of power (i.e., every eight years). The role of
religion is high in the two indigenous systems of governance. Moreover,
the customary law of the Gedeo is called . The Ya’a, the general
assembly, is the highest body of the Gedeo indigenous system of
governance. The Baalle is a complex system which has three
administrative hierarchies: Abba Gada, Roga (traditional leader next the
Abba Gada), and two levels of council of elders known as Hulla
Hayyicha and Songo Hayyicha. The Abba Gada is the leader of the
Baalle. The Baalle system has a body of laws called Seera. Conflicts are
resolved by the Songo hayyicha at village level. When disputes are not
settled at the village level, cases can be referred to first to the Hulla
Hayyicha and finally to the Abba Gada. In general, the Gedeo system of
governance has three major institutions: the ya’a (general assembly), the
Seera (customary law), the Abba Gada, and council of elders.
 The Gamo are among Omotic peoples of southern Ethiopia.
Unlike their neighboring people such as Wolayta and Dawro,
the Gamo did not have a centralized political system. The
Gamo people were organized into several local
administrations locally known as deres. According to
anthropological findings, there were more than 40 deres
across the Gamo highlands. Each dere had its own ka’o (king)
and halaqa (elected leader). The indigenous system of
governance embraces the dere woga (customary law) and the
dubusha assemblies. The highest body of the indigenous
governance is the dere dubusha, a general assembly that is
responsible to make and revise customary laws, resolve major
disputes that cannot be solved at the lower levels.
 The dubushas assembly has three hierarchies: 1) the dere
dubusha (at the top), sub-dere dubusha (at the middle), and
guta/neighborhood dubusha (at the village level). Minor
cases and disputes are resolved by the dere cima, council of
elders. Like the Oromo Gada and the Gedeo Baalle, the
indigenous governance of the Gamo is embedded in the
Gamo belief system. It is believed that telling a lie and
hiding the truth are considered as violation of taboo, which
would lead to spiritual pollution and then misfortunes
including lack of fertility, illness, and death of human
beings and livestock.
 There are different indigenous institutions of conflict resolution and
peacemaking across regions and cultures in Ethiopia. The following are
some of them: customary dispute resolution mechanisms; traditional
mechanisms of conflict resolution; grassroots justice systems; and
customary justice institutions. Indigenous justice institutions and
mechanisms share several common aspects including the following:
 High involvement of elders at different stages of conflict resolution and
peacemaking process.
 Preference and respect for elders known for their qualities including
experience in dispute resolution; knowledge of customary laws,
procedures, norms and values of the society; impartiality, respect for
rules and people; the ability of listening and speaking politely; honesty
and tolerance.
 Indigenous dispute resolution practices focus on restoring social
relationships, harmony, and peaceful coexistence.
 Indigenous justice systems also have differences in terms of
hierarchies, procedures and level of complexities. For example,
 In some cultural settings, conflict resolution mechanisms involve
several hierarchies and complicated procedures;
 The compositions and responsibilities of council of elders also
vary from society to society. For example, different types of elders
address different forms of disputes in some cultural settings;
whereas the same body of elders deal with various types of
disputes in other settings.
 Indigenous/customary justice institutions have been widely used
across Ethiopian regions and cultures. With some exceptions,
customary justice institutions include three major components.
The three components are 1) customary laws, 2) council of
elders, and 3) customary courts or assemblies.
 Customary law: it refers to a body of rules, norms, and a set of
moral values that serve as a wider framework for human conduct and
social interactions. The Sera of the Sidama, the dere woga of the
Gamo, the Seera Addaa of the Oromo; Gordena Sera of Kestane
Gurage are examples of customary laws. In most cases, customary
laws are available orally. Some customary laws are published in
recent years. For example, the Sebat Bet Gurage published their
customary law named Kitcha: The Gurage Customary Law in 1998.
Similarly, Kistane/Sodo Gurage have a written version of customary
law known as Gordena Shengo.
 Council of elders: It is the second important institution of customary
justice systems. The council of elders embraces highly respected and
well-experienced community members who have a detail knowledge
of the customary laws. Members of the elder’s council are also
known for their personal qualities such as truthfulness and
experience in settling conflicts. Elders often serve their communities
on voluntary basis without any payment. The number of the elders
varies based on the nature of the case. The institution of council of
elders has different names in various ethnic groups: Yehager
Shimagile (Amhara), Jaarsaa Biyyaa (Oromo), Hayyicha (Gedeo),
Guurtii (Somali), Dere Cima (Gamo), Deira Cimma (Wolayita), and
Cimuma (Burji).
