Network Operating Systems

Network Operating System (NOS) - Network Operating System is an operating system that includes special functions for
connecting computers and devices into a local-area network (LAN) or Inter-network. Short form of Network Operating
system is NOS. Some popular network operating systems are Novell Netware, Windows NT/2000, Linux, Sun Solaris, UNIX,
and IBM OS/2. The network operating system which was first developed is Novell Netware. It was developed in 1983.
An operating system that provides the connectivity among a number of autonomous computers is called a network
operating system. A typical configuration for a network operating system is a collection of personal computers along with a
common printer, server and file server for archival storage, all tied together by a local network.
Some of the features of Network Operating System are to:
• It allows multiple computers to connect so that they can share data, files and hardware devices.
• Provide basic operating system features such as support for processors, protocols, automatic hardware detection and
support multi-processing of applications.
• Provide security features such as authentication, logon restrictions and access control.
• Provide name and directory services.
• Provide file, print, web services and back-up services.
• Support Internet working such as routing and WAN ports.
• User management and support for logon and logoff, remote access; system management, administration and auditing
tools with graphical interfaces.
• It has clustering capabilities.
• It has internet working features. Example: Routing.
• In this, the users can remotely access each other.
• It also includes security features.
Example: authentication of data, restrictions on required data, authorizations of users etc.
• It can also manage directory and name services.
• It also provides basic network administration utilities like access to the user.
• It also provides priority to the printing jobs which are in the queue in the network.
• It detects the new hardware whenever it is added to the system.
Types of Network Operating Systems
Peer-to-peer network operating systems allow users to share resources and files located on their computers and to access
shared resources found on other computers. In a peer-to-peer network, all computers are considered equal; they all have
the same privileges to use the resources available on the network. Peer-to-peer networks are designed primarily for small to
medium local area networks. Windows for Work-groups is an example of the program that can function as peer-to-peer
network operating systems.
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer(P2P) Operating System are as follows:
• Less requirement of hardware is there.
• No server needs to be established.
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• Its setup process is natural.

Disadvantages of Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Operating System are as follows:

• It has no central location for storage, i.e. different systems have different storage capacity.
• It has less security as compared to the client-server model.
Client/server network operating systems allow the network to centralize functions and applications in one or more
dedicated file servers. The file servers become the heart of the system, providing access to resources and providing security.
The workstations (clients) have access to the resources available on the file servers. The network operating system allows
multiple users to share the same resources irrespective of physical location simultaneously. Novell Netware and Windows
2000 Server are examples of client/ server network operating systems.
Each computer in the work-group run an autonomous operating system; yet cooperate to allow a variety of facilities
including sharing of files, sharing of hardware resources and execution of remote machines etc.
Network operating systems are implementations of loosely coupled operating systems on top of loosely coupled hardware.
Network operating\systems is the software that supports the use of a network of machines and provides users that are
aware of using a set of computers, with facilities designed to ease the use of remote resources located over the network.
These resources are made available as services and might be printers, processors, file systems or other devices. Some
resources, of which dedicated hardware devices such as printers, tape drives are connected to and managed by a particular
machine and are made available to other machines in the network via a service. A typical example of such a system is a set
of workstations connected through a local area network (LAN). Every workstation has its operating system every user has its
workstation in exclusive use and cooperates to allow a variety of facilities including sharing of files, sharing of hardware
resources and execution of remote machines etc. A user can execute a login command to connect to another station and
also can access a set of shared files maintained by a workstation named/file server.
Advantages of Client Server Operating System are as follows:
• In this, security to the machines is provided through the server.
• Here, hardware can be easily connected to the system.
• Also, new technology is easily integrated into the system.
• The central server is more stable in a client-server model.
• Hardware and the operating system can be specialized.
• In this model, different machines can remotely access the server from different locations.
Disadvantages Client Server Operating System are as follows:
• It seems to be costly as buying and running a server is cost effective.
• Also, here we always have to depend on the central location for any type of operation like for storage, for accessing of
data etc..
• It requires regular maintenance.
• Daily updation is required as per requirement

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 Examples of NOS
UNIX / Linux

UNIX, created originally by Bell Labs (under AT and T), is a powerful server operating system that can be used in peer-to-peer or
client/server networks. UNIX was the first operating system written in the C programming language. Due to an antitrust ruling forbidding
AT and T from releasing operating systems commercially, AT and T released UNIX upon its completion in 1974 to universities, mostly,
enabling people to go in and actually view the source code to the system, which enabled coders to reconstruct the basic functions of the
original UNIX operating system. From this practice, called reverse engineering, came Linux, which was first developed in the late 1980s
by a young student at the University of Helsinki in Finland named Linus Torvalds.

