Module-5 8 Hours

Introduction to Transducers: Introduction, Resistive Transd ucers, Inductive Transducers, Capaci tive
Transducers, Thermal transducers, Optoelectronic transducer, and Piezoelectric tran sducers (Text 4:
Chapter 18: 18.1, 18.2, 18.3, 18.4, 18.S)
Communications: Introduction to communication, Communication System, Modulation (Text book S: 1.1,
1.2, 1.3

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THERMAL TRANSDUCERS
I. Resistance Thermometer / Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
A resistance thermometer consists of a length of resistive wire wound upon a high
temperature former.
The wire resistance is used as an indicator of temperature. It is the temperature sensing
element.

In the figure, the resistive wire of pure platinum is wound in the form of a coiled wire on
a mica former and held in position inside a protective sheath.
The sheath may be glass or stainless steel or any other material suitable for the
environment where the RTD is to be employed.
Insulated connecting leads are provided and they must have a much lower resistance than
the sensing element.
RTD is usually connected into a Wheatstone bridge circuit, which allows the detection of
very small changes in the resistance of the sensing element and hence the meter of the
bridge can be calibrated to indicate temperature.
Advantages:
1. RTD can be employed over a very wide temperature range (from -200° C to over
650° C)
2. They are tough and extremely accurate.
Disadvantage:
More expensive than other temperature measuring devices due to the need of power
supply and Wheatstone bridge.
 II. Thermistor
Thermistors are resistors constructed of a material that is very sensitive to temperature.
The term thermistor is a combination of thermal and resistor.
Most thermistors have a negative temperature coefficient.

Applications:
Measurement and control of temperature , liquid level etc.
The resistance/temperature characteristics of a thermistor is as follows:

As temperature increases, resistance decreases.

Current flow through a thermistor is kept to a minimum to avoid errors.
Advantages:
1. Thermistors can respond quickly to temperature changes compared to other
thermal devices.
2. Sensitivity is good
3. Low cost
4. Small size
III. Semiconductor temperature sensor
LM135 is a precision temperature sensor IC that produce a stable output voltage with a
predictable temperature coefficient.
It behaves like a Zener diode and hence it is represented by a Zener diode symbol in a
circuit diagram.

A potentiometer is connected in parallel with the output and its moving contact is
connected to the adj terminal.
It is best to operate with very low current to avoid errors.
Advantages:
The LM135 temperature sensor operates over a temperature range of -55° C to +150° C.
Its output voltage can be processed to indicate the temperature of its environment.
 OPTOELECTRONIC TRANSDUCERS
I. Photoconductive cell
Q: Explain the operation of photoconductive cell.
A photoconductive cell consists of a strip of light-sensitive material situated between 2
conductors. It works on the principle of photoconductive effect.

Light striking the surface of a light-sensitive material can provide sufficient energy to cause
electrons within the material to break away from their atoms. Thus, free electrons and holes
are created within the material and its resistance is reduced. This is known as
photoconductive effect.
Cadmium sulfide (CdS) and Cadmium selenide (CdSe) are the materials used to manufacture
photoconductive cells.
The resistance/illuminance characteristics of a photoconductive cell is as follows:

When the cell is not illuminated, its resistance is very high. This is known as dark resistance
of the cell.
When the cell is illuminated, its resistance decreases and becomes a few 100 ohms.
Photoconductive cell for a relay control:

When the cell is illuminated, its resistance is low and the current to the relay is maximum.
Thus, the relay is energised.
When the cell is dark, its resistance is high and the current to the relay is minimum. Hence
the relay won’t be energised.

II. Photodiode
Q: Explain the operation of a photodiode.

A photodiode has a reverse biased p-n junction designed to be light sensitive.

When a p-n junction is reverse biased, there is a small reverse current due to thermally
generated holes and electrons. ie, the minority carriers across the junction.
When the reverse biased p-n junction is illuminated, electron-hole pairs are generated by the
incident light energy giving rise to large minority carriers across the junction. This increases
the reverse current through the junction.
Increasing the junction illumination, increases the reverse current level.
A photodiode can act as a photoconductive device and a photovoltaic device.
Photodiode with reverse bias operates as a photoconductive device.