 Customary courts are public assemblies that serve two major
purposes: (a) hearing, discussing and settling disputes, and
(b) revising, adapting, and making laws.
 As noted above, in most cases, indigenous justice systems in
Ethiopia embrace three major structures: customary laws,
customary courts, and council of elders. Let us summarize the
Gamo customary justice system to portray the three major
structures. The customary justice system of the Gamo people
of Southern Ethiopia has the following branches: 1) Dere
Woga, customary laws, 2) Dere Cima, council of elders, and 3)
Dubusha, customary courts or assemblies.
 The Dere Woga: It is a comprehensive body of rules and
procedures that govern a wide range of issues including
inheritance, property ownership, marriage and divorce,
conflict resolution and gender division of labor.
 The Dere Cima: Literally, dere cima means elders of the
land/country. It includes notable and respected elders
experienced in resolving disputes. Elders serving in
dispute resolution are expected to have a sound
knowledge of the customary laws, norms and values of
the community.
 Dubusha: it is customary courts. Dere dubusha, the biggest
customary court in a given Gamo community, has two major
functions: (a) hearing, discussing and resolving disputes, and (b)
revising and making laws. In most Gamo communities, the
structure of the customary courts has three levels: Guta dubusha,
at the village level; sub-dere dubusha, at the kebele level; and
dere dubusha at the higher level. Cases would be heard at the
guta dubusha level, if not settled, referred to the second and third
level of the structure. According to the indigenous belief, dere
dubusha is a sacred place where supernatural power exists. It is a
place where curses are uttered in its name; justice is delivered;
and important assemblies are held. Dubushas are places where
truth prevails. Misconducts such as telling a lie during dubusha
assemblies are considered as transgression of taboos, which in
turn would bring misfortunes to individuals and communities.
Customary courts are easily accessible as each Gamo community
has several customary courts
 Study findings indicate that indigenous institutions of dispute
resolution have strengths and limitations. Some of their strengths and
limitations are outlined below.
 Strengths of customary justice institutions
 Incur limited cost in terms of time and resources/money; elders do not
request payment for their services; fines and compensation are
relatively small;
 Conflict resolution process are held in public spaces in the
community; different parties (victims, offenders and community
members) participate in the process; decisions are communicated in
public;
 Decisions are easily enforced through community-based sanctions
including social exclusion; compliance ensured through blessings and
the threat of curses;
 Customary systems aimed at restoring community cohesion, social
relations, collective spirit and social solidarity
 Rely on respect for elders, the tradition of forgiveness, transferring
compensations, embedded in indigenous beliefs
 Limitations related to protecting and safeguarding women’s
rights. Indigenous justice institutions are dominated by men.
For example, the council of elders are not open to elderly
women. Women are excluded from participation at customary
courts and assemblies with a few exceptions.
 Indigenous institutions of dispute resolution and peacemaking
are effective to resolve dispute and restore peace within the
same ethnic group. Their potential in resolving inter-ethnic
conflicts and restoring long-lasting peace is very limited.
 Abbo Gereb is one of the indigenous institutions that address inter-ethnic
conflicts. It is a dispute resolution institution in Rayya and Wajirat
district, Southern Tigray. Abbo Gereb, literally means the father of the
river Gerewo. Abbo Gereb serves to settle disputes between individuals
or groups from highland Tigray and lowland Afar. Conflict between the
two groups often arise because of dispute over grazing land or water
resources, particularly in dry season. When conflict arises between
parties from two ethnic groups, notable elders from Tigray and Afar
come together to resolve the dispute and restore peaceful relations. Most
of the elders involved in inter-ethnic conflict resolutions are bilingual:
speaking Tigrigna and Afar.