UNIX (and Linux by extension) systems offer the following features:

 Fully protected multitasking: This means that UNIX can easily switch between tasks without the operating system crashing, because all
UNIX processes are separate from those of the operating system. Even if an application crashes, unless it somehow manages to take down
the X Windows system with it (which does happen), the operating system just keeps right on humming.
 High performance and stability : Many servers running UNIX or Linux have run for years without crashing once. The multitasking
capabilities of UNIX, along with the rapid rate at which the operating system matures (especially with Linux, which is free and can be
changed by anyone), make UNIX or Linux a powerful solution, especially for server systems.
 Multiuser capabilities : True multiuser systems enable different users to be logged in to the same system simultaneously. In UNIX and
Linux, not only can a user log in to the same system at the same time as other users, that user can log in multiple times on the same system
as the same user without the operating system batting an eyelash (such things are often necessary when administrating a network,
particularly when managing users).
 Tons of high-quality software : From Apache Server (a Web server that’s used on a whopping 6 in 10 major Web servers on the Internet)
to the long-awaited Mozilla.org Mozilla 1.0 open source Web browser/e-mail software (Mozilla is an open source version of the venerated
Netscape Communicator) to the powerful free Gimp graphics manipulation software, Linux is packed with tons of free, high-quality
software. The trick is that, with UNIX/Linux, you give up compatibility with commercial software that’s available only for Windows
and/or Macintosh, currently.
 Easy customization : While other operating systems seem to offer less and less choice to the user about which applications to install with
the operating system (Windows XP is this way), UNIX and especially Linux are the exact counterpoint to that model. With UNIX or
Linux, you can actually customize your operating system kernel, stripping it down to just drivers and networking or installing everything
possible.
 Modular architecture : The modular architecture of UNIX (and especially Linux) is directly responsible for how customizable UNIX is.
Modular really means just what it sounds like: The operating system is built with a kernel that attaches modules to itself based on what the
user needs.
 POSIX compliance: With a free operating system like UNIX, the different distributions (or flavors) of UNIX quickly became difficult to
manage. Currently, hundreds of different implementations of UNIX are available. To enable programmers to have some idea of how to
code their software such that it would run on any version of UNIX, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. (IEEE)
defined the Portable Operating System Interface (POSIX).
 Use of TCP/IP as the standard protocol stack: UNIX overwhelmingly uses TCP/IP as the protocol stack of choice. If you consider that
the vast majority of the servers that help make up the Internet are UNIX computers of one form or another, you start to get the idea why
TCP/IP is so popular.
 A shell interface: All versions of UNIX (at least those you care about for the exam) include a shell interface of some sort. If you have ever
seen your computer use a completely black screen with white words written on it, that’s a shell interface. You simply type in commands at
the prompt and hit Enter to execute those commands. The hard part in using these interfaces is simply the effort it takes to learn all of those
rather cryptic commands. Making life even more difficult, UNIX is ultimately customizable and can use different shells. The bash shell
(likely the most popular shell in use today) and the tcsh shell, for example, have different commands for the same action.
 A graphical user interface: Although most versions of UNIX (such as Red Hat Linux) include a graphical user interface (GUI) these days,
this has not always been the case. Historically, UNIX has been derided for its cryptic interface, and the advent of the GUI into popular
UNIX systems was a direct result of this. Popular UNIX GUIs include KDE and GNOME. KDE is mostly used with Linux, but GNOME
has versions for the Sun Solaris operating system, and therefore crosses the border from Linux into UNIX proper.
 Support for dumb terminals: Traditionally, UNIX was used for dumb terminals, and just about all versions of UNIX still include this
capability. The traditional dumb terminal model involves one central UNIX server that is used by remote terminals to execute applications.
Basically, a user logs in to a UNIX system via Telnet or some other remote connectivity application and uses UNIX commands to tell the
remote system what functions to perform. In this way, users can download and check e-mail via a text-based e-mail client such as Pine.
The dumb terminal in this form isn’t used much anymore; Web browsers are definitely more than just dumb terminals— and Web
browsers are now the clients most often seen by UNIX servers (at least those that make up the Internet). However, wireless devices such as
cell phones and mobile Internet e-mail clients such as AOL’s Mobile Communicator device are good examples of modern dumb terminals.
The devices have nearly no storage at all, and don’t carry large e-mail clients on the device; the message is simply transferred as text from
one end to the other.
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 Interoperability
Open source software such as SAMBA is used to provide Windows users with Server Message Block (SMB) file sharing.

Authentication:-Centralized login authentication

File and Print Services

Network File System (NFS) is a distributed file system that allows users to access files and directories located on remote computers and
treat those files and directories as if they were local.
LPR/LPD is the primary UNIX printing protocol used to submit jobs to the printer. The LPR component initiates commands such as "print
waiting jobs," "receive job," and "send queue state," and the LPD component in the print server responds to them.

Security
With most Unix operating systems, the network services can be individually controlled to increase security.

MAC OS X Server

macOS (previously Mac OS X and later OS X) is a series of proprietary graphical operating systems developed and marketed by Apple
Inc. since 2001. It is the primary operating system for Apple's Mac computers. Within the market of desktop, laptop and home computers,
and by web usage, it is the second most widely used desktop OS, after Microsoft Windows.

Client Support
TCP/IP file sharing with Macintosh clients using Network File System (NFS), and File Transfer Apple File Protocol 3.0

Interoperability
Mac OS X Server uses the Open Source SAMBA to provide Windows users with Server Message Block (SMB) file sharing. Network File
System (NFS) lets you make folders available to UNIX and Linux users.

File and Print Services

Mac OS X Server provides support for native Macintosh, Windows, UNIX, and Linux file sharing. Protocols supported include:

 Apple file services (AFP 3.0) from any AppleShare client over TCP/IP
 Windows (SMB/CIFS) file sharing using Samba
 Network File System (NFS) for UNIX and Linux file access
 Internet (FTP)

Built-in print services can spool files to any PostScript-capable printer over TCP/IP, AppleTalk, or USB. Macintosh customers can use the
LPR support in Print Center or the Desktop Printer utility to connect to a shared printer. Windows users can use their native SMB/CIFS
protocol to connect to a shared printer.