Without a bias voltage, the photodiode behaves as a photovoltaic device. While the diode is
illuminated and the reverse-bias voltage across the photodiode is reduced to zero, the reverse
current continues to flow. Thus, the diode behaves as a voltage cell.

The characteristics of a photodiode has a photoconductive region and a photovoltaic region as

shown below.
 III. Photomultiplier

Photomultiplier tube consists of an evacuated glass cylinder containing a photocathode, an

anode and several additional electrodes known as dynodes.

The anode and the cathode are at the opposite ends of the tube and the anode is at a very high
voltage w.r.to the cathode.
The dynodes are biased to voltage levels between the cathode and the anode voltages .
Working:
The radiations striking the photocathode imparts energy to the electrons within the cathode
surface causing them to be emitted.
The positive voltage on dynode 1 accelerates the electrons from the cathode toward the
dynode. This causes secondary emission of electrons and the number of secondary electrons
exceeds the number of primary electrons from the cathode.
Secondary electrons emitted from dynode 1 are accelerated toward the more positive dynode
2, where further increased secondary emission is produced.
This process continues until the electrons arrive at the anode, where they are collected.
The number of electrons arriving at the anode are much greater than the number of electrons
emitted from the cathode.
Thus, the original electrons have been multiplied and the photo emission current is amplified.
Advantage:
It is an extremely sensitive and ultra-fast device.
 MODULE 5

Syllabus:

Introduction to Transducers: Introduction, Resistive Transducers, Inductive

Transducers, Capacitive Transducers, Thermal transducers, Optoelectronic transducer, and
Piezoelectric transducers.

Communications: Introduction to communication, Communication System, Modulation.

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION:
The term communication refers to the sending, receiving and processing of information
by electronic means.
A modern communication system is first concerned with sorting, processing and sometimes
storing of information before its transmission. The actual transmission then follows with
further processing and filtering of noise. The final stage is reception which includes
processing steps such as decoding, storage and interpretation.

COMMUNICATION SYSTEM:
Elements of a General Communication System:

Q: Describe the blocks of the basic communication system.

Figure shows the block diagram of a general communication system.
It has five blocks, including the information source and destination. The transmitter and
the receiver must be in agreement with the modulation and coding methods used.

Information source
The communication system exists to convey a message and this message comes from an
information source, which originates it.
EX: Text, voice, video etc.
Information is that which is conveyed in a message and the amount of information
contained in any given message can be measured in bits or dits.
The amount of information contained in a given message depends on the number of
choices that must be made. The greater the number of possible selections, the larger is the
amount of information conveyed.
A redundant message (totally predictable message) contains no real information.
Transmitter
The message arriving from the information source is converted into electrical form and then
transmitted.
A transmitter is required to process and encode the incoming information so as to make it
suitable for transmission and subsequent reception.
Before transmitting, the information modulates the carrier so that it becomes easy to
transmit over a longer distance.
The actual method of modulation varies from one system to another.
Channel
Channel is a medium through which the electrical signal is transmitted from one place to
another.
There are two types of channels:
i. Wired channel. Ex: Co-axial cable, OFC, pair of conducting wire.
ii. Wireless channel or radio communication Ex: Free space.
Channel is the term used to refer to the frequency range allocated to a particular
service for transmission. Eg: Television channel
Noise
Noise is unwanted energy usually of random character present in a transmission system due
to a variety of causes.
Noise signal is random in nature.
The signal will deteriorate during the process of transmission and reception due to the
introduction of noise.
Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communication system. Its effect is
greatest when message signal is weak.

Receiver

The receiver block receives the incoming signal from the channel and processes it to
reproduce the original message signal.
The original message signal is extracted from the modulated signal at the receiver.
The most important function of a receiver is demodulation and decoding.
The type of receiver used in a communication system depends on factors such as the
modulation system used, the operating frequency and its range and the type of display
required.
Most of the receivers are of super heterodyne type.
Destination
Destination is the final stage which is used to convert an electrical message signal into its original
form.
The output of a receiver can be fed to a loudspeaker, video display unit, teletypewriter,
various radar displays, television picture tube or computer.

Block diagram of typical radio transmitter:

Q: Explain typical Radio Transmitter with neat block diagram.
The block diagram of a high-level amplitude-modulated broadcast transmitter is shown in
Fig.