 Ethnographic findings also reveal the existence of inter-ethnic conflict
resolution mechanisms when conflicts arise between Afar, Issa,
Tigrayans and Argobba. The mechanisms of inter-ethnic disputes have
different names. It is called Xinto among the Afar, Edible among the
Issa, Gereb among the Tigrayans, and Aboroge among the Amhara
 Women’s peacemaking sticks
 Sidama women have two instruments of power: the Yakka and the
Siqqo. The Yakka is women’s association or unity group. The Siqqo
is a stick that symbolizes peace and women honor. The Siqqo and the
Yakka are closely associated. Mobilizing the Yakka and holding the
Siqqo, Sidama women stand for their customary rights. They do this,
for example, when a woman is beaten up by her husband or a
pregnant woman is mistreated. For example, if a man prohibits his
wife from Yakka participation, the women group impose a fine on
him. The fine could be an ox. If a woman is ill-treated by her
husband, the Yakka leader (known as Qaritte) mobilizes the Yakka
and leads them to the house of the man. The husband would not have
a choice when he is surrounded by the Yakka holding their Siqqo
shouting and singing. If he is found guilty, the man would be forced
to slaughter a sheep and give part of it to the Yakka. Sidama women
also use their Siqqo to make peace between quarrelling parties.
Oromo women also have a peace stick called Sinqee. Sinqee serves
the purpose of protecting women’s rights and making peace.
Quarrelling men stop fighting when a woman stands between them
holding her Sinqee.
 Women in many regions of Ethiopia play an important role in peacemaking.
Agnuak women have a peacemaking institution known as Don Kachel.
Literally, DonKachel means ‘let us all live in peace’. It involves a peace-
making movement initiated by Jaye, a group of wise and elderly Agnuak
women. The Jaye start a peace-making movement based on information
gathered through women’s networking. The Jaye gather information about
potential conflicts from different sources, including gossips spread in the
community. The Jaye quickly act upon receiving information about, for
example, a heated argument that could lead to conflict and fighting. The
Jaye call the disputing parties for a meeting to settle the dispute. A few
neutral observers will also be invited to monitor the process of the meeting.
After examining the arguments of the two parties, the Jaye give their
verdict. The party that caused the conflict request for forgiveness in public
and pay some compensation. A sheep or goat is slaughtered after the
conflict resolved; the meat is cooked and shared by participants of the
meeting. Finally the Jaye would announce the meeting is over, the problem
resolved, using these words ‘Now let us all live in peace together!’ The
practice of Don Kachel is currently being adopted by other ethnic groups
including the Nuer, Mejenger, Opo, and Komo.
 Elderly and highly respected women in a village in Raya-Azebo, Tigray established a
reconciliation institution called the Debarte. The Debarte plays an important role in
avoiding harms associated with the culture of revenge. A man may kill another man in a
fight. The incident would trigger the feeling of revenge among male relatives of the
murdered man. In such a tense situation, the wife of the killer requests for the Debarte
intervention. The Debarte quickly start their intervention to stop the act of revenge. The
Debarte instruct the murderer’s wife to gathering her female relatives together. The wife
and her female relatives get ready wearing their netela upside down and covering their
hair with black cloths to show their grief and regret. After these preparations, the
Debarte lead the female relatives of the killer to the home of the murdered man. The
women cry loudly while walking to their destination. As they come near to the home of
the killed person, they utter the following words: ‘Abyetye ezgio! Abyetye ezgio!’ ‘Oh
God help us! God help us! Upon their arrival at the compound of the victim, the
Debarte kneel down and cover their heads with the dust of the compound. They beg the
relatives/family of the murdered man to give up revenge and consider forgiveness.
Initially, the relatives may not respond to the request; however, they will change their
mind and open the door to show their consent for reconciliation. After persuading the
victim’s relatives to give up revenge, the Debarte give the way for elders who start the
peace-making process.
 Legal pluralism is an important concept in disciplines that study legal
issues. It refers to the existence of two or more legal or justice systems in a
given society or country. Legal pluralism indicates the co-existence of
multiple legal systems working side-by-side in the same society. Legal
pluralism is evident in the Ethiopian context. Multiple legal institutions,
including customary laws and courts, state laws and courts, and religious
laws and courts (e.g., the Sharia Law) work side-by-side in most parts of
the country. The FDRE Constitution provides ample space for religious and
customary laws and courts to address personal and family cases. The
following two Articles show this reality.
❖ In accordance with provisions to be specified by law, a law giving
recognition to marriage concluded under systems of religious or customary
laws may be enacted (Article 34(4).
❖ Religious and customary courts that had state recognition and functioning
prior to the adoption of the Constitution shall be organized on the basis of
recognition accorded to them by the Constitution. (Article 78(5))
 Legal pluralism is a pervasive phenomenon in Ethiopia. This is because a
single legal system does not have a capability to address all legal cases and
maintaining peace and order.