Print services for OS X Server

Macintosh and UNIX (LPR/LPD)

Windows (SMB/CIFS)

Security

 Multiple-user architecture and user-level access privileges.

 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) support provides encrypted and authenticated client/server communications.
 Secure Shell (SSH) provides encryption and authentication for secure remote administration.
 Kerberos support for centralized login authentication.

Netware

NetWare has been a great LAN operating system for years, but only recently (with NetWare 5.x has NetWare moved beyond the LAN to
where it can easily be a part of larger networks. Until quite recently, Novell NetWare used to be the single most-used network operating
system (NOS). However, first Windows NT, and Windows 2000 and Linux, have steadily eaten into the NetWare market share for
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 network operating systems. Currently, all three operating systems have a roughly equal share of the network operating system market,
which means that NetWare is still used in at least one-third of all server systems.
NetWare features
NetWare offers the following features :

 Multiprocessor kernel: This feature enables one NetWare operating system to utilize multiple processors. This process is called symmetric
multiprocessing (SMP). SMP enables processors to share memory and bus paths, even coordinating the processing of a single application
in parallel.
 NLMs: Where UNIX uses daemons and Windows uses services, NetWare uses NetWare Loadable Modules (or NLMs) to provide services
from the server. NLMs are programs that run in the background on the server to provide consistent services to the network.
 PCI Hot Plug: This feature enables administrators to dynamically configure PCI network components while the system is running. You can
replace, upgrade, or add new cards with the Hot replace, Hot upgrade, and Hot expansion features, respectively.

Client Support
NetWare 5 comes with Novell Client software for three client platforms: DOS and Windows 3.1x, Windows 95/98, and Windows NT.

Interoperability
You can set the Novell Clients for Windows 95/98 and Windows NT to work with one of three network protocol options: IP only, IP and
IPX, or IPX only.

Authentication
Centralized login authentication

File and Print Services

File Services NetWare offers two choices of mutually compatible file services: Novell Storage Services (NSS) and the traditional NetWare
File System. Both kinds of file services let you store, organize, manage, access, and retrieve data on the network. NSS gathers all
unpartitioned free space that exists on all the hard drives connected to your server, together with any unused space in NetWare volumes,
and places it into a storage pool. You create NSS volumes from this storage pool during server installation or later through NWCONFIG.
Novell Distributed Print Services (NDPS) is the default and preferred print system in NetWare. NDPS supports IP-based as well as IPX-
based printing.

Security
Novell has support for a public key infrastructure built into NetWare 5 using a public certificate, developed by RSA Security.

Windows

Windows NT is a family of operating system versions produced by Microsoft, the first version of which was released on July 27, 1993. It
is a processor-independent, multiprocessing and multi-user operating system.

Directory Services
A directory service is a database of user accounts and other information that network administrators use to control access to shared
network resources. When users connect to a network, they have to be authenticated before they can access network resources.
Authentication is the process of checking the user's credentials (usually a user name and a password) against the directory. Users that
supply the proper credentials are permitted access according to the permissions specified by the network administrator.

Client Support
Windows 3.x, Windows 95, Windows 98, and Windows NT Workstation 4.0 Windows 2000 Professional, Xp Pro. Vista Ultimate, Vista
Business.

Interoperability
Windows 2000,2003,2008 Server supports UNIX, Novell NetWare, Windows NT Server 4.0, and Macintosh.

Authentication
Successful user authentication in a Windows 2000,2003,2008 computing environment consists of separate processes: interactive logon,
which confirms the user's identification to either a domain account or a local computer, and network authentication, which confirms the
user's identification to any network service that the user attempts to access.

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 Types of authentication
Kerberos V5 is used with either a password or a smart card for interactive logon. It is also the default method of network authentication for
services. The Kerberos V5 protocol verifies both the identity of the user and network services Secure Socket Layer/Transport Layer
Security (SSL/TLS) authentication, is used when a user attempts to access a secure Web server.

File and Print Services

You can add and maintain printers in Windows server using the print administration wizard, and you can add file shares using Active
Directory management tools. Windows server also offers Distributed File Services, which let you combine files on more than one server
into a single share.

Active Directory
After many years of anticipation, Microsoft introduced an enterprise directory service in the Windows 2000 Server product line, called
Active Directory. It uses a hierarchical tree design comprised of container and leaf objects. The fundamental unit of organization in Active
Directory directory service is the domain, but; you can group domains together into a tree, and even group multiple trees together into
a forest. Domains that are in the same tree automatically have bidirectional trust relationships established between them, which eliminates
the need for administrators to create them manually. The trust relationships are also transitive , meaning that if Domain A trusts Domain B
and Domain B trusts Domain C, then Domain A trusts Domain C.

Security
User-level security protects shared network resources by requiring that a security provider authenticate a user’s request to access resources.
The domain controller , grants access to the shared resource by verifying that the user name and password are the same as those on the user
account list stored on the network security provider. Because the security provider maintains a network-wide list of user accounts and
passwords, each client computer does not have to store a list of accounts. Share-level security protects shared network resources on the
computer with individually assigned passwords. For example, you can assign a password to a folder or a locally attached printer. If other
users want to access it, they need to type in the appropriate password. If you do not assign a password to a shared resource, every user with
access to the network can access that resource.

Appleshare IP (Internet Protocol)

AppleShare was a product from Apple Computer which implemented various network services. Its main purpose was to act as a file server,
using the Apple Filing Protocol (AFP) protocol.