This transmitter block involves several operations like amplification, generation of high-
frequency carrier signal, modulation and then radiation of the modulated signal.

Since high level modulation is employed, the transmitting power may be of the order of
kilowatts.
The working of AM transmitter can be explained as follows:
The modulating signal is applied to voltage amplifier which amplifies the voltage of this signal.
This amplification is necessary to drive the audio power amplifier.

The crystal oscillator generates the carrier signal and is applied to RF buffer amplifier.
In high-level transmission, the powers of the carrier signal and modulating signal are amplified
before applying them to the modulator stage.
Both the modulating signal and the carrier signal after power amplification, are applied to the
modulating stage (RF output power amplifier). The modulation takes place at this stage.
This signal is finally passed to the antenna, which radiates the signal into space for
transmission.

Block diagram of superheterodyne receiver:

Q: Explain AM superheterodyne receiver with neat block diagram.

The superheterodyne receiver includes processing steps like reception, Amplification,

mixing, demodulation and recreation of message signal.
The receiving antenna intercepts the radio signals and feeds an RF (radio frequency)
amplifier.
The RF amplifier selects the desired radio wave and amplifies it.
After amplification, it is fed to a mixer which takes another input from a local oscillator.
The mixer output produces an intermediate frequency (IF). IF is the difference between
oscillator frequency and radio frequency.
This IF signal is given to an IF amplifier and then to the demodulator.
The output of the demodulator is original modulating signal.
This signal is given to audio voltage and power amplifier and then used to drive the
loudspeaker.

MODULATION
Q: Define Modulation. Explain the need of modulation.

Modulation is the process in which any one of the parameters (amplitude, frequency,
phase) of the high frequency carrier signal is varied according to the instantaneous values
of low frequency message signal, keeping other parameters constant.
Modulation may be high-level or low-level depending on the requirements and the
different types of modulation are amplitude modulation, frequency modulation, phase
modulation.
Amplitude modulation (AM):

AM is defined as the modulation technique in which the instantaneous amplitude of the

carrier signal is varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal
whereas frequency and phase are kept constant.
Frequency Modulation (FM):

FM is defined as the modulation technique in which frequency of the carrier signal is varied
in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal whereas amplitude
and phase are kept constant.
Phase modulation:

Phase modulation is the process in which the instantaneous phase of the carrier signal is
varied in accordance with the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal whereas
amplitude and frequency are kept constant.

Need for Modulation:

• Reduces height of transmitting & receiving antennas: For efficient radiation and
reception, the transmitting and receiving antennas would have to have lengths
comparable to a quarter-wavelength of the frequency used. This results in antennas of
very large heights. Hence modulation is used.

• Avoid mixing of signals: All sound is concentrated within the range from 20Hz to
20KHz so that all signals from different sources would be inseparably mixed up.
Hence signal frequencies should not be transmitted directly and need to be modulated.

• Improves quality of reception.

• Increases operating range of communication: Extremely difficult to radiate low

frequency signals through earth’s atmosphere in form of electromagnetic energy.
Thus, modulation is used.

• Ease of multiplexing

• Allows adjustments in the bandwidth.

Q: What is noise? Explain the term Channel Noise and its effects.
Noise:
Noise is unwanted energy usually of random character present in a transmission system due
to a variety of causes.
Noise signal is random in nature.
The signal will deteriorate during the process of transmission and reception due to the
introduction of noise.
Noise may interfere with signal at any point in a communication system. Its effect is
greatest when message signal is weak.
Noise is most likely to be entered at the channel or at the input to the receiver.
Effects of Noise:
Noise affects the system performance. Following are the effects of noise:
➢ Noise limits the operating range of the systems.
➢ Noise affects the sensitivity of a receiver system, which eventually affects the
output. Sensitivity is the minimum amount of input signal necessary to obtain the
specified quality output.
➢ Noise indirectly places a limit on the weakest signal that can be amplified by an
amplifier. The oscillator in the mixer circuit may limit its frequency because of
noise.
➢ Noise limits the smallest signal that a receiver is capable of processing.
➢ The noise might distract the receiver, causing them not to hear the sender's message
properly. Or it might distract the sender, making it difficult for them to communicate
the message effectively.