Unit Seven
Indigenous Knowledge Systems
(IKS) and Practices
 Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS)
 IKS is defined as technical insight of wisdom gained and developed by people
in a particular locality through years of careful observation and experimentation
with the phenomena around them. IKS is not just a set of information that is in
the minds of the people, which can be simply taped and applied. It is accessible
by recall and practice. IKS is embodied in culture and is described as an
integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs and behavior. It consists of
language, ideas, beliefs, customs, taboos, codes, institutions, tools, techniques,
artifacts, rituals, ceremonies, folklores and gender. This culture is passed down
from one generation to the next generation and generally it provides a holistic
view of how to use natural resources based on traditional ethical perspectives.
Indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) refer to a body of empirical knowledge
and beliefs handed down through generations of long-time inhabitants of a
specific locale, by cultural transmission, about the relationship of living beings
with each other and their environment.
 In sum, IKS refers to “ a total of knowledge and practices, whether explicit or
implicit, used in the management of socioeconomic, ecological and spiritual
facets of life, stored in the collective memory and communicated orally among
members of the community and to the future generations [through, stories,
myth, songs, etc]
 Indigenous peoples, and Indigenous Knowledge
 Local people: local people are the inhabitants of a particular
geographic location who have a culture and belief system, distinct
from the international system of knowledge (e.g. the tribal, native,
first or aboriginal people of an area.
 Indigenous people possess, practice and protect a total sum of
knowledge and skills constitutive of their meaning, belief systems,
livelihood constructions and expression that distinguish them from
other groups
 Indigenous peoples includes close attachment to ancestral
territories and the natural resources in them; presence of customary
social and political institutions; economic systems primarily
oriented to subsistence production; an indigenous language, often
different from the predominant language; and self-identification
and identification by others as members of a distinct cultural group
Elements of indigenous identity
 Living in tradition-based cultures,
 Having political autonomy prior to
colonialism, and
 Seeking to preserve cultural integrity in
the present.
 Recognize the role of land to indigenous
peoples
Features indigenous peoples across the
globe.
 Self- identification as Indigenous peoples at the individual level
and accepted by the community as their member;
 Historical continuity with pre-colonial and/or pre-settler societies;
 Strong link to territories and surrounding natural resources;
 Distinct social, economic or political systems;
 Distinct language, culture and beliefs;
 Formation of non-dominant groups of society; and
 Resolve to maintain and reproduce their ancestral environments
and systems as distinctive peoples and communities
Indigenous knowledge
 Indigenous knowledge: - can be defined as “A body
of knowledge built up by a group of people through
generations of living in close contact with nature. It
refers to the unique, traditional and local knowledge
existing within and developed around the specific
conditions of women and men indigenous to a
particular geographic area. Indigenous knowledge
contrasts with the international knowledge system
produced by universities, research institutions and
private firms. It is related to the ways members of a
given community define and categorize natural,
ecological, social and economic situations according
to their lives. Indigenous knowledge is the knowledge
that is an indigenous (local) to a given community
over generations of living in a particular environment.
 Cont…
 Indigenous knowledge is also characterized as dynamic and continuously
adapted to the changing conditions as well as passes from generations to
generations. IK is stored in peoples‟ memories and activities and it is
expressed in the form of stories, songs, folklore, proverbs, dances,
myths, cultural values, beliefs, rituals, community laws, local language
and taxonomy, agricultural practices, equipment, materials, plant species
and animal breeds.
 Indigenous knowledge is shared and communicated orally by specific
examples and through cultures. Indigenous forms of communications are
vital to local level decision- making process and to the preservation,
development and spread of IK, i.e., indigenous knowledge has broader
meaning. Such knowledge evolves in the local environment so that it is
specifically adapted to the requirements of local people and conditions. It
is also creative and experimental, constantly incorporating outside
influences and inside innovations to meet new conditions. Thus, it is
usually a mistake to think of indigenous knowledge as „old-fashioned;
„back-ward‟, static‟ or unchanging‟
 Special Features of Indigenous Knowledge
 Local, in that it is rooted in a particular community and situated within broader
cultural traditions; it is a set of experiences generated by people living in those
communities. Separating the technical from the non-technical, the rational from
the non-rational could be problematic. Therefore, when transferred to other
places, there is a potential risk of dislocating IK.
 Tacit knowledge and, therefore, not easily codifiable.
 Transmitted orally, or through imitation and demonstration. Codifying it may
lead to the loss of some of its properties.