Client Support
TCP/IP file sharing with Macintosh clients using Network File System (NFS), and File Transfer Apple File Protocol 3.0.

Interoperability
Windows Server Message Block (SMB) file sharing.

File and Print Services

File Services:

 Apple Filing Protocol (AFP) over TCP/IP and AppleTalk

 Server Message Block (SMB) over TCP/IP
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP) over TCP/IP

Print Services:

 PAP (AppleTalk)
 LPR/LPD

Application Support

 HTTP
 Mail (SMTP, POP, IMAP and Authenticated Post Office Protocol APOP)
 Mac CGI

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Distributed Processing
Distributed processing makes use of two or more (usually, many more) computers that are networked together and all working on a single
task in a well-coordinated fashion. The individual computers involved can be ordinary desktop or laptop machines, high-end machines, or
specialized servers that carry out specific tasks like storage and retrieval of datasets. In a complex distributed system, sub-components of
the system (a subgroup of networked computers) can be devoted to a specific task while other groups concentrate on separate tasks.

With proper communications links and instructions to the machines, a series of distributed computers can do the work of much more
powerful stand-alone systems, and can even reach processing power and speeds of the fastest supercomputers. Many gaming systems rely
on distributed processing setups, where gamers' individual machines carry out some of the processing in addition to more central servers
providing the gaming backbone.

Advantages of distributed operating systems:-

 Give more performance than single system

 If one pc in distributed system malfunction or corrupts then other node or pc will take care of
 More resources can be added easily
 Resources like printers can be shared on multiple pc’s

Disadvantages of distributed operating systems:-

 Security problem due to sharing

 Some messages can be lost in the network system
 Bandwidth is another problem if there is large data then all network wires to be replaced which tends to become expensive
 Overloading is another problem in distributed operating systems
 If there is a database connected on local system and many users accessing that database through remote or distributed way then
performance become slow
 The databases in network operating is difficult to administrate then single user system

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Architecture of a Distributed Operating System:
In a DOS the following occurs:

 All software and hardware compounds are located remotely. In order for them to communicate with each other, they pass
messages.
 One of the most important aspects of a distributed system is resource sharing. Resources are managed by servers and clients use
these resources.
A DOS runs on a number of independent sites which are connected through a communication network. However it is portrayed to the user
that they run their own operating system.

(Each computer node has its own memory)

Distributed Systems design considerations:

Types of Distributed Systems:
There are four main types of distributed systems:
Client-server:
This type of system requires the client to request a resource, and then the server provides that resource which was requested. When a client
is in contact with one server, the server itself may serve multiple clients at the same time.
Both the server and the client will communicate over a computer network, which is part of a distributed system.
Three-tier:
The information about the client is stored in the middle tier, instead of storing it in the client, this is done to simplify development. This
architecture is most common in web applications.
n-tier:
n-tier systems are used when the server or application needs to forward requests to additional enterprise services on the network.
Peer-to-peer:
This type of system contains nodes that are equal participants in data sharing, furthermore, all the tasks are equally divided between all the
nodes. These nodes will interact with each other as required as “share resources”. To accomplish this, a network is needed.

What are the characteristics of a Distributed Operating System?

Common characteristics, which DOS have, are:
Heterogeneity:

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In distributed systems, the components can have differences and variety in programming languages, operating systems, computer
hardware, networks, and implementations by different developers.
Resource sharing:
(Every resource has its own management policies and methods, furthermore every resource is managed by a module, commonly known as
a resource manager)
Resource sharing is the ability to use hardware, software, or data anywhere in the system. The resource manager controls access, moreover,
it also provides naming scheme and controls concurrency in the DOS.
The hardware resources are shared for convenience and reductions in cost, in contrast, the data is shared for consistency and exchange of
information.
Openness:
With DOS, the “openness” is related to the extensions and improvements of disturbed systems.
 A well-defined and detailed interface of the components must be published.
 The new component, which is to be added, must be easily integrated with existing components.
Concurrency:
This characteristic of the system enables multiple activities in the system to be executed in the same time. In the distributed system, the
simultaneous execution of tasks happens in different components running on multiple machines, furthermore, these tasks could execute
interactions between each other.
The benefit of concurrency is increases the efficiency while reducing the latency in the system.
In the DOS, the components access and update shared resources (device drivers, variables, databases), moreover, if concurrent updates are
not coordinated it may result in inconsistent analysis.
Scalability:
In a DOS, the scalability of a system refers to how it handles the growth as number of users on the system platform increases. Scaling best
occurs by adding more systems to the network.
These components must be designed in a way that allows them to be scalable too.
Fault Tolerance:
The system is designed in a way that it is still available to the user despite a failure in the hardware, software, or the network.
Fault tolerance is achieved by recovery and redundancy.
Security:
In a DOS, the clients send requests to access data managed by servers and resources in the networks.
In a DOS security is acquired for the following:
 Concealing the contents of messages
 Authentication
No global clock:
In a DOS, computers are connected through a network, and each computer has its own clock (so a system can have many clocks).
Nodes communicate between each other through message passing, furthermore, their coordination is dependent on time, as every
client/computer has a different time span.
Even if the clocks were in sync, the individual clocks on each component may run at a different rate, leading them to be out of sync after
one local clock cycle.
Though accurate time synchronisation is impossible in a DOS because it doesn’t provide a global clock.
Flexibility:
Flexibility in a DOS is enhanced through modular characteristics, and by providing a more enhanced set of high level services. The quality
and completeness of the kernel/microkernel simplifies implementation of such services.
Synchronisation:

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Systems, which are cooperating concurrent process, have an inherent need for synchronisation. This ensures that changes happen in a
correct and predictable manner.
The three basic circumstances, which define the scope of synchronisation, are:
 Synchronisation between one or more processes must happen at a single point in order for one or more other processes to
continue.
 One or more processes have to wait for an asynchronous (not existing or occurring at the same time) condition in order to
continue.
 A process must get exclusive access to a shared resource.
If synchronisation is not done properly it may lead to multiple points of failure modes including loss of consistency, isolation and
durability, deadlock, lick, atomicity, and loss of serialisability.
Transparency:
DOS are perceived by programmers and users as a whole system, rather than a collection of cooperating components. Thus meaning the
communication between components is hidden. Transparency directly affects the decision making in every aspect of design of a DOS, it
can imply certain requirements and/or restrictions on other design considerations.

There are 13 main types of transparency linked with DOS:

Access Transparency:
This allows local and remote information objects to be accessed using identical operations. (i.e. SQL Queries)
Location Transparency:
Allows information objects to be accessed without knowledge of their location. (i.e. File system operation in a network file system)
Migration Transparency:
The system solely controls resources and activities, which migrate from one element to another. The system controls them without
user/application knowledge or intervention.
Concurrency Transparency:
Allows several processes to work simultaneously while using a shared information objects without interference between them.(i.e.
Database management system)
Replication Transparency:
This allows multiple instances of information objects to be used to increase reliability and performance without the knowledge of the
replicas by users or application programs.(i.e. Distributed DMBS)
Failure Transparency:
This type of transparency enables the faults to be hidden, therefore allowing users and applications alike to complete their tasks despite
failure of other components.(i.e. Database managements system)
Mobility Transparency:
This allows the movement of information objects within the system without having an affect to the application program or users.(i.e. Web
pages)
Performance Transparency:
System can be reconfigured to improve performance as loads vary.
Scaling Transparency:
Allows the system and application to expand in scale without having to change the application architecture or the system architecture.
Revision Transparency:
System is responsible for revisions, upgrades, and changes that are made to the system infrastructure without the user knowledge or action.
Control Transparency:
System is responsible to provide all the system constants, properties, information, and configuration settings etc.
The system must be able to do this in connotation, and denotation to all users and application in a consistent appearance.
Data Transparency:
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System provides data to applications without the user knowledge/action as to where the system stores it.
Parallelism Transparency:
System exploits any ability to parallelise task execution without the need for user action or knowledge.
This is probably the most difficult aspect of transparency.

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Network Operating Systems Hardware

Networking hardware includes all computers, peripherals, interface cards and other equipment needed to perform data-processing and
communications within the network. CLICK on the terms below to learn more about those pieces of networking hardware.

Workstations
Hubs
Bridges
Firewalls
Routers
FileServers
Repeaters

This section provides information on the following components:

 Network Servers
 Workstations
 Network Interface Cards
 Switches
 Repeaters
 Bridges
 Routers
 Firewalls

File/Network Servers

One or more network servers is a part of nearly every local area network.These are very fast computers with a large amount of RAM and
storage space, along with a one or more fast network interface card(s). The network operating system provides tools to share server
resources and information with network users. A sophisticated permissions-handling system is included, so that access to sensitive
information can be carefully tailored to the needs of the users. For small networks, a singe network server may provide access control, file
sharing, printer sharing, email, database, and other services.

The network server may be responding to requests from many network users simultaneously. For example, it may be asked to load a word
processor program to one workstation, receive a database file from another workstation, and store an e-mail message during the same time
period. This requires a computer that can store and quickly share large amounts of information. When configuring such a server, budget is
usually the controlling factor. The following guidelines should be followed:

 Fastest processor(s)

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  Large amount of RAM
 multiple large, fast hard drives
 Extra expansion slots
 Fast network interface card(s)

Optionally (if no other such devices are available on the network):

 A RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks) to preserve large amounts of data(even after a disk failure)
 A back-up unit (i.e. DAT tape drive, removable hard drives, or CD/DVD/BluRay burner)

Workstations

Computers that humans use are broadly categorized as workstations. A typical workstation is a computer that is configured with a network
interface card, networking software, and the appropriate cables. Workstations do not necessarily need large storage hard drives, because
files can be saved on the file server. Almost any computer can serve as a network workstation.

Laptops/Mobile Devices

Laptops and other mobile devices are becoming more and more common. These devices typically have modest internal storage, but enough
power to serve as a workstation for users on the go. These machines nearly always have a wireless adapter to allow quick network
connections without cumbersome cabling. In a school environment with good wireless coverage, a mobile device user can move about the
campus freely, and remain continuously connected to the network.

Network Interface Cards

The network interface card (NIC) provides the physical connection between the network and the computer workstation. Most NICs are
internal, and they are included in the purchase of most computers. Network interface cards are a major factor in determining the speed and
performance of a network. It is a good idea to use the fastest network card available for the type of workstation you are using.

The most common network interface connections are Ethernet cards and wireless adapters.

Ethernet Cards

Ethernet cards are usually included with a computer, although additional ethernet cards can be purchased and installed on most computers,.
Ethernet cards can contain connections for either coaxial or twisted pair cables (or both) (See fig. 1). If it is designed for coaxial cable, the
connection will be BNC. If it is designed for twisted pair, it will have a RJ-45 connection. Some Ethernet cards also contain an AUI
connector. This can be used to attach coaxial, twisted pair, or fiber optics cable to an Ethernet card. When this method is used there is
always an external transceiver attached to the workstation. Only the RJ-45 connector is found on most modern ethernet cards (See
the Cabling section for more information on connectors.)