 Experiential rather than theoretical knowledge. Experience and trial and
error, tested in the rigorous laboratory of survival of local communities
constantly reinforce IK.
 Learned through repetition, which is a defining characteristic of tradition even
when new knowledge is added. Repetition aids in the retention and
reinforcement of IK.
 Constantly changing, being produced as well as reproduced, discovered as well
as lost; though it is often perceived by external observers as being somewhat
static
 Significance of indigenous knowledge
 Indigenous knowledge is important in that people in a community value
whatever resource they get from the environment through sustainable production
systems. These communities are conscious of the need to self-reliant in capital
stocks and management skills.
 The knowledge of local people is an enabling component of development. In
this regard; a large percentage of the earth's genetic diversity has been
maintained and managed through farmer's IKS.
 Indigenous knowledge system enable people to develop strategies for handling
household and communal activities. For example in Ethiopia Debo and Jige are
an important uniting forces in communal activities. Members of the community
unite to provide essential inputs, including direct labor to operations. ''This
deployment of manpower is strongly supported by IKS, which is composed of
technologies, rules, information, approaches, and relationships that are vital to
sustainable development‘.
 IKS authorities (elders) make local rules to protect important resources such as
useful plants, water bodies, stone terracing, agro-forestry, watersheds and rivers,
food preservations, conflict management, calendar, fallowing as a soil
regeneration practice, etc. According to Paula Puffer Paula (1995), indigenous /
local knowledge can help find the best solution to a development challenges. For
example, familiarity with local knowledge can help extensionists and
researchers understand and communicate better with local people.
Cont…
 In general, indigenous knowledge is an important part of
the lives of the poor. IK is a key element of the “social
capital” of the poor; their main asset to invest in the
struggle for survival, to produce food, to provide for
shelter or to achieve control of their own lives.
Furthermore, one cannot overlook indigenous
knowledge’s ability to provide effective alternatives to
Western know-how. IK offers local people and their
development workers further options in designing new
projects or addressing specific problems and wider
disasters. Instead of relying on imported Western
technologies, people in the developing nations can
choose from readily available indigenous knowledge or,
where appropriate, combine indigenous and Western
 Indigenous knowledge and development
 Indigenous knowledge refers to what indigenous people know and
do, and what they have known and done for generations practices
that evolved through trial and error and proved flexible enough to
cope with change.
 Indigenous knowledge passes from one generation to the next and
enable indigenous people to survive, manage their natural
resources and the ecosystems surrounding them like animals,
plants, rivers, seas, natural environment, economic, cultural and
political organization. Knowledge of these elements form a set of
interacting units known as indigenous coping systems. In other
words, ''IK is relevant to development process such as agriculture,
animal husbandry, traditional medicine, saving and credit,
community development, poverty alleviation, and peaceful
coexistence''
 Indigenous knowledge may help identify cost-effective and sustainable
mechanisms for poverty alleviation that are locally manageable and
meaningful. It increases and enhances livelihood options, revitalize
agriculture, increase food security, improve health and promote a sense
of cultural pride within the community. Many plants currently growing
wild in the ancestral domain produce natural dye, fiber, detergent and
natural oil. Several plants in the ancestral domain have medicinal uses.
Chemical compounds of these plants could be identified for the
production of organic medicine .''Indigenous knowledge is used at the
local level by communities as the basis for decisions pertaining to food
security, human and animal health, education, natural resources
management, and other vital activities.
 indigenous institutions, indigenous technology, and low-cost approaches
can increase the efficiency of development programs because IK is a
locally owned and managed resource. Utilizing IK helps to increase the
sustainability of development efforts because the IK integration process
provides for mutual learning and adaptation, which in turn contributes to
the empowerment of local communities.
Preservation, Challenges and Limitations of
IK
 Indigenous knowledge, which has generally been passed from
generation to generation by word of mouth, is in danger of
being lost unless it is formally documented and preserved. The
future of IK, that reflects many generations of experience and
problem solving by thousands of indigenous people across the
globe, is uncertain.
 The loss of IK would impoverish society because, just as the
world needs genetic diversity of species, it needs diversity of
knowledge systems. The rapid change in the way of life of local
communities has largely accounted for the loss of IK. Younger
generations underestimate the utility of IK systems because of
the influence of modem technology and education.
 If IK is not recorded and preserved, it may be lost and remain
inaccessible to other indigenous systems as well as to
development workers. Development projects cannot offer
sustainable solutions to local problems without integrating
local knowledge.