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 Fig. 1. Ethernet card.

From top to bottom:

RJ-45, AUI, and BNC connectors

Wireless Adapters

Wireless adapters are found in most portable devices, such as laptops, smart phones, and tablet devices. External wireless adapters can be
purchased and installed on most computers having an open USB (Universal Serial Bus) port, or unused expansion slot. (See
the Cabling section for more information on connectors.)

Switches

An ethernet switch is a device that provides a central connection point for cables from workstations, servers, and peripherals. In a star
topology, twisted-pair wire is run from each workstation to a central switch/hub. Most switches are active, that is they electrically amplify
the signal as it moves from one device to another. The predecessor of the switch was the hub, which broadcasted all inbound packets out
all ports of the device, creating huge amounts of unnecessary network traffic. Modern switches build a port map of all IP address which
respond on each port, and only broadcasts on all ports when it doesn't have a packet's target IP address already in its port map. Switches
are:

 Usually configured with 8, 12, or 24 RJ-45 ports

 Often used in a star or tree topology
 Available as "managed" or "unmanaged", with the later less expensive, but adequate for smaller networks
 direct replacements for hubs, immediately reducing network traffic in most networks
 Usually installed in a standardized metal rack that also may store network servers, bridges, or routers

Repeaters

Since a signal loses strength as it passes along a cable, it is often necessary to boost the signal with a device called a repeater. The repeater
electrically amplifies the signal it receives and rebroadcasts it. Repeaters can be separate devices or they can be incorporated into a
concentrator. They are used when the total length of your network cable exceeds the standards set for the type of cable being used.

A good example of the use of repeaters would be in a local area network using a star topology with unshielded twisted-pair cabling. The
length limit for unshielded twisted-pair cable is 100 meters. The most common configuration is for each workstation to be connected by
twisted-pair cable to a multi-port active concentrator. The concentrator amplifies all the signals that pass through it allowing for the total
length of cable on the network to exceed the 100 meter limit.

Bridges

A bridge is a device that allows you to segment a large network into two smaller, more efficient networks. If you are adding to an older
wiring scheme and want the new network to be up-to-date, a bridge can connect the two.

A bridge monitors the information traffic on both sides of the network so that it can pass packets of information to the correct location.
Most bridges can "listen" to the network and automatically figure out the address of each computer on both sides of the bridge. The bridge
can inspect each message and, if necessary, broadcast it on the other side of the network.

The bridge manages the traffic to maintain optimum performance on both sides of the network. You might say that the bridge is like a
traffic cop at a busy intersection during rush hour. It keeps information flowing on both sides of the network, but it does not allow
unnecessary traffic through. Bridges can be used to connect different types of cabling, or physical topologies. They must, however, be used
between networks with the same protocol.

Routers

Routers are the traffic directors of the global internet. All routers maintain complex routing tables which allow them to determine
appropriate paths for packets destined for any address. Routers communicate with each other, and forward network packets out of or into a
network. Here's an example:
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You want to search for something on the internet using a search engine. You open a browser on your workstation. The browser opens to a
blank page (not usually the default, but appropriate for this example). You type "http://www.google.com" into the URL (Universal
Resource Locator) address line of the browser. The browser software packages up the URL you typed, and sends it with a request for an IP
address to the DNS (Domain Name Server) that has been set in your network adapter's configuration. The domain server returns an IP,
such as 74.125.67.103 (actual address returned by DNS for google.com on June 7th, 2011). The browser ships the request for that IP
address off to the network card, which bundles the request into an ethernet packet, destined for 74.125.67.103. The network card sends the
packet to the gateway of your network, which opens the header of the packet, and makes a determination that the packet is traveling out of
your network, in search of 74.125.67.103. Your network's router has routing tables which it has been building from communicating with
other routers, and potentially augmented with "static routes", which are specific paths added by your network's administrators to make the
task of accessing certain networks easier, or faster, or in some cases, not possible. In this case, I find that my router knows about another
router at my ISP(Internet Service Provider), which in turn has several more routers that are all on networks of which I am just a small
node, much like finding an atom of a molecule of a piece of dust on a rock on a moon of a planet of a sun of a galaxy of the universe. In
any case, the packet gets passed from router to router, each time moving out of the subnets of the packet sender, towards a router that will
know where the desired server is. The packet finally reaches the router of the network at 74.125.67.103, which dutifully delivers the packet
to the server at that IP address. The server carefully crafts a response, and sends a reply back, which follows the same process to get the
response "Yes. Go ahead" back to the requester. Whew. And that's just the initial request.

While bridges know the addresses of all computers on each side of the network, routers know the addresses other routers which in turn
know about their own networks. Routers can even "listen" to entire networks to determine which sections are busiest -- they can then
redirect data around those sections until traffic congestion clears.

So, routers are network gateways. They move network packets from one network to another, and many can convert from one network
protocol to another as necessary. Routers select the best path to route a message, based on the destination address of the packet. The router
can direct traffic to prevent head-on collisions, and is smart enough to know when to direct traffic along back roads and shortcuts.

If you have a school LAN that you want to connect to the Internet, you will need to purchase a router. In this case, the router serves as the
forwarder between the information on your LAN and the Internet. It also determines the best route to send the data over the Internet.

Firewalls

A firewall is a networking device that is installed at the entrance to a LAN when connecting a networks together, particularly when
connecting a private network to a public network, such as the internet. The firewall uses rules to filter traffic into and out of the private
network, to protect the private network users and data from malevolent hackers.

Firewalls are either hardware or software, depending on their intended use. A firewall used to protect a network is a hardware device that
should be installed in the network between the router and the network. Almost all hardware firewalls will have at least two ports, labeled
"Trusted" and "Untrusted". These terms imply the true nature of the firewall's responsibility to the private network. The public network is
connected to the untrusted network port, and the private network is connected to the trusted port.

Firewall rules are usually simple, consisting of a verb, either allow or deny, the direction of the traffic, either inbound or outbound, and an
address or other network traffic identifier. Firewall rules are cumulative, so general rules may be specified, and exceptions added as
necessary. Some examples are:

 Allow outbound all (all private network users can do anything on the public network)
 Deny inbound all (default setting to prevent all traffic from the public or untrusted port, to the private port)
 Allow inbound port 80 (allow internet web traffic to come into network to find web servers)
 Allow inbound port 80 destined to 170.200.201.25 (allow inbound web traffic to a specific web server on your private network)
 Deny inbound from 201.202.1.1/24 (deny all inbound traffic from a specific IP address or range of addresses)

Software firewalls are commonly included in modern workstation and server operating systems. They operate in a similar way as hardware
firewalls, except that they filter traffic in and out of the machine itself. These software firewalls are typically unnoticed by machine users,
and only need attention occasionslly when an internet-connected application don't work as expected. The software firewall should always
be considered a "suspect" in such cases. The problem is easily resolved, by setting an exception rule in the firewall for the software that is
attempting to communicate.

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Choosing a NOS
The main features to consider when selecting a NOS include:

Price : Unlike any other major expenses, when purchasing an operating system you should look more than just the cost
of the operating system. The TCO should be looked more than the price tag (ie. total cost of ownership). Things such as
OS maintenance, upgrades and issues fixing cost should be considered when choosing an OS.

Longevity : You should look for an operating system that exists for a long period of time providing regular security and
stability updates.

Technical Support : You should know how much support you need relating to the operating system you choose. If you
are equipped with an IT staff, you would be easily able to manage the free Linux OS versions such as CentOS. Else,
you will have to acquire some kind of support licensing for the type of operating system you decide.

Security : A fact that, the operating systems are only secured when you make them secure. Some of the OS might look
hard and confusing however, there are some operating systems which are a lot easier to make them secure. Depending
on such factors you should evaluate and determine which OS suits better to your requirement and is easy to handle and
manage.

OS Flexibility : With some OS you might not be able to make customizations, however, if you want such operating
system, then you could prefer the free open source operating system like Debian or the Free BSD. Afterall, the selection
depends on your requirements.

Softwares : There are some softwares that are supported only on specific operating systems. If your requirement is
similar then it will definitely aid you determine which operating system is better for your needs.

 Performance Management
 monitoring tools
 Scalability
 Robustness
 fault tolerance

Planning a network installation

Getting started
The first step in developing a plan is assessing your current network requirements and considering how your business is
likely to change over time. Here are some ideas to help you start the process:

Consider Usage Requirements

Determine the number of people that will be using the network to get a rough idea of the computers and peripherals it
must support. Consider how users will interact with the system to define the features you will need. For example, what
sort of access is required to the network (e.g. will each user have their own computer? or will several users be sharing
the same computer?) Will any users need to access the network remotely (e.g. from home or other office sites)?

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Gather Input

Factor the needs of the various teams and departments within your organisation into your network plan. Start by
defining the requirements of each group and determine the relative costs of incorporating the different requirements into
the network plan. This may be in terms of money or time saved.

Plan for the future

Detail or factor in, to the best of your knowledge, the direction your organisation is likely to take in the near future (3-5
years). As you think about expansion, identify any plans that might affect your network needs (e.g. new staff or
volunteers, office expansion, remote working, or the installation of new software packages). Doing this now will be less
expensive and time-consuming than replacing an inadequate network later.

Decide who will manage the network

As your network solution becomes more defined, you will need to decide whether you have the resources in-house to
install and maintain it yourself or whether you require a consultant or external company to handle it. Networking
products have become easier to use and administer over the years, so small organisations are finding that internal day-
to-day management of the network is becoming increasingly cost effective.

External support will also likely be required, and it is worth considering using remote network administration tools to
reduce the number of on-site visits necessary to keep the network running smoothly.

Security Issues

Ensure you build security features into your network plan to protect your organisations most important asset - its
information. Common network security precautions include passwords, virus protection, an external firewall and data
encryption.

Other Considerations

You may enhance the foundation of your network plan by addressing other issues that may affect the integration, use
and maintenance of your network. These include:

Information Management

Consider how to manage information on your server so that users can easily find what they need. Create standardised
naming conventions for files on the server and establish rules for the creation of new files and folders.

Remote Access

If some staff members travel frequently or work from locations outside your office, you may want to build remote access
capabilities into your network. This can be done through remote dial-in, or securely over the Internet using a VPN.

Staff Training

While working with a network is relatively simple, it may demand that employees adopt new habits. A training program
will enable workers to take full advantage of your network's timesaving and productivity enhancing features. Ensure
training time is built into your network rollout timetable and offer follow up sessions to address ongoing staff challenges
and concerns.

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Network pre-installation checklist
This checklist of questions will help you cover the main areas when it comes to planning and installing a new or
upgraded network.