 Regarding the challenges and limitations of IK
 Although the knowledge of indigenous communities has been found to
be very useful, the, exploitation of natural resources, and increased
competition for employment, has set off a problematic chain of events.
This modernization has influenced indigenous traditional spread of
industrialization threatens the preservation and continued development
of IK systems. Industrialization, along with its attendant processes of
urbanization African which generate IK and practices can break down.
Added to this is the commercial society in many ways and Ethiopia is
no exception.
 IK can also be eroded by wider economic and social forces. Pressure on
indigenous peoples to integrate with larger societies is often great and,
as they become more integrated, the social structures pressure by
multinational agrochemical companies eager to break into new markets.
As Grenier (1998) puts it: “the growth of national and international
markets, the imposition o f educational and religious systems and the
impact o f various development processes are leading more and more to
the “homogenization” o f the world’s cultures. Consequently, indigenous
beliefs, values, customs, know-how and practices may be altered and the
resulting knowledge base incomplete.
 Limitations
 IK is sometimes accepted uncritically because of naive notions that whatever
indigenous people do is naturally in harmony with the environment. Thrupp (1989)
argues that we should reject “romanticized and idealistic views of local knowledge
and traditional societies”. There is historical and contemporary evidence that
indigenous peoples have also committed environmental sins’ through over-grazing,
over-hunting, or over-cultivation of the land. It is misleading to think of IK as
always being ‘good’, ‘right or ‘sustainable’.
 Quite often the overlooked feature of IK, which needs to be taken into account, is
that, like scientific knowledge, sometimes the knowledge which local people rely on
is wrong or even harmful. Practices based on, for example, mistaken beliefs, faulty
experimentation, or inaccurate information can be dangerous and may even be a
barrier to improving the wellbeing of indigenous people.
 Doubleday (2003) pointed out that knowledge is power, so individuals are not
always willing to share knowledge among themselves, or with outsiders.
Knowledge is a source of status and income (as is the case, for example, with a
herbalist) and is often jealously guarded. A related issue is that some indigenous
peoples fear that their IK will be misused, and lacking the power to prevent such
abuses, they choose to keep quiet.
The Erosion of Indigenous Knowledge Systems(IKS)
 With rapid population growth—often due to in-migration or government
relocation schemes in the case of large development projects, such as dams —
standards of living may be compromised. With poverty, opportunities for short-
term gain are selected over environmentally sound local practices. With
increasing levels of poverty, farmers, for example, may also have less time and
fewer resources to sustain the dynamic nature of IK systems through their local
experiments and innovations.
 The introduction of market-oriented agricultural and forestry practices
focused on mono-cropping is associated with losses in IK and IK practices,
through losses in biodiversity and cultural diversity. For instance, policies
promoting generic rice and wheat varieties devalue locally adapted species. With
the ready availability of many commercial foods, some biodiversity seems to
become less relevant, such as seed and crop varieties selected over the years for
their long-term storage attributes.
 In the short term, chemical inputs seem to reduce the need to tailor varieties to
difficult growing conditions, contributing to the demise of local varieties.
 With deforestation, certain medicinal plants become more difficult to find (and
the knowledge or culture associated with the plants also declines).
Cont…
 More and more knowledge is being lost as a result of the disruption of
traditional channels of oral communication. Neither children nor adults spend
as much time in their communities anymore (for example, some people travel
to the city on a daily basis to go to school, to look for work, or to sell farm
produce; many young people are no longer interested in, or do not have the
opportunity for, learning traditional methods). It is harder for the older
generation to transmit their knowledge to young people.
 As IK is transmitted orally, it is vulnerable to rapid change — especially when
people are displaced or when young people acquire values and lifestyles
different from those of their ancestors.
 Farmers traditionally maintained their indigenous crop varieties by keeping
household seed stocks and by obtaining seed through traditional family and
community networks and through exchanges with nearby communities. Some
of these traditional networks have been disrupted or no longer exist.
 In the past, outsiders (for example, social, physical, and agricultural scientists,
biologists, colonial powers) ignored or maligned IK, depicting it as primitive,
simple, static, “not knowledge,” or folklore. This historic neglect (regardless of
its cause — racism, ethnocentrism, or modernism, with its complete faith in
the scientific method) has contributed to the decline of IK systems, through
lack of use and application. This legacy is still continued, as a result of which
many professionals are still skeptical.