Planning

 How many people will use the network?

 How many users are local or on-site?
 How many users are remote or off-site and will require access to the network?
 How many on-site computers will be connected to the network?
 How many on-site devices (computers, servers, scanners, printers, etc) will require a network card?
 How do you intend remote users to access the network?
 Which server based applications (e.g. databases, email) do you plan to run on the network? What are the
minimum hardware requirements of these server based applications?
 What are the specifications of the servers you intend to install on the network (e.g. amount of memory,
processor speed etc.)?
 Have you purchased sufficient licenses to run all the software on servers and client machines?

Network hardware requirements

 What other devices will your network support (e.g. back-up devices, Uninterruptible Power Supplies, Network
printers, etc.)?
 Do you have enough network points for these network devices?
 Do the hubs or switches have enough ports for the number of connections you will require? And is there room
for growth?

Network design

 What network topology will you use

 Do all workstations have the correct Network interface cards (NICs) to support this technology?
 Which network operating system will you use (e.g. Windows 2000 Server, Linux, Novell etc.)?
 Which type of cabling will you use (e.g. CAT 5, fibre optic) or will a wireless network be suitable?
 Where will network cables be located?
 Are there any building or leasing regulations that may affect cable placement?
 Where will you locate the following devices, servers, hubs or switches, printers, firewalls and routers, modems
etc.?

Security, back-up and power

 What security measures will you be putting in place? Virus protection, user passwords, firewalls, data encryption
etc.
 Do you need to physically secure your server (e.g. lock it away in a cupboard)?
 How will you back up data on your network?
 What is the capacity of your back up solution?
 Is it large enough to support all the data on your servers and network devices?
 Does your back up solution have the capacity to grow as your data grows?
 How frequently will files be backed up and how long will you keep backed up files?
 Where will you store backed up tapes (e.g. fireproof safe, off site)?
 What devices will require an uniterruptible power supply (e.g. server(s) )?
 Is there sufficient ventilation around your servers?

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 Support services

 Do you have resources allocated for the following areas (e.g., consultants, in-house IT staff etc)?
o Network installation
o Cable installation
o Network technical support
o Network management
o Network security
o Network maintenance
o Training

Undertaking a significant upgrade to your network or migrating to a newer or different operating system can be a
daunting and challenging task.

Effective planning can limit the system downtime, reduce network crashes and ensure a seamless transition and
minimal disruption to users.

Installing a Network Operating System

In most cases, the best way to install Windows Server 2008 is to perform a new install directly from the DVD installation
media. Although upgrade installs are possible, your server will be more stable if you perform a new install. (For this
reason, most network administrators avoid upgrading to Windows Server 2008 until it’s time to replace the server
hardware.)

To begin the installation, insert the DVD distribution media in the server’s DVD drive and then restart the server. This
causes the server to boot directly from the distribution media, which initiates the setup program.

As the setup program proceeds, it leads you through two distinct installation phases: Collecting Information and
Installing Windows. The following sections describe these installation phases in greater detail.

Phase 1: Collecting Information

In the first installation phase, the setup program asks for the preliminary information that it needs to begin the
installation. A setup wizard prompts you for the following information:

 Language: Select your language, time-zone, and keyboard type.

 Product Key: Enter the 25-character product key that came with the installation media. If setup says you entered an
invalid product key, double-check it carefully. You probably just typed the key incorrectly.

 Operating System Type: The setup program lets you select Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition or Core. Choose
Standard Edition to install the full server operating system; choose Core if you want to install the new text-only version.

 License Agreement: The official license agreement is displayed. You have to agree to its terms in order to proceed.

 Install Type: Choose an Upgrade or Clean Install type.

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 Disk Location: Choose the partition in which you want to install Windows.

 Upgrade to NTFS: If you want to upgrade a FAT32 system to NTFS, you’ll need to say so now.

Phase 2: Installing Windows

In this phase, Windows setup begins the actual process of installing Windows. The following steps are performed in
sequence:

1. Copying Files: Compressed versions of the installation files are copied to the server computer.

2. Expanding Files: The compressed installation files are expanded.

3. Installing Features: Windows server features are installed.

4. Installing Updates: The setup program checks Microsoft’s website and downloads any critical updates to the operating
system.

5. Completing Installation: When the updates are installed, the setup program reboots so it can complete the installation.

Configuring Your Server

After you’ve installed Windows Server 2008, the computer automatically reboots, and you’re presented with the Initial
Configuration Tasks Wizard. This wizard guides you through the most important initial tasks for configuring your new
server.

The following list describes the server configuration settings available from this wizard:

 Set the Administrator Password: The very first thing you should do after installing Windows is set a secure
administrator password.

 Set the Time Zone: This is necessary only if the indicated time zone is incorrect.

 Configure Networking: The default network settings are usually appropriate, but you can use this option to change the
defaults if you wish.

 Provide Computer Name and Domain: This option lets you change the server’s computer name and join a domain.

 Enable Automatic Updating: Use this option if you want to let the server automatically check for operating system
updates.

 Download and Install Updates: Use this option to check for critical operating system updates.

 Add Roles: This option launches the Add Roles Wizard, which lets you configure important roles for your server.

 Add Features: This option lets you add more operating system features.

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 Enable Remote Desktop: Use this option to enable the Remote Desktop feature, which lets you administer this server
from another computer.

 Configure Windows Firewall: If you want to use the built-in Windows firewall, this option lets you configure it.

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